o Man, in this case, is only “incidentally” involved but
not a “natural host.”
INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY
AUGUST 2019
Based on Dr. Liberato C. Dela Rosa’s lecture and LUH’s trans
DEFINITION OF TERMS
➢ PARASITOLOGY
o Is a branch of biology that deals with the
phenomenon of dependence of one living organism
to another.
➢ CLINICAL (OR MEDICAL) PARASITOLOGY
o Primarily deals with animal parasites of man and
their medical significance and importance in human
communities.
➢ PARASITES
o Are organisms that depend onto another living
creature, referred to as the host, for survival.
o Live at the expense of another organism.
➢ OBLIGATE PARASITES
o Cannot survive without the assistance of the host.
o Parasite is “totally” dependent and unable to multiply
if it is not in the body of a host.
➢ FACULTATIVE PARASITES OR OPPORTUNISTS
o Parasites that are able to adapt to a free-living or
parasitic existence depending upon the condition.
➢ SPURIOUS PARASITES
o Parasitic to other creatures but not to humans.
o Man may ingest these organisms and they pass
through the alimentary canal, excreted in the feces,
alive or dead, in the unchanged state.
HOST SPECIFICITY
Parasites, like other living creatures, undergo different
stages of development before reaching full maturity. Each
set of metamorphosis results to a distinct stage of
development. Some parasites may need a particular kind of
host for a particular stage of development.
➢ The transformation and survival of a certain stage of
development may not occur if the organism is in the body
of a “non-appropriate host.”
➢ There are some parasites that do not inhabit only a single
host throughout their lifetime. Some organisms, while
undergoing development, inhabit a host different from the
one where the adult forms are found.
➢ INTERMEDIATE HOST
o Harbors the immature or larval stage of the
parasite.
o Where asexual reproduction takes place.
➢ DEFINITIVE OR FINAL HOST
o Where mature or adult stage of the parasite is
found
o Where sexual cycle of some organisms take place.
➢ RESERVOIR HOST
o Some animals, domestic or wild, may serve as
respiratory host to a parasite.
o Are of epidemiologic importance in the spread of
some infection since they have served as the
“ready and constant” source of the infectious
organisms to the community.
➢ TRANSPORT OR PARATHENIC HOST
o Some parasites require passage through an
intermediate host before the infective stage (i.e. the
specific developmental form capable of causing
infection to man) is developed.
o The infective stage may not be transferred directly
from intermediate to definitive host.
o Instead, it may be passed to a transport host,
whereby no development or transformation of the
parasite takes place but infectivity is preserved.
o They are not essential in the life cycle of the parasite
but may serve as another source of infection to
man aside from the natural intermediate host of
the organism.
INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ORGANISMS
Close association of two
SYMBIOSIS organisms, whereby a “give
and take” relationship exist
Relationship is
MUTUALISM “beneficial” to both
associates
Parasite derives benefits
without reciprocating
COMMENSALISM
and/or without causing
injury to the host
➢ PREY
o Smaller animals being attacked or killed by
predators for food.
➢ PREDATOR
o Big animals that kill, attack and use prey for food.
➢ SCAVENGERS
o Animals that derive their nourishment from
already dead ones either by devouring those that
died of natural causes or taking the leftovers of the
predators.
PROCESS OF INFECTION
➢ ECTOPARASITES
o Parasites that live on the surface of the host’s body
o This condition is referred to as INFESTATION.
o Example: Head lice
➢ ENDOPARASITES
o Those parasites found inside the body of their host.
o This condition is called INFECTION.
o Example: Intestinal parasites
➢ EXPOSURE
o A person must be in a situation considered “at risk”
of acquiring an infection prior to its development.
➢ INOCULATION
o The process of introducing the organism into the
body of the host (e.g. Man).

Parasites that successfully enter the body of a person may
establish a colony through reproduction. These organisms,
inside the person’s body, may be recovered in body fluids
➢ PHORETIC OR MECHANICAL VECTORS
like blood, urine, CSF, or tissues at that times that the
organisms are still unable to produce signs and or/symptoms
of the infection.
Disease producing organisms will be able to produce signs
and/or symptoms of the infection later after inoculation.
➢ HORIZONTAL TRANSMISSION
➢ BIOLOGIC INCUBATION/PRE-PATENT PERIOD
o Period of time from entry of the organism until they
may be recovered in body fluids, tissues, or
excreta, without any manifestation yet.
