HH2 (CYTOLOGY) HUMAN HISTOLOGY
Secretion is the exclusion of a substance that is useful
DEFINITION
CELL
 The structural, functional, hereditary and developmental
unit of life.
 The smallest unit of protoplasm capable of independent
existence.
PROTOPLASM
 A living, heterogeneous, aqueous substance containing
many biochemical components required for the varied
metabolic processes that underlie and represent life.
 Has physiological properties indicating cellular
PHYISIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
function.
1. Irritability – is the property of the protoplasm to be
able to respond to any stimulus in the environment.
different stimuli in the environment:
a. physical stimulus
b. thermal stimulus
c. chemical stimulus
d. mechanical stimulus
As soon as this is received by the cell or the cell is able
to respond to the stimulus, it is conducted by the cell from
one cell to another cell until it will reach the to the brain for
appropriate actions.
2. Conductivity – highly developed in the nervous tissue
3. Respiration – property of the protoplasm
 external respiration – exchange of gasses
between the body and the environment, we take in
oxygen and we exhale carbon dioxide, the carbon
dioxide is utilized by the blood cells and oxygen is
utilized by the body
 internal respiration – exchange of gasses
between cells in the body, especially, the RBC
carrying the oxygen and the oxygen is taken up by
the cells of the different tissues in the body and
the end-product of metabolism is given off by the
cells and carried in the circulation. In this process,
there is a change in the color of the blood, fresh
blood coming out from the lungs for circulation is
cherry red in color with a very high pressure, but
once there is an exchange of gasses the blood
changes in color and goes back to the heart for
oxygenation. From arteries, to the veins then back
to the heart for oxygenation. It is very useful in
the exchange of nutrition between cells in the
body
4. Secretion and Excretion – property of protoplasm
wherein it involves the excluding out of a substance
within the cell to the environment
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to the body, the substance is release by the cell to a
target organ of the body like enzymes and hormones.
Excretion is the exclusion of a substance from the
body which are considered to be waste product of
metabolism.
5. Absorption
 Phagocytosis – absorption of the cell of large
particulate marger in the environment, these
substances would be useful to the cell because it
contains macro and micro-molecules which are
retained by the cell for further processing and to
be useful to the cell for each function. Cellular
eating.
 Pinocytosis – is the capacity of the cell to take in
liquid substance in the environment, useful
substances are retained within the cell. Cellular
drinking.
6. Growth and Reproduction – the cell is able to grow in
number or size
 Physiologic Hypertrophy – a process wherein it
involves a cell, wherein the cell grows in size, the
chemical components within the cells are
increased, giving rise to a larger cell
 Physiologic Hyperplasia – increase in number of
cell just like in mitosis
A cell can survive alone because the protoplasm of the
cell have all these properties or they can survive as a group
and perform a common function.
1. Macromolecules – CHON, CHO, fats, nucleic acids
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
2. Micromolecules – charged chemical components
within the cell
 (+) charged – cations (Na, K)
 (-) charged – anions (F)
3. Water
 Free – water that passes in and out of the cell
carrying into the cell nutrients and living the cell
with end products of metabolism
 Bound – attached to the macromolecules to
maintain the shape of the cell
BASIC CELL TYPES
1. Prokaryotic Cell – represented by the bacterial cells
2. Eukaryotic Cell – represented by the human cells or
other animal cells
a. somatic/ body cell – epithelial cells, connective
tissue cells, nerve cells, heart cells, muscle cells
b. sex / germ cell / gametes
 male: sperm cell/ spermatocyte
 female: egg cell / ovum / oocyte
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proteins (structural proteins), traversing the cell

membranes

GENERAL STRUCTURE
SOMATIC CELL
 Shape depends on:
1. Functional adaptations
2. Surface tension and viscosity of the protoplasm
3. Mechanical action exerted by the adjoining cells
4. Rigidity of the cell membrane
 Size vary depending also upon the function/s of the cell,
however;
 Environmental and genetic factors greatly influence
the size and shape of cells

I.
MAJOR PARTS
I.
CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane organization has 3 concepts:
1. The Classical Model of Davson & Danielle – cell
membrane is composed of 2 layers of protein on either
side of a bimolecular leaflets of mixed lipid.
2. The Alternative Interpretation – same as the first
theory of Davson and Danielle, it just differs in the
shape of the lipid which is globular cell, the alternative
interpretations states that the organization of the cell illustrated above is the fluid mosaic model: (identify by
membrane depicts the lipid as forming globular color)
micelles between two layers of proteins. orange – globular heads, the bilipid layer on both sides
3. The Fluid Mosaic Model of Singer and Nicholson – (hydrophilic globular heads)
the most accept concept or theory, it states that the black – the tail portion of the bilipid layer going towards the
organization of a cell membrane is a bi-lipid layer, with inner portion of the cell membrane (hydrophobic tails)
hydrophilic phospholipid globular head facing outward lavender, reddish-orange, green – protein molecules
and hydrophobic tail facing inward, into which are dark violet – carbohydrates found in the surface if the cell
inserted protein and glycoprotein molecules. this membrane
concept best describes the formation and organization
of the cell membrane.

