HAPP 100: Chapter 3 Cell Structure and Their Function

Outline metabolism. Energy released during

metabolism is used for cell activities,
I. Cell Structure such as the synthesis of new molecules,
II. Function of Cell muscle contraction, and heat
III. Cell Membrane production, which helps maintain body
IV. Movement through the Cell temperature.
Membrane
V. Organelles 2. Synthesis of molecules
VI. Whole Cell Activity - Cell synthesize various types of
molecules, including proteins, nucleic
acid and lipids. The different cells of
I. Cell Structure the body do not all produce the same
molecules
Cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. The 3. Communication
simplest organisms consist of single cells. - Cell produce and receive chemical and
Whereas humans are composed of multiple
electrical signals that allows them to
cells.
communicate with one another
 Organelles – little organs; perform 4. Reproduction and inheritance
specific function - Each cells contains a copy of genetic
E.g: mitochondria, nucleus, ribosomes
information of the individual.
Specialized cells (sperm cells and
 Nucleus – organelle containing the oocytes) transmit that genetic
cell’s genetic material information to the next generation

 Cytoplasm – living material III. Cell Membrane

surrounding the nucleus
- Jelly-like substance  Cell membrane, or plasma membrane -
is the outermost layer of cell.
 Cell Membrane – also termed the
plasma membrane The cell membrane encloses the cytoplasm
- A structure that encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary between material
(cell wall) inside the cell and materials outside it

 Extracellular substances
- substances outside the cell
 Cytoplasmic/ intracellular substances
- substances inside the cell

The cell membrane is primarily made up of two

major types of molecules:
(1) phospholipids – form a bilayer
(2) proteins
(3) cholesterol
(4) carbohydrates

Fluid-mosaic Model – model used to describe

II. Functions of Cell the cell membrane structure
 Hydrophilic – water loving
1. Cell metabolism and energy use  Hydrophobic – water fearing
- The chemical reaction that occurs
within cells are collectively called cell
Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar
(phosphate) and nonpolar (fatty acid)
PHOSPHOLIPID STRUCTURE
Phospholipid molecule has a polar head
region that is hydrophilic and nonpolar
tail region that is hydrophobic
The region is exposed to water around
the membrane
Outside and inside the cell
The nonpolar region is facing the
inferior of the membrane. Away from
water inside and outside the cell
IV. Movement through the Cell
Membrane
Cell membranes are selectively permeable –
they allow some substances, but not others, to
pass into or out of the cells
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen,
and potassium are found in higher
concentrations inside the cell
Substances such as sodium, calcium,
and chloride are found in higher
concentrations outside the cell
CELL MEMBRANE PASSAGE
1. Diffusion – some substances like O2
and CO2 can pass directly through the
cell membrane’s phospholipid bilayer
2. Membrane Channels – some substances
must pass through transmembrane
protein channels, such as Na+ through
its channels
3. Carrier Protein – some substances
require carrier molecules to transport
them across the cell membrane, such as
glucose
4. Vesicles – some substances require a
vesicular transport across the
membrane. The vesicle must fuse with
the cell membrane for transport
PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
- Movement through the cell may be
passive or active
- Passive membrane transport does not
require the cell to expand energy.
- Active membrane transport does
require the cell to expand energy
PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
MECHANISM
1. Diffusion – generally involves
movement of substances in a solution
down a concentration gradient
- A solution is generally composed of
two major parts, solute and solvent
- Solutes are substances dissolved in a
predominant liquid or gas, which is
called the solvent
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated diffusion
Concentration Gradient
 Difference in the concentration of a
solute in a solvent between two points
divided by the distance between two
points
 The concentration gradient is said to be
steeper when the concentration
difference is large and/or the distance is
small