➢ VERTICAL TRANSMISSION
➢ CLINICAL INCUBATION PERIOD
o Period of time from the entry of the organism into
the body of the host until the earliest sign and/or
symptom of the infection appear.
➢ PATHOGEN
o Disease-producing organism
➢ ZOONOTIC INFECTION
➢ INAPPARENT INFECTION
o In certain conditions, a pathogen may not be able to
cause damage to the host and therefore unable to ➢ AUTOINFECTION
produce signs and/or symptoms of the infection.
➢ CARRIER
o A person who harbors such pathogenic organism
but without manifestation of the infection (i.e. the
person is asymptomatic).
o Other susceptible individuals, who later manifest the
infection, may acquire the infection from carriers.
➢ INFECTIVE STAGE
o The developmental form of the parasite capable of
initiating infection.
➢ PATHOGENIC STAGE
o The developmental form that may or may not be
able to cause pathologic damage but is the only
stage that can enter the body of the host.
There are some parasites whose infective form, as well as
their mature stages, can cause pathologic damage or
disease to man. In certain species, the infective stage may
also be the pathogenic form and vice versa.
➢ DELUSIONAL PARASITOSIS
Some animals serve to transfer the infective stage of an
organism from one source to another. The transfer may be
from one person to another, from an animal to a human
being, or from inanimate objects into a person. Commonly,
the animals that transfer the organism or parasite are various
kinds of insects.
➢ CONTAMINATED SOIL
VECTORS OR TRANSMITTERS
➢ These are animals that transfer the infective form of the
parasite.
➢ BIOLOGIC VECTORS
o Essential or needed in the life cycle of the
parasite.
o The life cycle of some parasites will not be
completed without the participation or involvement of
a particular biologic vector.
o Not necessarily needed in the life cycle.
o Act as mechanical transmitters of the organism.
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
o An organism coming from the body of a person
and transferred to another individual.
o Man acquires many parasites, pathogenic
and commensal ones, through horizontal
transmission.
o An unborn baby may be infected with a parasite that
came from the mother via placental transfer.
o This process is responsible for congenital
infection.
TYPES OF INFECTION
o Infection originated from animals.
o A person may excrete the infective form of an
organism and this stage of development may re-
enter the person’s body.
o May occur via:
• Retrograde migration of the infective
form (retroinfection)
• Outside part of body (external autoinfection)
o This process may lead to a severe type of infection
in an individual without necessarily acquiring
infective forms from another person or other
sources.
Infective stages coming
HETEROINFECTION from another source of the
same species
An already infected
individual and has been re-
SUPERINFECTION
infected with the same
species of the parasite
A person may harbor more
MIXED INFECTION than one species of
organism at the same time.
o There are some individuals who may think they are
infected with some “bizarre” parasite but in reality,
no such parasite exists in their bodies.
SOURCES OF PARASITIC INFECTION
o Ascaris lumbricoides – Embryonated Egg
o Necator americanus– Filariform Larva
o Ancylostoma duodenale– Filariform Larva
o Strongyloides stercoralis – Filariform Larva
• Cause Soil-transmitted infections (STI/STD)
➢ CONTAMINATED WATER PORTALS OF ENTRY
o Pathogenic amoeba
o Cercariae of Schistosoma (larval stage) which
penetrates the skin of the individual ➢ Specific site in the human body where parasites enter.

➢ CONTAMINATED FOOD Some species of organisms may not be able to effectively

• Fish cause infection if they enter the wrong portals thus in most
o Capillaria philippinensis instances each species has its own entry point in the host’s
o Diphyllobothrium latum body.
o Clonorchis sinensis
➢ MOUTH
• Crab o Most common portal of entry
o Paragonimus westermani o Ascaris lumbricoides
o Entamoeba histolytica
• Pork o Taenia solium
o Taenia solium o Taenia saginata
o Trichinella spiralis o Giardia lamblia
o Capillaria philippinensis
o Trichuris trichiuria
• Beef
o Echinostoma ilocanum
o Taenia saginata
o Trichinella spiralis
o Diphyllobothrium latum
• Vegetables
o Fasciolopsis buski
o Fasciola hepatica
o Fasciola hepatica
o Fasciolopsis buski
o Paragonimus westermani
o Opisthorchis viverrini
• Snail (Pila luzonica/conica)
o Crysptosporidium parvum
o Echinostoma ilocanum
➢ SKIN
➢ BLOOD SUCKING INSECTS o Penetration by arthropod vectors like insects
o Plamodium (P.falciparum, P.vivax, P.ovale,
(mosquitoes, bugs).
