Cells as the Basis of Life

By Mr Kildea
Living Things are
Made of Cells
• The cell theory unifies all living things
The Cell Theory
1. All living things are made up of cells and cell products
(structure)
2. Cells carry out the life processes of organisms (function)
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells
4. Cells contain hereditary material
Cells are the smallest
independent units of life
Characteristics of living things:
• Complex, organised
• Take in energy
• Maintain identity
• Respond to stimuli
• Able to reproduce
• Grow and develop
The cell is the smallest unit of life that can fulfil all of the above
requirements.
Structure of the cell
membrane

• Very thin - 8 nanometres (nm)

• Fluid mosaic
• Bilipid layer of phospholipid
• Protein molecules have some
carbohydrates attached
• Proteins act as transport channels and
membrane receptors.
• Describe and represent the fluid mosaic
model of the cell membrane
Major types of cells

• Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells
• very small, simple
• Little internal organisation
• No nucleus
• Circular chromosomes (in
cytoplasm)
• E.g. bacteria and archaea.
Eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells – plants, animals, fungi,

protists
• Larger, more complex
• Internal organisation, membrane-bound
organelles
• Contain nucleus
• Linear chromosome (in the nucleus)
• Are found in all organisms except
bacteria and archaea
Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
with respect to their:
• Size
• Internal organisation
• Shape and location of chromosomes
 • A plasma membrane is a
All cells have a biological membrane that
cytoplasm and a separates the interior of all cells
from the outside environment
plasma (the extracellular space) which
membrane protects the cell from its
environment.
Prokaryotes only exist
as single cells
• Prokaryotes are bacteria or archaea and are unicellular
Eukaryotes – plants, animals, fungi, protists
• Vary greatly in size, shape, colour, and complexity
• Made up of cells that contain membrane-bound organelles
• Organisms range from unicellular (e.g. Amoeba) to giant trees
and whales
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
share commonalities

Features they have in common:

• Phospholipid cell membrane
• Chromosomes made of DNA
• Protein synthesis mechanism (including ribosomes)
• Genetic code
Mitochondria and chloroplasts found in eukaryotic cells are thought to
have a prokaryotic origin – see ‘endosymbiotic events’ in Chapter 20.
• Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have many features in common, which
is a reflection of their common evolutionary past
 Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells – bacteria and archaea Eukaryotic cells – plants, animals, fungi,
protists
Smaller (1-10 μm diam) Larger (10-100 μm diam)
DNA circular DNA linear
No nucleus Contains nucleus
Little internal organisation High level of internal organisation
No membrane-bound organelles Contain membrane-bound organelles
Single chromosome Two or more chromosomes
Bacteria have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan Cell wall (if present) made of cellulose
(polysaccharides and polypeptides) (polysaccharide)
Cell Structure and Function – What you need to know

• Eukaryotic cells have specialised organelles which facilitate biochemical processes.

Represent the structure and describe the function of:
• Nucleus
• Nucleolus
• Mitochondrion
• Chloroplast
• Vacuole/vesicle
• Golgi body
• Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth)
• Ribosome
• Lysosome
• Cytoskeleton
Organelles in
eukaryotic cells
Nucleus
Structure:
• Nuclear envelope (double
membrane) & pores
• Chromatin (DNA & protein)
• Nucleolus
Function:
• Controls activities of the cell
Nucleolus

Structure:
• Not membrane-bound
• Located in the nucleus
Function:
• Synthesis of rRNA
Mitochondrion (plural =
mitochondria)

Structure:
• Double membrane with inner
membrane folded to form cristae
• Contains a circular chromosome
Function:
• Site of latter stages of aerobic
respiration, energy released and
ATP formed
 Chloroplast

Structure:
• Double membrane
• Grana (stacks of thylakoids), stroma (fluid)
• Contains chlorophyll (on thylakoids)
• Contains a circular chromosome
Function:
• Site of photosynthesis
Vacuole/vesicle

Structure:
• Membrane-bound fluid-filled space
Function:
• Storage (e.g. water, oil, waste products,
pigments), maintains osmotic balance and cell
shape, endocytosis, exocytosis.

