ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CELLS
OVERVIEW OF THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE

CELL THEORY
All living organisms are composed of cells. It the basic structural and functional unit of life.
The cell theory is made up of three ideas:
a. Cells are the basic units of life.
b. All organisms are made up of cells'
c. Cells arise from other living cells.

VARIATIONS OF CELLS
Cells vary widely in both shape and size. The shape of a cell depends on its
function. In animal cells, cytoskeleton (microtubules and microfilaments) maintain the
shape of the cell. Cells also vary in size.

MAJOR CELL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

The generalized cell has three major regions: nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane.

PLASMA/CELL MEMBRANE
STRUCTURE
The major component of cell membrane is phospholipid. The phosphate group interfaces with
the water both inside and outside the cell. The lipid "tails" of the molecules face each other creating a
lipid bilayer. This layer is embedded with proteins. Some proteins have carbohydrate components,
which act in cellular recognition.
 Phospholipids permit diffusion of lipid-soluble materials.
 Cholesterol provides stability.
 Proteins form channels, transporters, "self' antigens, and receptor sites for hormones or
other signaling molecules.
FUNCTION
 Plasma Membrane – encloses cell contents, mediates exchanges with the extracellular
environment, and plays a role in cellular communication.
 Cell Membrane – selectively permeable. It permits some substances to pass more readily than
others.
TRANSPORT PROCESSES ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Membrane transport is the processes by which cells take in or secrete or excrete materials
through the selectively permeable cell membrane.

Substances move across the plasma membrane by:

 Passive processes – depends on the kinetic energy of molecules or on pressure gradients
 Active Processes – depends on the use of cellular energy (ATP).

NUCLEUS
Consists of nuclear envelope with pores, nucleoli, and chromosomes. Storage of genetic material;
controls cellular structure and directs cellular function.
Nucleolus – forms ribosomal RNA.
Chromosomes – made of DNA and protein
 DNA 1s – the genetic code for the structure and functioning of the cell.
 A gene is a segment of DNA that is the code for one protein. Human cells have 46
chromosomes, and their genetic information is called the genome.
Most cells have a single nucleus. Without a nucleus, a cell cannot divide or synthesize more proteins;
thus, it is destined to die.
TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS INTO AND OUT OF CELLS

TRANSPORT PROCESS DESCRIPTION

DIFFUSION the movement of molecules (driven by kinetic energy) down a

concentration gradient.
Ex. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged by diffusion
in the lungs and tissues.

FACILITATED DIFFUSION the passive movement of certain solutes across the membrane
either by their binding with a membrane carrier protein or by their
moving through a embrane channel. It is driven by kinetic energy,
but the carriers and channels are selective.
Ex. Most cells take in glucose by facilitated diffusion

OSMOSIS The diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a selectively

permeable membrane.
Ex. The small intestine absorbs water from digested
food by osmosis.

FILTRATION The movement of substances through a membrane from an area of

high hydrostatic pressure to an area of lower fluid pressure. In the
body, the driving force of filtration is blood pressure.
Ex. Blood pressure in the kidney capillaries creates filtration,
which is the first step in urine formation.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT movement of substances from an area of lesser concentration to an

(SOLUTE PUMPING) area of greater concentration. A cell uses ATP.
Ex. Nerve cells and muscle cells have sodium pumps to
return N+ ions to the exterior of the cells; this prevents
spontaneous impulses.

BULK TRANSPORT The process of packaging substances too large to pass througn a
cell membrane; once packaged, the substances are then
transported through the cell.

EXOCYTOSIS the plasma membrane, ejects substances (hormones,

wastes,secretions) from the cell.

ENDOCYTOSIS Movement of substances into cell vesicles.

PHAGOCYTOSIS The ingestion of a solid particle by cells.

Ex. White blood cells phagocytize bacteria to destroy them.

PINOCYTOSIS The engulfing of extracellular fluid by cells.

Ex. Kidney tubule cell reabsorb small proteins by
pinocytoses.
CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES

CYTOPLASM
It is the cellular region between the nuclear and plasma membranes, consists of the cytosol (fluid
cytoplasmic environment), inclusions (nonliving nutrient stores-lipid droplets, glycosomes pigment
granules, crystals, etc.), and cytoplasmic organelles. The cytoplasm is the major functional area of the
cell. These functions are mediated by cytoplasmic organelles.