P.malariae) – causes Malaria o Necator americanus
o Wuchereria bancrofti – becomes adult in the o Ancylostoma duodenale
lymphatics leading to blockage in the leg causing o Strongyloides stercoralis
Filariasis or Elephantiasis
o Schistosoma japonicum
o Leishmania donovani – causes Leishmaniasis
o Trypanosoma spp. (T.cruzi, T.brucei gambiense and ➢ NOSE
rhodesiense) – causes Trypanosomiasis o Enterobius vermicularis – Embryonated egg
• Trypanosoma cruzi – vector: Triatomine
(Kissing) bug ➢ PLACENTA
o Trans-placental transfer
➢ DOMESTIC OR WILD ANIMALS o Toxoplasma gondii
• Cat
o Toxocara cati ➢ MILK
o Toxoplasma gondii o Trans-mammary transfer
o Some species of Strongyloides
• Dog o Trematodes
o Toxocara canis o Ancylostoma
• Pig
o Balantidium coli ➢ SEXUAL ORGAN
o Trichomonas vaginalis
• Wild animals like tiger and lion
o Gnathostoma spinigerum PATHOGENESIS OF PARASITIC INFECTIONS

➢ ANOTHER PERSON
➢ TRAUMA OR PHYSICAL DAMAGE
o Entamoeba histolytica
• Filariform Larva – Skin penetration
o Enterobius vermicularis
o Necator americanus
o Giardia lamblia
o Ancylostoma duodenale
o Trichomonas vaginalis
o Strongyloides stercoralis
• Minor Soil-transmitted Diseases (STDs)
• Plasmodium – enter, go and develop inside the
➢ AUTOINFECTION IN MAN
red blood cell; then rupture causing trauma or
o Capillaria philippinensis
physical damage
o Hymenolepis nana
o Plasmodium is smaller than RBCs (6-8um)
o Strongyloides stercoralis
o Enterobius vermicularis
o Taenia solium
 • Parasites with Blood-Lung phase in their life in pressure of the anus, ballooning the
cycle – they pass from the blood to the lungs vessels causing Hemorrhoids.
before they can become an adult. (Note: it is • Esophagus is also affected resulting to
the larvae which is migrating) esophageal varices. Rupture of the
o Ascaris lumbricoides varices will result to death. There will
o Necator americanus also be dilation of the veins of the
o Ancylostoma duodenale abdomen (Caput medusa).
o Strongyloides stercoralis
➢ TOXIC AND ALLERGIC PHENOMENON
During inhalation, the alveolus expands while during o The parasite and its metabolic waste
exhalation, the alveolus contracts. Alveoli are surrounded by product can serve as an antigen or
capillaries. Capillaries contain blood for exchange of gases. allergen which is stimulates the production
Larva are carried in the blood. As the blood passes through of specific antibodies.
the lungs, larva break the pulmonary capillaries, going to o Succeeding exposure to the same antigen
the air sac, bronchioles, bronchi trachea, epiglottis and then will produce an antigen-antibody reaction
resulting to an immune response.
GIT. Larva will become adult inside the GIT.
o This can either be beneficial
• Ascaris lumbricoides - can destroy an organ by (immunizations) or harmful
obstruction, perforation and occlusion. (OPO) (hypersensitivity reactions).

• OBSTRUCTION • Type I Hypersensitivity activates IgE

o They can entangle each other forming a that may result to anaphylactic shock
bolus obstructing the intestines. – Intestinal (fatal outcome).
obstruction
➢ COATING
• PERFORATION o Giardia lamblia
o Even a single Ascaris adult can perforate the • The trophozoite will carpet the
intestine. This then goes out and travels to intestinal mucosa of the duodenum,
the liver, causing trauma. not the lumen, serving as barrier for
absorption.