Osmosis
 Is the diffusion of water (a solvent)
across a selectively permeable
membrane of a region of higher water
concentration to one of lower water
concentration
 Exerts a pressure, termed osmotic
pressure, which is the force required to
prevent movement of water across cell
membrane
Osmotic Pressure and the Cell
 Osmotic pressure depends on the
difference of solution concentrations
inside a cell relative to outside the cell
 A cell may be placed in solutions that
are either hypotonic, isotonic,
hypertonic, compared to the cell
cytoplasm
HYPOTONIC
 A hypotonic solution has a lower
concentration of solutes and a
higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell
 The solution has less tone, or
osmotic pressure, than the cell
 Water moves by osmosis into the
cell, causing it to well
If the cell swells enough, it can
rupture, a process call lysis
CARRIER MEDIATED TRANSPORT
MECHANISM
 Lipids soluble substance such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and steroids
can diffuse directly through the
phospholipid bilayer
 Water soluble substances, such as ions,
can diffuse across the cell membrane
only by passing through cell membrane
channels or through carrier molecules
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- Is a carrier-mediated transport process
that moves substances across the cell
membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance
- Because movement is with the
concentration gradient, metabolic
energy in the form of ATP is not
 required
LEAK AND GATED CHANNELS
 Two classes of cell membrane channels
include leak channels and gates
channels
 Leak channels constantly allows ions to
pass through
 Gated channels limit the movement of
ions across the membrane by opening
and closing
Carrier Molecules
 Active transport processes accumulate
necessary substances on one side of the
cell membrane at concentration many
times greater than those on the other
side
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
 A major example of active transport is
the action of the sodium-potassium
pump present in cell membranes

 Carrier molecules are proteins within

the cell membrane involved in
facilitated diffusion
 Move soluble water molecules or ions
across the membrane
 The exhibit speficity; only specific
molecules are transported by the
carriers
 Undergo conformational change (shape
transformation)
 The sodium-potassium pump moves
Na+ out of cells and K+ into cells
(PISO)The result is a higher
concentration of Na+ outside cells and a
higher concentration of K+ inside cells

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Uses the energy provided by a

concentration gradient established by
the active transport of one substance,
such as Na+ to transport other substance
 The active transport results into a
new concentration gradient
 This drives the transport of other
substances

ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

MECHANISM

1. Active transport
2. Secondary active transport
3. Endocytosis
4. Exocytosis

 Active transport is a carrier-mediated

process, requiring ATP, that moves
substances across cell membrane from
regions of lower concentration to those
higher concentration against
concentration gradient
  No additonal energy is required above
the energy provided by the initial
active transport pump

 In cotransport, the diffusing substance

moves in the same direction as the
initial active transported substance
 The countertransport, the diffusing
substance moves in a direction
opposite to that of the initial active
transported substance

ENDOCYTOSIS

 Is a process that brings materials into V. Organelles

cells using vesicles
Receptor-mediated endocytosis –
occurs when a specific substance
binds to the receptor molecule and
transported into the cell
Phagocytosis – often used for
endocytosis when solid particles
are ingested a.k.a “cell eating”
Pinocytosis – has much smaller
vesicles formed, and they contain
liquid rather than solid particles
a.k.a “cell drinking”

 Organelles are specialized structure

that perform certain function

 Organelle includes the nucleus,

ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, lysosome,
peroxisome, mitochondria,
cytoskeleton, centriole, cilia, flagella,
and microvilli

EXOCYTOSIS
 Involves the use membrane-bound sacs
called secretory vesicles that
accumulate materials for release from
cells
Cytoplasm
 Location: inside cell
 Characteristics: Jelly-like fluid
 Function: give cell shape and hold
organelles in place
  Description: diffuse bodies with no
Cell Nucleus surrounding membrane; there are
 Location: center of cell usually one to several nucleoli within
 Characteristics: all cell contain nucleus the nucleus
at some point  Function: produce ribosomes which
 Function: houses DNA exit the nucleus through nuclear pore

Ribosome
 Location: attached to RER or
cytoplasm
 Description: produced in nucleolus
 Function: produce proteins
 Ribosomes that are not attached to any
other organelle are called free ribosome

Endoplasmic Reticulum
 A series of membranes forming sacs
and tubules that extends from the outer
Nuclear Envelope nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm
 Location: edge of nucleus  Has 2 types:
 Description: consist of outer and inner (1) Rough ER
membranes with a narrow space
between them

Nuclear Pores
 Location: surface of nucleus
 Function: where materials pass in
and out of cell
Cell Nucleus
 The nuclei of human cells
contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes which consist of
DNA and proteins
 During most of the cell’s life, the
chromosomes are loosely coiled
and collectively called chromatin
 When a cell prepares to divide,
the chromosomes become tightly
coiled and are visible when
viewed with a microscope

Nucleolus
 Location: within the nucleus

(2) Smooth ER
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
 Location: cytoplasm
 Characteristics: membranes with
ribosomes attached
 Function: site of protein
synthesis
  Function: collects, modifies, packages,
and distributes proteins and lipids
manufactured by the ER.
 Forms vesicles, some of which are
secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and
other vesicles.