CYTOSOL
It is the medium in which many cell metabolic reactions occur. It is composed of water, solutes,
suspended particles, lipid droplets, and glycogen granules.

ANATOMY OF THE ANIMAL CELL

SUMMARY OF CELL ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

ORGANELLE FUNCTION

1. MITOCHONDRIA The powerhouse of the cell ; ATP production

2. RIBOSOMES Synthesis of proteins

3. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

4. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
5. GOLGI APPARATUS
Act as sites for protein modification;
Synthesizes lipid and steroid molecules; fat
metabolism and reticulum in drug
detoxification; calcium ion depot.
Packages protein secretions for export,
packages enzymes

6. LYSOSOMES Sites of intracellular digestion; degrade worn-

out organelles, tissues that are no longer
useful.

7. PEROXISOMES Protect the cell from the destructive effects of

free radicals and other toxic substances by
converting them first to hydrogen peroxide
and then water.
8. MICROFILAMENTS
Structural support; involved in cell movement.
9. MICROTUBULES Structural support; involved in cell divisions,
cell movement and transport.
10. CENTROSOMES: Form the mitotic spindle and are the basis of
cilia and flagella.

11. CENTRIOLES form a spindle of microtubules ; help in the

formation of spindle fibers that separate the
chromosomes during the cell cycle

12. PERICENTRIOLAR MATERIAL amorphous mass of protein which makes up

the part of the animal centrosome that
surrounds the two centrioles

13. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT provide mechanical support for the plasma

membrane where it comes into contact with
other cells or with the extracellular matrix.

14. MICROVILLI microscopic cellular membrane protrusions

that increase the surface area for diffusion
and minimize any increase in volume, and are
involved in a wide variety of functions,
including absorption, secretion, cellular
adhesion, and mechanotransduction.
15. NUCLEUS can be thought of as the cell’s headquarters ;
sends out messages to tell the cell to grow,
divide, or die.

16. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE consists of two lipid bilayer membranes, an

inner nuclear membrane & an outer nuclear
membrane. ; keeps the contents of the
nucleus, called the nucleoplasm, separate
from the cytoplasm of the cell.

17. NUCLEAR PORE protein-lined channel in the nuclear envelope

that regulates the transportation of molecules
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

18. NUCLEOLUS Located inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cell ;

RNA (rRNA) synthesis and ribosome
biogenesis.

19. CYTOSOL signal transduction between the cell

membrane and the nucleus and organelles. It
transports metabolites from their production
site to other parts of the cell.

20. CENTROSOME MATRIX serve to direct the movements of microtubules

and other cytoskeletal structures and proteins,
ultimately allowing large changes to the
shapes of animal cell membranes.

21. SECRETORY VESICLES tiny little packages in which certain cell

secretions can be transported ; membrane
bound and produced by the golgi apparatus or
endoplasmic reticulum

22. PLASMA MEMBRANE protect the cell from its surroundings. ;

selectively permeable to ions and organic
molecules and regulates the movement of
substances in and out of cells.
CELL GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION
CELL CYCLE
The cell life cycle is the series of changes
that a cell goes through from the time it is formed
until it divides.
 Interphase – the non-dividing phase of
the cell life cycle. Interphase consists of
G.S, and G2 subphases.
 G1 – the cell grows and centriole
replication begins;
 S phase – DNA replicates and during
 G2 – the final preparations for division are
made.

Cell division is essential for body growth and

repair, occurs during the M phase. It is stimulated
by certain chemicals (including growth factors
and some hormones) increasing cell size. It
consists of two distinct phases: mitosis and
cytokinesis.

Figure 3.2 Cell Cycle (source: glogster.com)

Mitosis – one cell with the diploid number of chromosomes divides once to form two cells, each with
the diploid number of chromosomes (46 for humans).
 DNA replication forms two sets of chromosomes during interphase.
 Stages of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
 Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm following telophase.

Meiosis – one cell with the diploid number of chromosomes divides twice to form for cells, each with
the haploid number of chromosomes (23 tor humans).
 Oogenesis in the ovaries forms egg cells.
 Spermatogenesis in the testes forms sperm cells.
 Fertilization of an egg by a sperm restores the diploid nurnber in the fertilized egg.