• OCCLUSION • This will result to Fat malabsorption.
o A single worm can occlude the alveoli or can
go down and occlude the appendix. An ➢ OPEN UP THE PATHWAY FOR THE ENTRANCE
occlusion can cause trauma. OF OTHER MICROORGANISMS
o Filariform larva
➢ LYTIC NECROSIS • Puncture wounds will make the area
o Entamoeba histolytica – they invade the tissue affected susceptible to microorganisms.
causing necrosis. This may result to bacteremia (bacteria
o Balantidium coli – they have Hyaluronidase in the blood) leading to septicemia.
enzyme which lyse the tissue causing necrosis. o Cercaria of Schistosomia
• Skin penetration
➢ STIMULATION OF THE HOST’S TISSUE REACTION • Opens up the site for 2o Bacterial
o An indirect way of producing disease. infections.
o The response is to destroy this parasite or
prevent further migration. CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
o There will be cellular proliferation, cellular
infiltration, granuloma formation, and lastly, 1. DESTRUCTION OF RBC
fibrosis. o Malaria
o The function of the affected organ will be • Anemia
impaired. • Tissue anoxia
o Eggs of Schistosoma • Pallor (Paleness)
• The eggs stimulate the liver tissue to • Body malaise
react in order to prevent migration or
destruction of the parasite. Then the 2. PNEUMONIA
issue reacts causing cellular o Caused by parasites with Blood-Lung phase in
proliferation, infiltration, granuloma their life cycle (See notes above)
formation, and fibrosis. There will be • Cough
diffuse fibrosis in the liver. • Dyspnea
• Continuous flow of blood in a fibrotic • Flaring of ala nasi
liver will result to an increase in pressure • Rales and wheezes
of the portal system (portal
• Diminished breath sounds
hypertension).
• Dullness during percussion due to
• Because of this, there will be fluid
consolidation
escaping the portal system and goes to
the abdomen resulting to ascites.
• Aside of the increase in pressure of the
portal system, there will be an increase
 DAGNOSIS OF PARASITIC INFECTIONS o In this method, a laboratory-bred insect,
the one that serves as vector to the
organisms, is allowed to feed on the blood of
➢ DIRECT APPROACH individuals suspected to be infected with the
o To demonstrate the organisms where they can parasite.
be recovered. o The feces of the insect is then examined for
1. FECES the presence of the organism after
o Eggs of: sometime.
• Ascaris lumbricoides
• Trichuris trichiura 4. COPROCULTURE
• Capillaria philippinensis o The culture of feces in order to detect
• Taenia saginata microorganisms within it.
• Taenia solium o Stool or Soil culture will enable the recovery
• Schistosoma japonicum of the larval forms of hookworms and
threadworms.
o Larval forms of:
• Threadworm 5. ARTIFICAL CULTURE MEDIA
• Some species of Hookworm. o Rice-starch agar - Entamoeba histolytica,
• Tapeworms may evacuate segments of as well as other protozoa parasites.
the worms in their feces. The segments
may be examined and identified with or 6. ANIMALS
without stains. o Rabbits, hamsters, and monkeys may also
be used to grow parasites in the laboratory to
2. MUSCLE TISSUE produce more parasites.
o Trichinella spiralis - diagnosed through o The utilization of animals for culture make
recovery of the larval stage in biopsy the diagnosis easier, more accurate, and to
material of muscle tissues have high yield of positive result.
TREATMENT OF PARASITIC INFECTIONS
3. BLOOD FILMS
o Plasmodium spp
o Trypanosoma spp ➢ CHEMOTHERAPY
o Wuchereria spp o Use of commercially available drugs
o Brugia spp o Infections with organisms that are effectively
treated through the administration of specific drug
4. URINE for the particular organism:
o Trichomonas vaginalis - trpohozoites • Entamoeba histolytica
• Ascaris lumbricoides
5. CSF • Trichuris trichiura
o Naegleria fowleri • Giardia lamblia
o Acanthamoeba culbertsoni • Trichomonas vaginalis

➢ INDIRECT APPROACH ➢ SURGICAL INTERVENTION

o Not readily available, more likely to be less
accurate, and are of limited application.
1. CIRCUMOVAL PRECIPITIN TEST (COPT)
o If the organism is able to stimulate the
immune system of the host, antibodies
may be detected in the blood such as in
the case of Schistosomiasis, where
the patient’s blood will contain
antibodies against the eggs of the
parasite.
2. SEROLOGIC TESTS
o are also available, although expensive,
for the diagnosis of human infections
with:
• Echinococcus granulosus
• Trichinella spiralis
• Leishmania donovani, etc.
