CELL THEORY Cell Structure and Functions

- giving facts and characteristics of cells

1. Cell wall – maintains cell shape
Robert Hooke – first described what the cells look like in his book
2. Plasma membrane – regulates what enters and goes out from
“Micrographia”
the cell.
1600s – start of using microscopes
3. Cytoplasm – liquid-like are in the cell
Cell Theory – Theodor Schwann (1839)
4. Nucleiod – the DNA of a prokaryotic organism is one big loop or
 All organisms are made of cell a circular, which is located inside the nucleiod.
 Cell is the basic unit of life. (Schwann, Schleide, 1938)
5. Ribosome – synthesizes protein
 Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of
crystals (spontaneous generation) *now debunked* 6. Cytoskeleton – compose of filaments and microtubules; secures
organelles in specific positions
MODERN CELL THEORY
7. Flagella – facilitate cellular locomotion
1. All organisms are made of cells
8. Cillia – cellular locomotion; it is the small tail
2. The cell is the basic unit of life
9. Endoplasmic reticulum – modifies proteins and synthesizes
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells (Rudolf Virchow, 1858) lipids
4. Cells contain hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell  Rough Er
during cell division – attached ribosomes
5. Cells of all organisms within a similar species are mostly the same, – helps in aiming protein
both structurally and chemically  Smooth ER
– for lipids metabolism
6. Energy flow occurs within cells
10. Mitochondria – energy producing of the cell
CELL
11. Golgi apparatus – helps in packaging and transporting the
A. Prokaryotic Cell protein and li[ids into the other part of the cell
 single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks nucleus, or any 12. Vacuole – storage and transport
other membrane-bound organelle
 Central vacuole – found in the center part
B. Eukaryotic Cell  Contractile vacuole – present in marine unicellular
 These organisms have membrane bound nucleus with many organism
cell organelles to perform several cellular functions within the 13. Nucleus – cell organelle that houses DNA; directs synthesis of
system ribosomes and proteins

1. Plant Cell  chromatin

2. Animal Cell  chromosome
14. Centrosome – maintain the distribution of chromosome Parts of Plant Cell
15. Peroxisome – for enzyme activities; metabolizes waste 1. Cell Membrane
16. Chloroplast – contains chlorophyll 2. Cytoplasm
3. Ribosome
17. Fimbriae – longer; only seen in gram- 4. Smooth and Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
for attachment
18. Pili – seen in gram+ and gram- and conjugation 5. Mitochondrion
6. Golgi Apparatus
19. Plasmodesmata – signaling between two signal junction 7. Central Vacuole
8. Nucleus
20. Microvilli – expansion and absorption of surface area of a cell
9. Centrosome
10. Cytoskeleton
11. Cell wall (called cellulose)
Parts of Prokaryotic Cell 12. Perixosome
1. Cell Membrane 13. Chloroplast
2. Cytoplasm 14. Plasmodesmata
3. Ribosome
4. Nucleoid
5. Capsule CELL CYCLE
6. Cell Wall (called peptidoglycan) 
7. Flagella and cilia (some) CELL DIVISION
8. Fimbriae (for gram positive and gram negative) - Mitosis (Somatic cells, produces 2 daughter cells)
9. Pili (for gram negative)
- Meiosis (Gametes cells, produces 4 unique daughter cells)
Importance of Cell Division
Parts of Animal Cell (1) Reproduction
(2) Growth Development
1. Cell Membrane (3) Tissue Renewal
2. Cytoplasm
3. Ribosome Process of Mitosis
4. Rough and Smooth Endpolasmic Reticulum 1. Interphase – longest stage in the eukaryotic cell cycle
5. Mitochondrion a. Gap 1 - half set of chromosome
6. Golgi Apparatus b. Synthesis Phase - replication 
7. Vacuole c. Gap 2 -  complete set of chromosome
8. Nucleus 2. Prophase
9. Centrosome -nucleoli disappear
10. Cytoskeleton -centrosomes move away from each other
11. Perixosome
-mitotic spindle forms
12. Flagella and cilia (some)
13. Microvili
 3. Prometaphase 6. Prophase 2
- preparation for metaphase - spindle apparatus form
-nuclear envelope fragments 7. Metaphase 2
-kinetochore microtubules - chromosomes are not genetically identical 
4. Metaphase 8. Anaphase 2
- chromosomes convene at metaphase plate - breakdown of proteins
5. Anaphase - chromatids move toward opposite poles
- shortest stage 9. Telophase 2 and Cytokinesis
- daughter cells begin moving towards the opposite ends of the - four unique daughter cell (haploid set)
cell - chromosome condense
- cell elongates
6. Telophase CELL MEMBRANE – selective permeable
- 2 daughter nuclei form
- microtubules are depolymerized Primary Functions
- Nuceloli reappear (1) Keep substances out of the cell
- nuclear envelope arise from the fragments (2) Contain receptors and channels that allow specific molecules
- chromosomes become less condensed between organelles and between the cell and outside
7. Cytokinesis environment
- formation of cleavage furrow (3) Separate vital but incompatible metabolic process conducted
- division of cytoplasm is complete within organelles