illustrated above is the fluid mosaic model:

 globular heads – are found on both sides of the cell
membrane
above is the best illustration of the fluid mosaic model:
 tails – is found towards the center
glycoproteins – in chains, structural proteins
 proteins – pink colored structures in between or surface
of the cell membrane and the string like formation of
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3 important characteristics:
a. membrane bound structures
b. involved in the different metabolic activities of the
cell
c. permanently found in the cell

ORGANELLES
Significance of the Lipid-Protein Arrangement of the fluid  MITOCHONDRIA
mosaic model: o energy powerhouse of the cell
1. Allows for dynamic membrane remodeling or fluidity o have their own DNA called -
2. Allows for differential permeability (semi-permeable) o mitochondrial DNA is replicated by a separate
3. Self-sealing enzyme to nuclear DNA

Chemical Composition of the Cell Membrane:

1. Lipid – 20 to 30 %
a. phospholipids
b. cholesterol
c. glycolipids
 for adhesion
 intercellular communication and recognition
 for other receptor-mediated interactions with
the environment
2. Proteins – 50 to 60 % - Their own DNA is called Mitochondrial DNA and it is
a. Peripheral/ Extrinsic Proteins – found in the used during paternity testing if there is no available
surface on only, either outer or inner surface sample. The mother’s Mitochondrial DNA can be used.
b. Integral / Intrinsic / Transmembrane Proteins - The Mitochondrion looks like a bread/ A loaf of bread.
– traverses the two membranes Wherein if we open the loaf of bread there are
3. Carbohydrates – less than 10% of the weight of the structures found inside called Cristae.
membrane - The Cristae is just an extension of the membrane of
a. Oligosaccharides – principal CHO covalently mitochondria and by the position of the cristae we can
linked to: say that the cell is active or not.
Protein → Glycoproteins - If the Cristae are closely packed then the cell is very
Lipid → Glycolipids active, but if the cell is not active there is a loose
b. Sialic Acid arrangement of the cristae.
c. together → forms the “extrinsic coat” or - The walls of the cristae are vesicles containing
“Glycocalyx” or “fuzzy coat” which is seen or oxidative enzymes.
observed in the small intestine - The Mitochondria since is the powerhouse of the cell, it
4. Water – 70 to 80 % is involved in the different metabolic activities of the
a. Bound / Fixed water – attached to the cell that will produce ATP.
macromolecules to maintain the shape of the cell
b. Free water – water that passes in and out of the
cell carrying into the cell nutrients and living the
cell with end products of metabolism

II. CYTOPLASM

- An Illustration of mitochondria with its vesicles on the

walls of the cristae and on the right side we have cristae
that is loosely arranged. On the left side, we have
cristae that are more or less compact with the vesicles
containing oxidative enzymes.
o Contains oxidative enzymes / respiratory enzymes
- Oxidative phosphorylation
- ATP production
- Compact cristae –
biologically active
- Far apart – less active cell

- The oxidative enzymes are also referred to respiratory

enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation in the
cell which produces ATP.
- If the cristae are compact the cell is biologically active,
Composed/classified of: if the cristae is far apart or loosely arranged it indicates
1. Cytoplasmic organelles that the cell is less active.
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 GOLGI COMPLEX
o they are visible as a reticular network of canals and
vacuoles which are flattened saccules or cisternae
arranged in parallel arrays
o the stack of saccules are disc-like and slightly
curved which presents convex and concave faces
o the main function is concentration and packaging
of secretory proteins

- whatever foreign materials that enters into the cell the

lysosome will release a specific enzyme to digest the
substance
- acid phosphatase
- ribonuclease
- deoxyribonuclease
- proteases
- sulfatases
- lipases
o Two Features - B-glucuronidase
1. Cis – convex forming face - the lysosome is involved in phagocytosis of any foreign
2. Trans – concave maturing face substances that will enter into the cell by releasing a
specific enzyme that will digest the foreign material
o There are 2 processes involved:
1. Endocytosis – that is the processor in the cell will
engulf the materials from the environment
2. Exocytosis – elimination of the end products of
phagocytosis that are not useful to the cell
- the golgi bodies / complex has two features, we have
the cis form or cis features which is the convex forming
face and the trans feature or trans face we have the
concave maturing face
- within the cell at the end portion of the Golgi bodies are
secretory granules and these are detached from the 
Golgi bodies and present in the cytoplasm of the cells as
secretory granules
a) CIS Region
- phosphorylation of CHONs occur
b) TRANS Region
- proteolysis occurs and other final steps in the
formation of secretory products
- sorting of various macromolecules
- the CIS Region is involved in phosphorylation of ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
proteins in the cell while the TRANS Region is the area o an interlacing network of membranous sheet that
wherein there is proteolysis and other final steps in the appose each other forming broad, interconnecting
formation of secretory products and involved also cisternae rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and
assorting of various macromolecules tubular networks smooth endoplasmic reticulum
o Enzymes present: (SER)
- Glycosyl Transferases
- N-Acetyl Glucosamine Transferases
- Galactosyl Transferases
- Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphatase
(NADP)
- Acid Phosphatase
- Thiamine Pyrophosphatase