3. XENODIAGNOSIS
o May be used to diagnose infections with
some parasites such as Trypanosoma
cruzi.
o Hydatid disease due to the larvae of
Echinococcus granulosus is treated by surgical
removal of the cyst.
o Cysticercus larvae of Taenia solium located in
the eye of a patient are also removed through
surgical procedure.
➢ COMBINATION OF BOTH CHEMOTHERAPY AND
SURGICAL INTERVENTION
➢ VACCINATION
o Not yet perfect at the present time. Researchers
are still ongoing for the development of vaccine
that may effectively protect humans from
acquiring infection with some parasites.
o At the present time, vaccines are being
developed and tested for organisms such as:
• Plasmodium species (causing malaria)
• Schistosoma japonicum
• Entamoeba histolytica, etc.
 PROTOZOOLOGY PRESERVATION OF TROPH OR CYST
AUGUST 2019 ➢ TROPHOZOITE
Based on Dr. Liberato C. Dela Rosa’s lecture and LUH’s trans o Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
o Merthiolate-Formaldehyde solution – was no longer
PROTOZOA vs. METAZOA
used because of its harmful effects
All living organisms may be classified according to either:
➢ CYST
➢ PROTOZOA o 5 – 10% Formalin solution - Being more resistant
o Unicellular than the trophozoite
o Looks simple but capable of various processes of life o Refrigerator
o Subkingdom of Animalia
➢ Stool sample preserved with PVA, whether it contains
➢ METAZOA cyst or trophozoite, may be kept for quite a long time.
o Multicellular ➢ They may also be smeared later and stained to be kept
o Have organ systems that perform the complex as a permanent record or for teaching purposes, or
processes of life even in research.
➢ However, about 5 years or a little more, the quality of
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (PROTOZOANS) stain color tends to be lesser and lesser through time.

➢ TROPHOZOITE
o Trophic form, Vegetative stage, Pathogenic stage, STRUCTURES AND ORGANELLES
Motile form, Feeding stage– due to the organ of
locomotion
• PSEUDOPODIA – fingerlike ➢ NUCLEUS
o Entamoeba histolytica o Has the chromosomes which is essential for:
• FLAGELLA - hair like • Life
o Giardia lamblia • Reproduction
• CILIA - thread like • Transmission of the composition of the organism
o Balantidium coli o KARYOSOME/ENDOSOME/NUCLEOLUS - an
o Surrounded by plasma membrane - They acquire aggregate mass of granules inside the nucleus
nutrients through a semi-permeable membrane. o The nucleus may either be:
o Easily destroyed by adverse condition in the • VESICULAR NUCLEUS
environment such as strong chemicals, urine, o Has the karyosome suspended in a large
changes in temperature, presence of other amount of nucleoplasm
organisms, and other physical, chemical, and biologic o May be provided with chromatin particles
factors. arranged on an achromatic network or the
o Easily destroyed and quite fragile as compared to chromatin granules may line the inner part of
cyst the nuclear membrane.
o More likely to be found in watery stools ▪ Entamoeba histolytica
o Has 1 nucleus except: ▪ Entamoeba coli
• Balantidium coli ▪ Endolimax nana
• Giardia lamblia
• Dientamoeba fragilis • COMPACT NUCLEUS
• Which has 2 nuclei in their trophozoite o Has a very large granular chromatin filled
stage – both macronucleus and a karyosome and a very scanty nucleoplasm.
micronucleus o Not have space anymore between the
nuclear membrane and the karyosome.
➢ Stool samples suspected to contain trophozoites must be ▪ Balantidium coli
examined within 30 minutes after collection. If not
examined within 30 mins, the organism will disintegrate, ➢ CYTOPLASM
making identification rather difficult if not impossible. o Is the interior of the cell where the different organelles
➢ If the examination of specimen suspected to contain are found
trophozoites is to be delayed or cannot be done at once, o The cytoplasm has, more or less, two distinct
preservatives may be used but the parasite becomes portions, namely:
immotile. • ENDOPLASM
o More granular; less homogenous
➢ CYST o Surrounding the nucleus
o Dormant stage, Non-motile form, Infective stage, o Synthesis of food occurs and is stored as
Non-feeding stage, Transfer stage chromatoidal bodies found in cyst form
o Has no organ of locomotion o Located here are the:
o It is surrounded by a tough cyst wall – they are not ▪ Stored food
able to get nourishment ▪ Mitochondria
o They use stored food in the form of chromatoidal ▪ Golgi apparatus
bodies and glycogen vacuoles or mass. ▪ Microsomes
o Most are more resistant than the trophozoite forms ▪ Endoplasmic reticulum
o More likely to be found in formed stools
 • ECTOPLASM o AXONEME - A small portion of the flagellum,
o Less granular; more homogenous within the cell wall, that is connected to the
o Located at the periphery kinetoplast
o Functions
▪ Locomotion • CILIA
▪ Procurement of food o In Ciliophora, there are numerous short,
▪ Respiration threadlike structures called cilia.