Process of Meiosis Membrane Models

1. Anaphase 1. Sandwich Model
2. Prophase 1 - pospholipid bilayer (hydrophilic) between two layers of
- crossing over (exchange of genetic materials) protein (hydrophobic)
- synapsis/synaptomenal complex (site of crossing over) - Hugh Davson and James Danielle 1935
- chiasmata (area where crossing over took place 2. Fluid Mosaic Model
3. Metaphase 1 - plasma membrane of animal as a mosaic of components 
- both chromatids of one homolog (homologous pair of Phospholipid Bilayer
chromosome) are attached to kinetochore - phosphate head (hydrophilic)
4. Anaphase 1 - glycerol backbone 
- breakdown of proteins -fatty acid tails (hydrophobic)
- homologs move towards opposite poles Types of Phospholipid
5. Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis 1. Unsaturated (with double bond)
- each half of the cell has complete haploid set 2. Saturated (without double bond)
- cleavage furrow for animal cells, cell plate for plant cells
Freeze-Fructure Technique b. Exocytosis
-  method where a membrane is frozen and cut to study and examine BIOMOLECULES
it
Types of Macromolecules
Type of Solvent 1. Carbohydrate
1. Non-polar (equal) 2. Lipids
2. Polar (unequal) 3. Protein
Fluidity of Membrane 4. Nucleic Acid
1. Lateral movement Two ways of binding
2. Flip-flopping  1. Hydrolisis 
Six Major Functions of Membrane Protein 2. Dehydration 
1. Transport Carbohydrates
2. Enzymatic activity -Binding: glycosidic
3. Signal transduction -Monomer: Monosaccharide
4. Cell-cell recognition -Function: Immediate source of energy
5. Intercellular joining Classification of Carbohydrates
6. Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix  1. Based on location of carboxyl groups
i. Trioses
TRANSPORT ii. Pentoses
Types of Cell Transport iii. Hexoses 
1. Active Transport - requires energy 2. Based on functions
2. Passive Transport - does not require energy  a) Storage
Types of Passive Transport i. Starch (plants)
1.  Diffusion - molecules spread evenly ii. Glycogen (animals) - contains amylose
2. Facilitated Diffusion - specific proteins b) Structure
3. Osmosis - water  i. Cellulose (plants)
a. Osmolarity - capacity of the membrane to absorb water ii. Chitin (animals)
b. Tonicity - influence of outside environment Types of Carbohydrates
c. Hypotonic - lower concentration  1. Monosaccharide (1)
d. Hypertonic - higher concentration a. Glucose
e. Isotonic - equilibrium b. Galactose
Types of Active Transport c. Fructose
1. Primary Active Transport  2. Disaccharide (2)
2. Secondary Active Transport a. Lactose (glucose+galactose)
3. Bulk Transport  b. Sucrose (glucose+fructose)
a. Endocytosis  c. Maltose (glucose+glucose)
i. Phagocytosis ii. Pinocytosis iii. receptor-mediated 3. Polysaccharide (many)
 5. Transmitting nerve impulse
Proteins Examples of Lipids
-Monomer: Amino Acids  1. Fats
Polymer of Amino Acids: Polypeptide (20 Amino Acids) 2. Phospholipids
-Binding: peptide 3. Steroids
Classification of Proteins 4. Oils
1. Based on Functions 5. Wax
a) Enzymatic proteins Nucleic Acid
i. Digestive enzymes  -Monomers: Nucleotides 
ii. Lactase - nucleosidde +phosphate groups (nucleotide without
b) Storage proteins phosphate group is called nuceloside)
i. Casein  -Function: Genetic Information
c) Hormonal proteins -Polymers called polynucleotides 
i. Insulin -consists:
d) Contractile and motor proteins  Nitrogenous base 
i. Motor proteins Pyrimidines[C,T,U]- six-membered ring
e) Defense Proteins Purines [A,G]- six-membered ring fused to a
i. Anti-bodies five-
f) Transport protein membered ring
g) Receptor proteins  Pentose sugar
h) Structural proteins  Phosphate groups (one or more)
i. Collagen
ii. Keratin Example of Nucleic Acid
Structures of Proteins 1. DNA (2 polynucleotides and 2 backbones in opposite 5’ and 3’)
1.  Ribbon Model  a. Sugar: Deoxyribose
2. Space-filling Model b. Eukaryotes
Lipids c. Replicates on its own
-Hydrophobic groups d. Directs synthesis of mRNA and controls protein synthesis
-Non-molar covalent bonds (occurs on ribosomes)
-Monomers: phosphate groups and fatty acids 2. RNA
-Binding: Ester binding a. Sugar: Ribose
Functions of Lipids b. Prokaryotes
1. Energy source (long term)
a) Excess energy from food is stored as adipose tissue
2. Maintaining body temperature
3. Cushioning vital organs
4. Regulating hormones
 b) Conformational change

ENZYMES

-catalyst
-processes their substrates
-Majority of the enzymes are protein but not all proteins are enzymes
-Name ends with -ase (International Union of Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology)
-Enzymes are dematured when pH and temperature is not ideal

Classifications of Enzymes
1. Oxidoreductases (oxygen-reduction process)
a. Dehydrogenases
b. Oxidases
c. Oxygenases
d. Hydroxylases
2. Transferases (transfer of groups)
a. Transaminases
b. Transcarboxylases
c. Transmethylases
3. Hydrolases (addition of water)
a. Esterases
b. Phosphotasses
c. Peptidases
4. Lysases (removal of double bond)
a. Decarboxylases
b. Hydrateses
c. Deaminases
d. Synthases 
5. Isomerases (rearrangement within a molecule)
a. Epimerases
b. Mutases
6. Ligases (between to substrate molecules
a. Synthetase
Models of Enzyme
1. Lock and Key Method
a) Hermann Emil Fischer
b) Lock-enzymes; key-substrates
2. Induced Fit Model
a) Daniel Koshland