Secretory Vesicle
 Function: Distributes materials out of
cell
 Location: Cytoplasm

Smooth

Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

 Location: cytoplasm
 Characteristics: membranes with no
ribosome
 Function: site of lipid synthesis (ex:
cholesterol), detoxification, stores
calcium ions in skeletal muscle cell

Lysosome
 Description: Membrane-bound vesicles
formed from the Golgi apparatus.
 Location: Cytoplasm
 Function: Contain a variety of enzymes
that function as intracellular digestive
Golgi Apparatus
systems.
 Description: also called the Golgi
 Vesicles fuse with lysosomes in order
complex, consists of closely packed
to breakdown materials in the
stacks of curved, membrane-bound endocytotic vesicles.
sacs.
 Location: Cytoplasm
Peroxisome
 Location: Cytoplasm
 Description: Small, membrane-bound
vesicles containing enzymes that break
down fatty acids, amino acids, and
hydrogen peroxide (H,02).
 Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of
fatty acid and amino acid breakdown
and can be toxic to a cell.
  The enzymes in peroxisomes break
down hydrogen.
Mitochondria
 Location: Cytoplasm
 Characteristic: Have inner and outer
membranes separated by a space.
 Outer membranes have a smooth
contour, but the inner membranes have
numerous folds, called cristae, which
project into the interior of the
mitochondria.
 The material within the inner
membrane is the mitochondrial matrix
and contains enzymes and
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
 Function: Responsible for producing
considerable amounts of ATP. by
aerobic (O2) metabolism.
 Cells with a large energy requirement
have more mitochondria than cells that
require less energy.
Cytoskeleton
 Location: Cytoplasm and Cell
Membrane
 Function: Gives internal framework to
the cell
 Description: Consists of protein
structures that support the cell, hold
organelles in place, and enable the cell
to change shape.
 Three types: (1) microtubules, (2)
microfilaments, and (3) intermediate
filaments.
Microtubules
 Description: Hollow structures formed
from protein subunits.
 Largest diameter of the 3
 Function: Help support the cytoplasm
of cells, assisting in cell division, and
forming essential components of
certain organelles, such as cilia and
flagella.
Microfilaments
 Description: Small fibrils formed from
protein subunits that structurally
support the cytoplasm, determining cell
shape.
 Smallest shape
 Function: Involved with cell
movement. Microfilaments in muscle
cells enable the cells to shorten, or
contract.
Intermediate Filaments
 Description: Fibrils formed from
protein subunits that are smaller in
diameter than microtubules but larger
in diameter than microfilaments.
 Medium diameter
 Function: Provide mechanical support
to the cell.
 A specific type of intermediate
filament is keratin, a protein associated
 with skin cells.

Cytoskeleton

Flagella
 Flagella have a structure similar to that
of cilia but are much longer, and they
usually occur only one per cell.
 Sperm cells each have one flagellum,
Centriole which propels the sperm cell.
 Location: Cytoplasm
 Description: Specialized area of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus
 Arranged in triplets of microtubules in
groups of
 Function: Involved in the process
of mitosis
 It contains two centrioles, which are
normally oriented perpendicular to
each other.
Cilia

Microvilli
 Location: Cell surface
 Characteristic: Many per cell;
Project from the surface of certain
cells.
 Cylindrical structures that extend from
the cell and are composed of
microtubules
 Function: Responsible for the
movement of materials over the top of
cells, such as mucus.
 Microvilli are specialized extensions
of the cell membrane that are
supported by microfilaments.
 They do not actively move as cilia and
flagella do.
 Microvilli are numerous on cells that
have them and they increase the
surface area of those cells.
 They are abundant on the surface of
cells that line the intestine, kidney, and
other areas in which absorption is an
important function