▪ Excretion o Arise from the “basal granules” within the
▪ Protection of the organism ectoplasm
o Are distributed throughout the entire body surface
➢ PLASMA MEMBRANE of the parasite.
o Is the semi-permeable, limiting boundary of o Found in Balantidium coli
the trophozoite stage
o Functions: ENCYSTATION vs. EXCYSTATION
• Controls intake and output of nutrients; secretion
and excretion ➢ ENCYSTATION
• Maintains the normal concentration of the plasma o Formation of cyst from trophozoite form
substance o ENters CYST form
o This process occurs when the organism is subjected
➢ CYST WALL to conditions, which are unsuitable for continued
o Relatively tough membrane secreted by the existence in the trophic forms.
ectoplasm o Conditions believed to favor encystations include:
o Envelopes and protects the cyst form 1. Deficiency or overabundance of food supply
in the environment
➢ CONTRACTILE VACUOLES 2. Accumulation of excessive waste products of
o Are pulsating vacuoles of various sizes metabolism produced by the parasite or other
o Seen in the endoplasm of some organisms associated organisms such as bacteria around
like Balantidium coli 3. Significant changes in the pH of the
o Act as “osmoregulators” surrounding medium
4. Loss of water or desiccation of the medium
➢ FOOD INCLUSION BODIES 5. Diminished or too much supply of the oxygen
o Serve as food 6. Overpopulation
o Synthesis of food takes place in the endoplasm and o In most situations, encystations will involve two or
may be stored in the form of: more of these factors.
• Chromatoidal bodies consist of proteins o In the process, the ectoplasm secretes a thick cyst
• Glycogen mass composed of CHO wall, which will enable the organism to be more
o It is more likely that these inclusion bodies are resistant to the adverse changes in the environment
observed in the cyst form of the parasite. that the trophozoite may be unable to adapt to.
o Two types of Encystation:
➢ CYTOSTOME AND CYTOPYGE • PROTECTIVE ENCYSTATION
o CYTOSTOME – cell mouth o Parasite undergoes encystation without
o CYTOPYGE – cell anus significant changes in the morphology
o Ciliates commonly have these structures and are o Aimed to protect the organism
mostly found in the trophozoite form. o Happens when the parasite is about to be
excreted and transferred into a new host
➢ LOCOMOTION ORGANELLES • Balantidium coli
• PSEUDOPODIA
o In some species, like the amoeba, the plasma • REPRODUCTIVE ENCYSTATION
membrane has no constant shape. o Multiplication of the nucleus in the cyst form
o Its form changes by means of extension and thus resulting to numerous daughter organisms
retraction of temporary, finger-like structures when the parasite later transforms into the
called pseudopodia. trophozoite form.
o Its active protrusion & retraction enables the o Organisms include:
amoeba trophozoite to move from one place to • Entamoeba histolytica
another. • Entamoeba coli
o May aid the organism to obtain particles of • Giardia lamblia, etc.
food from the environment.
➢ EXCYSTATION
• FLAGELLA o Formation of trophozoite from the cyst form
o Member species of Zoomastigophora, mostly in o EXits CYST form
the trophic forms, possess hair-like projections of o The process is, probably, favored by the following
the cytoplasm called flagella. factors:
o Arise from the kinetoplast (consisting of 1. Osmotic changes in the surrounding medium
parabasal bodies and blepharoplast) within the 2. Enzymatic action of the enclosed organism on
cytoplasm the inner surface of the cyst wall
o Constant whipping movement enables the o Favorable pH of the environment and enzymatic
parasite move. action of the tissues to the parasite