• Note: plants have large central vacuoles

Golgi body

Structure:
• Smooth membranous sacs and vesicles
Function:
• Packaging of proteins, carbohydrates, and
lipids, and secretion by exocytosis
Endoplasmic reticulum
(rough and smooth)

Structure:
• System of membranes in cytoplasm, continuous with nuclear envelope and
plasma membrane.
• Rough ER with ribosomes; smooth ER without ribosomes
Function:
• Transport of materials
• Rough ER: protein and membrane synthesis
• Smooth ER: lipid synthesis
 Ribosome 

Structure:
• Each ribosome has a small
and a large subunit
• Composed of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and protein
Function:
• Site of protein synthesis
(translation)
 Lysosome 

Structure:
• Membrane-bound vesicle
containing digestive enzymes
Function:
Release digestive enzymes to
break down food; break down
foreign particles by white blood
cells; programmed cell death
(apoptosis)
Cytoskeleton

• Has three components

Microfilaments

Structure:
• Made of actin
Function:
• Involved in cytoplasmic
streaming, chloroplast
orientation, cytokinesis,
phagocytosis, muscle
contraction
 Intermediate
filaments

Structure:
• Strong fibrous proteins
Function:
• Strengthen cells
 Microtubules

Structure:
• Made of tubulin
Function:
Involved in cell movement
(cilia, flagella)
 Maintain cell shape (e.g. nerve cell, red blood cell)

Cell movement (within cell and whole cell)

Main functions Hold organelles in place

of the
cytoskeleton Strengthen cells

Spindle apparatus (during cell division)

Cytoskeleton is made up of protein subunits that can be

rapidly removed or inserted – a dynamic structure.
 Compare the structures of plant and animal cells
Structure Plant cell Animal cell

cell wall present absent

cell membrane present present

nucleus present present

nucleolus present present

mitochondria present present
chloroplasts May be present absent

vacuoles Large, central small

Golgi body present present

endoplasmic reticulum present present
ribosomes present present
lysosomes present present
cytoskeleton present present
Living Cells Need Energy – Chapter 9

• Energy is the capacity to do work.

• Cells require inputs of suitable forms of energy, including light energy, or
chemical energy in complex molecules.
Living cells use energy for:
• Movement (of cell and within cell, active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis)
• Synthesis (protein/carbohydrate/lipid synthesis)
• Maintenance of a stable internal environment (water/solute balance, pH,
temp, oxygen, wastes).
Living Cells Need Energy – Chapter 9

• Physical energy – sunlight

• Chemical energy – energy rich compounds
Examples of transformations:
• Light    →  chemical energy (in photosynthesis)
• Chemical → heat (in respiration)
                    → movement
                    
Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

• Distinguish between autotrophs and heterotrophs

• Autotrophs can make all the energy-rich compounds they need
("food") from simple inorganic substances. Most use light energy;
these are the photosynthetic autotrophs.
• Heterotrophs (consumers) cannot produce all their complex
organic compounds from simple inorganic substances and rely on
other organisms or their products or remains.
The Sun is the main source of energy for life

• Organisms that use the energy from sunlight to produce energy-

rich organic compounds from simple inorganic substances are
called photosynthetic autotrophs or producers.
Food chains:
• Different feeding levels
• Always start with autotrophs, which make more organic
compounds than they need
• Excess is stored (mainly as carbohydrate), and this is available to
be passed along the food chain
• Autotrophs are also called producers. Others in the food chain are
called consumers. 
• The Sun is also a source of heat energy. (used by e.g. reptiles,
plants).
Photosynthesis

• In eukaryotic cells that are photosynthetic, chloroplasts are the site

of photosynthesis.
• In chloroplasts, chlorophyll is in the grana, and the enzymes are in
the grana and stroma.
• In prokaryotic cells that are photosynthetic (i.e. cyanobacteria)
photosynthesis occurs in the cytoplasm
Photosynthesis equation

                                         light energy

• 6CO2 + 6H2O                C6H12O6 + 6O2

                                         Chlorophyll

• Carbon dioxide + water                        glucose + oxygen      

Energy transformations occur within all living
cells

• Recognize that energy is required to break chemical bonds and

energy is released when new bonds are formed.
Transformation of energy

• Energy is needed to break chemical bonds.

• Formation of chemical bonds releases energy.
• In a chemical reaction bonds are broken and new ones are formed.
• If more energy is released when new bonds are formed that is used to break
bonds, then the net results is an output of energy.
• E.g. Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
(less energy needed to break bonds) (more energy released when new bonds form)

• In this example, more energy is released when the bonds in carbon dioxide
and water are formed than was used to break the bonds in glucose and
oxygen.
• Some of the energy released can be used by the cell to make ATP
and do work. The rest is lost as heat
Describe the formation of ATP from ADP and Pi

• ADP + Pi + energy  ATP + water

• Role of ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate is an important energy storage
compound in cells.
• Explain how the conversion of ATP to ADP and Pi releases energy for some
metabolic reactions
• ATP + water  ADP + Pi + energy
• ATP/ADP cycle – the continuous production and breakdown of ATP is used
to drive processes that require energy, such as movement, active transport and
synthesis.
Energy to make ATP comes from cellular
respiration
Cellular respiration

• The breakdown of energy-rich organic molecules to lower energy

products, releasing energy. Some of this energy is used to make
ATP; the rest is lost as heat.