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I. CELL ANATOMY
A. SIX LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
1. CHEMICALS, ORGANELLES, CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS, ORGAN
SYSTEMS, ORGANISM
2. CELL - is a microscopic unit made up of a bubble of fatty material
filled with a water-based mixture of molecules and tiny particles
- Simplest building blocks of matter
a) GENERALIZED CELL - is one that has many cell features that are not all
found in a single natural cell.
b) Five functions of the cell:
(1) Cells hold a genetic material and absorb outside energy
(2) Tissues make up the nerves, connective fibers of the body.
(3) Organ work to perform specific bodily tasks, such as filtering
blood.
(4) Organ systems are groups of organs that perform a specific kind
of function together.
(5)
3. ORGANELLES - parts of any cell (meaning small organs)
- Specialized structures in cells that perform
specific functions.
● Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
B. PARTS OF THE CELL:
HYPOTONIC Less than cell More than cell Cells gain swell
water
HYPERTONIC More than cell Less than cell Cells lose plasmolysi
water s
E. Gene Expression
● DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid contains information that directs
protein synthesis
1. Transcription
a. takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
b. Dna determines the structure of mRNA through transcription.
thymine adenine
adenine uracil
cytosine guanine
guanine cytosine
2. Translation
a. Involves messenger RNA being used to produce a protein;
happens in cytoplasm.
b. As the DNA splits, RNA strand will exit the nucleus through the
nuclear pores and attaches to ribosomes where protein are
synthesizes.
c. Decoding of mRNAs are being translated in a group of three called
codons.
i. Transfer RNA (tRNA) transport specific amino acid from
cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA complex initiates
formation of polypeptide chain (initiation).
5.
C. MITOSIS - cell dividing phase
1.
E. METAPHASE - period during which the chromosomes (each a pair of
replicated chromatids joined at a centromere) arrange themselves singly
as a thin sheet along the cell’s equator, centrosomes align at the center of
the cell
1. METAPHASE PLATE or EQUATOR - the center of the cell in metaphase
2. 46 chromosomes
3.
F. ANAPHASE - the phase during which the chromatids split at the
centromere, the centromeres split as the s ister chromatids separate and
move towards the opposite poles
1. 92 chromosomes
2.
G. TELOPHASE - It is characterized by the formation of two new daughter
nuclei at either end of the dividing cell.
1. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus form at each pole
2. Chromosomes decondense - uncoil to form long chromatin strands
4.
H. CYTOKINESIS
a) is the division of the cytoplasm. It accompanies mitosis in most cells
but not all. When mitosis occurs but cytokinesis doesn’t, the result is a
multinucleated cell.
b) Is where microfilaments cleaves/split these two daughter cells.
c) One of these cell will enter its own cell cycle to grow and divide for
future and the other transforms into a functional cell, where they
replace “old” cell.
I. DIFFERENTIATION
a) After a cell enters to cytokinesis, they produce 2 daughter cells, one
of which enter its own cell cycle and the other into differentiation; a
process where cells develop into their specialized structures and
functions.
(i) Ex: A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic divisions
occur to give the trillions of cells of the body.
J. APOPTOSIS
a) Also known as cell programmed death, is a normal process by which
cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
(i) Ex: in the developing fetus, apoptosis removes
extra tissue, such as cells between the developing
fingers and toes.
(ii) In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess
cells to maintain a constant number of cells within
the tissue.
K. CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING
III. TISSUES
(1)
2. ADIPOSE - is often simply called fat tissue because of its primary
function is the storage of fat (for later use or for body support). It is
actually a modified form of areolar tissue, with fat storage cells
having been filled with stored lipids and expanded into the
extracellular spaces. Consists of adipocytes, which contain large
amounts of lipid of energy storage.
a)
3. RETICULAR - forms the framework of lymphatic tissue, such as in the
spleen and lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the liver.
a)
J. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
a) Has a relatively large number of protein fibers that form thick
bundles and fill nearly all of the extracellular space.
b) 2 major subcategories
(1) Collagenous
(i)
dense regular collagenous connective tissue
(ii) DENSE REGULAR - having regular parallel bundles
of fibers, is used for structures that require a
better-engineered connection between parts that
are pulled with great force. Example: tendons and
ligaments
(a)
(iii) DENSE IRREGULAR - having an irregular
hodgepodge of fibers, forms the lower layer of the
skin (dermis), much of the body’s fascia, and the
capsules of many organs.
(a)
(2) Elastic
(a) has abundant elastic fibers among its collagen fibers.
(b) The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch and recoil.
(i)
DENSE REGULAR ELASTIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
K. CARTILAGE
a) Composed of chondrocytes, located in spaces called lacunae
within an extensive matrix.
b) The matrix gives cartilage flexibility and strength
c) Provides support, but if bent or slightly compressed, it resumes its
original shape.
CARTILAGE - is a combination of f ibers and ground substance that
gives it a rubbery quality. Composed of specialized cells called
chondro blasts
(1) Types of cartilage: HYALINE, FIBROCARTILAGE, ELASIC
(i) HYALINE - has a moderate amount of collagen
fiber in its matrix.
(ii) The most abundant type of cartilage and has
many functions, such as covering the ends of
bones, where they form joints
(iii) Provides strong support while providing pads for
shock absorption.
(iv) It is a major part of the embryonic skeleton, the
costal cartilages of the ribs, and the cartilage of
the nose, trachea, and larynx.
(a)
(a)
(vii) ELASTIC - contains elastic fibers in addition to
collagen and proteoglycans.
(viii) This is similar to hyaline cartilage but is more elastic
in nature. Its function is to maintain the shape of
the structure while allowing flexibility.
(a)
(b) BONE
(a) Is a hard connective tissue that consists
of living cells and a mineralized matrix
(b) The strength and rigidity of the
mineralized matrix enables bones to
support and protect other tissues and
organs.
(c) Its rigid extracellular matrix contains
mostly collagen fibers embedded in a
mineralized ground substance
containing hydroxyapatite
(c) 2 types of bone tissue:
(a)
(ii) CANCELLOUS/SPONGY - forms thin, narrow beams
of hard bone matrix in which red bone marrow
can be supported. Has spaces between
trabeculae or plates of bone and therefore
resembles a sponge.
(a)
(i) Erythrocytes
(a) Red blood cells, transport oxygen and
some carbon dioxide
(ii) Leukocytes
(a) White blood cells are responsible for
defending against potentially harmful
microorganisms or molecules.
(iii) Platelets
(a) Are cell fragments involved in blood
clotting
f)
2. CARDIAC
a) Aka striated involuntary muscle
b) Is the muscle of the heart
c) Are cylindrical but much shorter than skeletal muscle cells.
d) The cells of cardiac muscle, known as cardiomyocytes, are striated
and usually have one nucleus per cell.
e) Involuntary in sense that subconscious mechanisms regulate its
contraction
f) Found only in walls of heart
g) they are often branched and connected to one another by
intercalated disks
i)
3. SMOOTH
a) No distinct striations and is involuntary
b) Found in the walls of hollow organs (e.g. digestive organs and blood
vessels)
c) Is responsible for involuntary movements in the internal organs.
d) Is responsible for a number of functions, such as moving food through
the digestive tract and emptying the urinary bladder.
e) Are tapered at each end, have a single nucleus, and are not striated
f)
E. SUMMARY
X. NERVOUS TISSUE
1. Composes organs of the nervous system: brain, spinal cord and
nerves
2. It is responsible for conducting action potentials
B. It is composed of 3 parts:
1. Cell body
2. Dendrites
3. Axon
C.