 LYSOSOME
o involved in phagocytosis and autolysis
o contains digestive enzymes, hydrolases, hydrolytic - Anatomically, of the organelles, the endoplasmic
enzymes reticulum is the most impressive organelle. There is a
connection between the nucleus, the cytoplasm and the
outside environment through the endoplasmic
reticulum.
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- The rough endoplasmic reticulum there are ribosome o polysomes – clusters, bound to ER the site of
present on the surface of the organelle wherein proteins protein synthesis
synthesis will occur and for the smooth endoplasmic - in
reticulum they are involved in the formation or
synthesis of steroid hormones / steroid substances.
o Two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) – is
involved in protein synthesis containing ribosome
in the surface
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) – these throughout the cytoplasm and we have the morphology
are tubular network of structures involved in or the appearance of the ribosomes. It contains two sub
steroid synthesis units; a small sub unit and a large sub unit. The two
always go together and they are like Romeo and Juliet

- this is an illustration of rough endoplasmic reticulum

wherein on the surface we have the ribosome. The site
of protein synthesis is in the ribosome found on the
surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
- in
 PEROXISOME the growing of the protein chain. The large sub unit and
o also referred to as microbodies the smaller sub unit is involved. The messenger RNA is
o are spherical bodies smaller than lysosomes that found in the smaller sub unit and the growing protein
protects the cell from the effects of hydrogen chain of an amino acid is found in the large sub unit
peroxide which causes irreversible damage to
important cellular components.
o the peroxisome to counteract hydrogen peroxide it
contains Hydrogen peroxidase

2. Cytoplasmic inclusion bodies

- this is an illustration of a plant cell; it gives us the
location of the peroxisome which are very small in
somatic cells.
- in a plant cell to differentiate from the somatic cells it
has a cell wall which is absent in our somatic cell and it
has chloroplast which is present in plant cells and
absent in somatic cells also other organelles not found
in plant cells are lysosomes, centrioles, and flagella (in
some plant cell) while the other structures are more or
less the same as that found in somatic cells
 RIBOSOMES
o are small, electron opaque particles of Ribonucleic
Acid (RNA) and numerous proteins
o they are found in the cytoplasm as free ribosomes
scattered throughout the cytoplasm
Inclusion bodies found in the cytoplasm of the cell are:
- Secretory granules
- Fat droplets
- Water droplets
- Pigments and other substances engulf in the cell
3 opposite characteristics to that of the organelles
a. not membrane bounded
b. not involved in the different metabolic processes
c. temporarily found in the cell
3. Other cytoplasmic structures
 CENTROSOME/CENTRIOLES
- When the cell will start to divide or through the
process of mitosis the centrosome will be
transformed into centrioles. They are involved
during mitosis.
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- Smooth muscle cell – tonofilaments

- Striated muscle cell – myofilaments
- Nerve cell – neurofilaments

III. NUCLEUS
 it is an important part of the cell
 rounded or elongated structure
 usually found at the center of the cell but sometimes
they are found at the periphery of the cell
 size, shape and staining characteristics vary
Nucleus composed of:
1. Nuclear membrane
2. Chromatin materials
3. Nucleolus/li
 CYTOSKELETON 4. nucleoplasm
- structures that form the framework of the cell  manager of the cell
- contribute to the internal support and scaffolding of  control activities of the cell
the cell -
In this
illustration
we have the
Nucleolus with its
chromatin materials and
we have the nuclear
membrane. The whole
structure is the nucleus of
the cell.

- in this illustration we
have a nucleus with
its nuclear pore, its
The illustration of cytoskeleton of the cells are: nuclear envelope, its
a. Microtubules nucleolus and its
- are tubular structures composed of sub-units of association with the
structural proteins, alpha and beta tubulin proteins endoplasmic
- they are involved in the transfer of a substance reticulum.
from one part of the cell to other parts within the
cell
b. - another illustration of the
nucleus with its nuclear
membrane, the nucleolus and
the nuclear pores. It looks like
an egg yolk.
Microfilaments / fine filaments
- fine filaments coursing throughout the cytoplasm
- commonly occur as a thin sheet of filaments near - an illustration of a
the plasmalemma. eukaryotic cell with
- biochemically characterized as actin filaments its different structures
within the cell

- in the illustration, we can see the fine filaments that

supports the whole cell
c. Intermediate filaments
- they insert into transmembrane proteins at the site
of the cell junctions (desmosomes)
The intermediate filaments could be classified as: