UNIT II CELL STRUCTURES, TISSUES, AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Time Allotment

Introduction

Learning Objectives

At the end of the unit, the students must have:

Topics

Overview of the cellular basis of life

The English Scientist Robert Hooke first observed plant cells with a crude microscope in the late
1600s, but it was not until the mid-1800s that two German Scientist, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor
Schwann, were bold enough to assert that all living things are composed of cells. The German pathologist
Rudolf Virchow extended this idea by suggesting that cells arise only from other cells. Virchow’s landmark
in biological history because the theory of spontaneous generation.

1. A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms; when you define
the properties of a cell, you are in a fact defining the properties of life.
2. The activity of an organism is dependent on both the individual and collective activity
of its cells.
3. According to the principle of complementarity, the biochemical activities of cells are
determined and made possible by the specific subcellular structures of cells.
4. The continuity of life has a cellular basis.
Cell Theory

1. All organisms consist of 1 or more cells.

2. Cell is the smallest unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
4. All living things are made up of cells.
5. Cells are the smallest working unit of all living things.
6. All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.
7. Cell size is limited

Definition of Cell

There are many different cells in the body. All cells have nucleus, and cell membrane. Each cell is
different. They have different jobs to perform in the human body. Each cell will combined with other cells
alike themselves to make a body system.
 - A cell is the smallest unit that is capable of performing life functions.
- Living structural and functional unit of all organisms.

3 BASIC PARTS OF THE CELL

- The plasma membrane: the outer boundary of the cell.

- The cytoplasm: the intracellular fluid packed with organelles, small structures that perform
specific cell functions.
- The nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular activities. Typically the nucleus resides near
the cells center.

THE PLASMA MEMBRANE: STRUCTURE

The flexible plasma membrane defines the extent of the cell and acts a fragile barrier. Although the
plasma membrane is important in maintaining the integrity of the cell, it is more than a passage envelope.
As you will see, its unique structure allows it to play a dynamic role in many cellular activities.

SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

MICROVILLI

Finger like extensions of the plasma membrane the project from a free, or exposed, cell surface.
They increase the plasma membrane surface area tremendously and are more often found on the surface
of absorptive cells such as kidney tubule and intestinal cells. Microvilli have a core of actin filaments. Actin
filaments is a contractile protein, but in microvilli, it appears to function as a mechanical “stiffer”.

THE PLASMA MEMBRANE: FUNCTION

Our cells are continuously bathed by a fluid called interstitial fluid that is derived from the blood.
Interstitial fluid can be thought of as rich, nutritious, and rather unusual “soup”. It contains thousands of
nutrients, including amino acids, sugar, fatty acids, vitamins, regulatory substances such as hormones and
neurotransmitters, salts, and waste products. To remain healthy, each cell must be extract from this soup
specific amounts of substances it needs at specific times and reject the rest.

The plasma membrane is a selectively, or differentially, a permeable barrier, meaning that it allows some
substances to pass while excluding others. When substances penetrate the membrane without any energy
input from the cell, their movement is called passive transport. When the cell must provide metabolic energy
(ATP) to drive the movement of a substance, the process is called active transport.

TIGHT JUNCTIONS

Protein molecules in adjacent plasma membrane fuse together tightly like a zipper, obliterating the
intercellular space and forming an impermeable junction. Tight junctions prevent the free passage of the
molecules through the intercellular space between adjacent cells of an epithelial membrane. For example,
tight junctions between the epithelial cells lining the digestive tract keep digestive enzymes and
microorganisms in the intestine from seeping into the bloodstream.

DESMOSOMES

Act as mechanical couplings or adhesion junctions that prevent separation of tissue layers. The
plasma membrane do not actually touch, but are held actually together by fine glycoprotein filaments
stretched between button-like thickenings of the inner plasma membrane.

GAP JUNCTIONS

The basic function of gap junctions is to provide for direct passage of chemical substances between
adjacent cells. At gap junctions, the adjacent plasma membranes are very close.

CYTOPLASM

Is the cellular material inside the plasma membrane and outside the nucleus. It is the major
functional area, the site where must cellular activities are accomplished. Although early Microscopists
thought that cytoplasm was a structure less gel, the electron microscope has revealed that it consist of three
major elements: the cytosol, organelles, and inclusions.

The cytosol is the viscous, semi-transparent fluid environment of the cytoplasm within which other
elements are suspended. Dissolved in the cytosol, which is largely water, are soluble proteins, salts sugar,
and variety of other solutes. Hence, the cytosol is a complex mixture with both colloidal and true solution
properties.

INCLUSION

Are not functioning units, but instead are a number of chemical substance that may or may not be
present, depending on the specific cell type. Example of inclusions are stored nutrient substance, such as
the glycogen granules abundant in liver and muscle cells; the pigment (melanin) granules synthesized in
pancreas cells and the transported into the small intestine. Other secretory products (mucus), water
vacuoles, and crystals of various types are also inclusions.

CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

Most organelles are bounded by a selectively permeable membrane similar in composition to the
plasma membrane, which allows them to maintain an internal environment quite different from that of the
surrounding cytosol. This compartmentalization is crucial to the functioning of the cell; without it, thousands
of enzymes would be randomly mixed and biochemical activity would be chaotic. Let us consider what goes
on in each of the workshops of our cellular factory.

MITOCHONDRIA

Are called the powerhouses of the cell because

they provide most of all cell’s ATP supply. Mitochondria
are found in most of our cells, but their density in
particular cell reflects that cells energy requirements;
mitochondria are generally clustered “where the action
is”. Busy cells have hundreds of mitochondria, whereas
cells that are relatively inactive have just a few.

Each mitochondrion is surrounded by two lipid bilayer

membranes, each with the general structure of the
plasma membrane. The outer membrane is smooth and
featureless, but the inner membrane has projections
called cristae that protrude into the gel like substance within the mitochondrion, called matrix.

Enzymes dissolved in the matrix, together with those forming part of the crista membranes, cooperate to
break down glucose and other foodstuffs to water and carbon dioxide. Some of the energy released as
glucose is broken down, captured, and used to attach phosphate groups to ADP molecules to form ATP.
This multistep mitochondrial process, generally referred to as aerobic cellular respiration because it requires
oxygen.

It is interesting to note that mitochondria contain DNA and RNA and are self-replication organelles. When
cellular requirements for ATP increase, the mitochondria simply pinch in half to increase their number, then
grow to their former size.

THE NUCLEUS

Anything that works, works best when it is

controlled. For cells, the control center is the gene-
containing nucleus. The nucleus can be compared
to a computer, design department, construction
boss, and board of directors. All rolled into one
unique organelle. While most cells have one only
nucleus, some, including skeletal muscle cells, bone
destruction cells, and some liver cells, are
multinucleate; that is, they have many nuclei.
Without a nucleus, a cell cannot make any more
proteins, and when its enzymes and cell structures
starts to break down, they cannot be replaced.

The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell. While most often spherical or oval, its shape usually conforms
to the shape of the cell; for example, if a cell is elongated, the nucleus may be extended as well. The nucleus
has three distinct regions or structures: the nuclear membrane, nucleoli, and chromatin.

The nuclear membrane encloses a colloidal fluid called nucleoplasm, within which nucleoli and chromatin
are suspended. Like the cytosol, the nucleoplasm contains salts, nutrients, and other needed chemicals.

NUCLEAR MEMBRANE

The nucleus is bounded by the nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope, which is a double
membrane barrier similar to mitochondrial membrane. Between the two membranes is the fluid-filled space
called the perinuclear cisterna. The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the ER of the cytoplasm and
may be studded with ribosomes.

NUCLEOLI

Are dark-staining spherical bodies found within the nucleus. They are made up of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) and proteins, and they are not membrane bounded. There are one or two nucleoli per cell, but there
may be more. Nucleoli are "ribosome-producing machines" consequently, they are usually very large in
growing cells that are actively making large amounts of tissue proteins. Nucleoli are associated with
chromatin regions containing the DNA that issues genetic instructions for synthesizing ribosomal RNA. DNA
segments are called nucleolar organizer regions.

CHROMATIN

Seen through a light microscope, chromatin appears as fine, lightly stained network, but special
techniques reveal it as a system of bumpy threads weaving their way through the nucleoplasm. Chromatin
is composed of approximately equal amounts of DNA, which comprises the chromosomes, and globular
histone proteins. Nucleosomes the fundamental units of chromatin, are spherical clusters of eight histone
proteins connected like beads on a string by a DNA that winds around each of them.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Is an extensive system of interconnected membranes that coils and twists through the cytoplasm,
enclosing fluid-filled cavities or cisternae. It is continuous with both the nuclear membrane and the plasma
membrane and accounts for about half of the cell's membranes.

2 distinct varieties of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Is particularly abundant in cells specialized to make and release proteins that function at other
locations, such as most secretory cells, antibody-producing plasma cells, and liver cells, which produce most
blood proteins.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Is a continuation of the rough ER and contains enzymes delivered by the rough ER, but it plays no
role in protein synthesis. Instead, its basic products are lipid molecules.

1. Synthesis of phospholipids and cholesterol

2. Synthesis of steroid-based hormones such as sex hormones
3. Synthesis of fats and lipoproteins
4. Absorption, synthesis, and transport of fats
5. Synthesis and storage of glycogen
6. Detoxification of Drugs

GOLGI APPARATUS

It is generally situated close to the nucleus. It

is the probably the principal traffic director for cellular
proteins: its major function is to modify, concentrate,
and package proteins in specific ways, depending on
their ultimate destination. The transport vesicles that
bud off from the rough ER migrate to and fuse with
the membranes of the Golgi apparatus. Inside the
Apparatus, glycoproteins are modified: Some sugar
groups are trimmed while others are added, and in
some cases, phosphate groups are added.

LYSOSOMES

Are spherical membranous bags containing hydrolytic enzymes. Their enzymes are synthesized on
the ribosomes of the rough ER and packaged by the Golgi apparatus. It provide sites where digestion can
proceed safely within a cell. Lysosomes are large and abundant in phagocytes. The usual function of
lysosomes include:

1. Digestion of particles ingested by endocytosis, particularly important in rendering ingested

bacteria, viruses, and toxins harmless to the cell
2. Digestion of worn-out or nonfictional organelles
3. Metabolic functions, such as the breakdown of stored glycogen and the release of thyroid
hormones from its storage from in thyroid cells
4. Degration of nonuseful tissues, such as the webs between the fingers and toes of s developing
fetus and the uttering lining during menstruation. Breakdown of bone to release calcium ions
into the blood also reflects lysosomal activity.

PEROXISOMES

Also called micro-bodies, are membranous sacs containing powerful enzymes called peroxidases.
Peroxidases detoxify a number of harmful or toxic substances, including alcohol and formaldehyde.
However, the most important function is to "disarm" oxygen-free radicals such as superoxide radical by
converting them to hydrogen peroxide the enzyme catalase then reduces hydrogen peroxide to water.
Peroxisomes are numerous in liver and kidney cells, which is active in detoxification.
MICROFILAMENTS

Are thin strands of the contractile protein actin. Each cell appears to have its own arrangement of
microfilaments, thus, no two cells are alike. Most microfilaments are involved in cell motility or movement
of cell parts. Microfilaments are most highly developed in muscle cells, where actin and myosin filaments
are arranged in parallel bundles. Some microfilaments appears to cooperate with the other cytoskeletal
elements to brace the cell and maintain its shape.

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

Are tough, insoluble protein fibers, with diameters intermediate in size between the microfilaments
and microtubules. They are the most stable of the cytoskeletal elements and have high tensile strength.
They act as internal guy wires to resist mechanical stress on the cell, and they play a role in forming
desmosomes. The protein composition of intermediate filaments varies in different cell types, which has led
to numerous names for these cytoskeletal elements.

MICROTUBULES

The largest of the cytoskeletal elements; are long, hollow tubes formed globular proteins called
tubulins. They are difficult to study because they self-assemble spontaneously and then disassemble in an
instant into their molecular subunits, which dissolve in the cytosol. Microtubules also form the walls of more
complex organelles called centrioles which organize the construction of a micro tubular structure to which
the chromosomes attach during cell division.

CENTROSOME AND CENTROILES

Cytoskeletal elements would be of limited value as structural supports or promoters of cell

movement unless linked to other parts of the cell. Many microtubules appear to be anchored at one end in
a region near the nucleus called the centrosome or cell center. The centrosome contains paired organelles
called centrioles, small cylindrical bodies oriented at right angles to each other. Centrioles are best known
for their role in cell division. They also form the basis of two types of motile cellular projections: cilia and
flagella.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

Motile cellular extensions that occur, typically in large numbers, on the free surfaces of certain cells.
The cilia move in unison like a well-disciplined rowing crew, creating a current that propels substances in
one direction across the cell surface. For example, the ciliated cells that line the respiratory tract propel
mucus laden with dust particles and bacteria upward away from the lungs. When the projections formed by
centrioles are substantially longer, they are called flagella. The single example of a flagellated cell in the
human body is a sperm, which has one propulsive flagellum, commonly called a "tail".

TISSUES STRUCTURES AND ITS FUNCTOINS

Epithelial tissue

Epithelial tissue or epithelium, occurs in the body as covering the lining epithelium and glandular
epithelium. Covering and lining epithelium is found on free surfaces of the body such as the outer layer of
the skin, dipping into and lining the cavities of the digestive and respiratory systems, lining blood vessels
and the heart and covering the walls and organs of the closed ventral covering body cavity, since epithelium
forms the boundaries that mark us off from the outside world. Nearly substances received or given off the
body must pass through epithelium. Glandular epithelium fashions the glands of the body

Special Characteristic of Epithelium

1. Cellularity - Epithelial tissue is composed almost entirely of cells. In muscle and connective tissues,
cells are often widely separated by extracellular matrix. This is not true epithelium, where cells are
close together.
2. Specialized contacts - Epithelial cell fit close together to form continuous sheets. Adjacent cells
are bound by lateral contacts, including tight junctions and desmosomes.
3. Polarity - Epithelium always has one free (apical) surface the portion of the epithelium exposed or
the cavity of an internal organ. Some expected plasma membrane surfaces are smooth and slick:
others exhibit cell surface modifications such as microvilli or cilia, Microvilli, finger-like extensions
 of the plasma membrane, increase tremendously the exposed surface area and are common in
epithelia that absorb or secrete substances (Intestinal lining and kidney tubules). Cilia projecting
from epithelial lining of the trachea and certain other internal tracts propel substances along the
epithelial surface.
4. Avascularity - Epithelium may be well supplied by nerve fibers but is avascular (has no blood
vessels within it) Epithelial cells receive their nourishment by diffusion of substances from blood
vessels in the underlying connective tissue.
5. Basement membrane - Epithelium rest on thin supporting basal lamina which separate it from the
underlying connective tissue the basal lamina is a nonliving. Adhesive material formed largely of
glycoproteins secreted by the epithelial cell. The connective tissue cells, just deep to the basal
lamina, secrete a similar extracellular material containing fine collagenous or reticular fibers, this
layer is called reticular lamina. The basal lamina of the epithelium and reticular lamina connective
tissue together from the basement membrane.
6. Regeneration - Epithelium has a high regenerative capacity. Some epithelia are expected to friction
and their surface cells tend to abrade off: others are damaged by hostile substances (bacteria, acids,
smoke) in the external environment and die. As long as epithelial cell receive adequate nutrition,
they are able to replace lost cell rapidly by cell division.

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA

There are many types of epithelia are identified structurally according to two criteria: the shape of
the cell and the number of cell layers present.

All Epithelial cells are irregularly polyhedral (many sided) in cross section, but differ in cell height.
On the basis of height, there are many common shapes of epithelial cells.

Squamous cells are flattened and scale like Cuboidal cells - are approximately as tall as they are wide.

Columnar cells - are tall and column-shaped. In each case, the shape of the nucleus of a squamous cell is
thin and flattened; that of a cuboidal cell is spherical and a columnar cell nucleus is elongated from the top
to bottom and is usually located close to the cell base. There are two major varieties of epithelia are
composed of a single and stratified.

Simple epithelia - are composed of a single layer of cells. Simple epithelia are typically found where
selective absorption and filtration occur and where the thinness of the barrier helps to speed the process.

Stratified epithelia - Consist of multiple cell layers stacked one on top of the other. They are typically found
in high absorption areas, where protection is important such as the skin surface and the lining of the mouth.
There are four major classes of simple epithelia: simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, and
modified simple epithelium called pseudostratified (pseudo = false)

Simple epithelia - The simple epithelia are most concerned with absorption, secretion, and filtration.
Because they are usually very thin, protection is not one of their "specialties".

Simple Squamous Epithelium - The cell of simple squamous epithelium is flattened laterally, and their
cytoplasm is sparse. When viewed from the surface the close-fitting cells resemble a tiled floor. When cut
perpendicular to their surface, the cells resemble fried egg seen seem from permeable. This epithelium is
found where filtration or exchange of substances by diffusion is a high priority. Capillary walls, through
which exchanges occur between the blood and tissue cells, are composed exclusively a simple squamous
epithelium. In the kidneys, simple squamous epithelium forms part of filtration membrane: in lungs, it forms
the walls of the air sacs across which gas exchange occurs. Mesothelium is the name given to the simple
squamous epithelium lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium - Consist of a single layer of cubical cells when viewed microscopically the
spherical nuclei stain darkly; causing the layer to look like string of beads. Important functions of simple
cuboidal epithelium are secretion and absorption. In glands it forms both the secretory portions and the
ducts that deliver secretions to their destinations. The simple cuboidal epithelium in the kidney tubules has
dense microvilli, betraying its active role in absorption.
Simple Columnar Epithelium - Seen as a single layer tall, closely packed cells, aligned like soldiers in a
row. Columnar cells are most associated with absorption and secretion. Cells actively involved in secretion
have an elaborate Golgi apparatus and usually abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum. This epithelial type
lines the digestive tract from the stomach to the rectum. The digestive tract lining has two distinct
modifications that reflect its dual function: 1. Dense microvilli on the surface absorptive cells 2. Goblet cells
that secrete a protective lubricating mucus that occupy most of the apical cell volume

Some simple columnar epithelia display cilia on their free surfaces. This more unusual variety, called
simple columnar ciliated epithelium, lines the oviducts and limited areas of the respiratory tract.

Pseudostratified columnar Epithelium

All of its cells rest on the basement membrane, but some are shorter than others and, as seen in
the figure, may not reach the surface of the cell layer. Their nuclei vary in shape and are seen at different
levels above the basement membrane, giving the false impression that several cell layers are present. The
epithelium may contain goblet cells and often ciliated, in which case, the epithelium is more precisely called
pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium both cilia and goblet cells are found in pseudostratified
epithelium that lines most of the respiratory tract. The mucus produced traps inhaled dust and other debris,
and the cilia act to propel it away from the lungs.

Stratified Epithelia

Stratified epithelia consist of two or more

cell layers considerably more durable than the
simple epithelia, their major (but not their only)
function is protection

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Most widespread stratified epithelium

compose of several layers; it is thick and well suited
for its protective role in the body. Stratified
squamous epithelium covers the tongue and lines
the mouth, pharynx, esophagus and canal, and
vagina. A modified form of this tissue, keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium, forms the outer layer
or epidermis of the skin the surface of the epidermis
consists of dead cells filled with keratin, a
waterproofing protein. The epidermis, which
provides a tough yet resilient covering for the body
surface.
 Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Generally formed of only two cell layers, stratified

cuboidal epithelium has a very limited distribution in the
body it is found primarily in the ducts of sweat gland and
other large

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

True stratified columnar epithelium is rare, its free

surface cells are columnar this in deeper layers are small
and vary in shape

Transitional Epithelium

It is a lining of urinary organs, which are subjected to considerable stretching and varying internal
pressure, transitional epithelium appears to have the ability to resist osmotic forces that would act to dilute
hypertonic urine stored in the bladder.

Covering and Lining Epithelia

Classification of epithelia by cell type and arrangement allows each epithelium to be described
individually and the precision. However, it reveals nothing about the tissues body location. In this section
we will describe the covering and lining epithelia using terms that indicate their special locations in the
body and/ or denote general functional qualities.

Endothelium

An endothelium is a simple epithelial membrane is use, epithelial membrane is defined as

continuous multicellular sheet composed of at least two primary types: an epithelium bound to discrete
underlying connective tissue layer. Hence, epithelial membranes can be considered to be simple organs.
Most of the covering and lining epithelia take part in forming one three common types of epithelial
membranes: mucous, cutaneous, or serous.

Mucous membrane

Mucous membrane or mucosae are

epithelial membrane that in body cavities hat are
open to the exterior, such as those of the digestive,
respiratory, and urogenital tracts. In all cases, they
are "wet" or moist, membranes bathed secretions or,
in a case of the urinary mucosa, urine. Notice that the
terms mucosa refers to the location of the epithelial
membrane, not its cell composition, which varies.
However, the majority of the mucosae contain either
stratified squamous or simple columnar epithelia.

Mucous membranes are often adapted for absorption and secretion. Although many mucosae
secrete mucus, this is not a requirement. The mucosae of both the digestive and respiratory tracts secretes
copious amounts of protective lubricating mucus; that of the urinary tract does not.
 All mucosae consist of an epithelial sheet directly underlain by a lamina propria, a layer of loose
connective tissue just deep to the basement membrane. In some, the lamina propria rest on a third (deeper)
layer of smooth muscle cells. This variation well be covered in the later chapter dealing with appropriate
organ systems.

Cutaneous membrane

Cutaneous membrane is your skin it is an organ

consisting of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
(epidermis) firmly attached to a thick connective tissue
layer (dermis). Unlike other epithelial membranes the
cutaneous membrane is exposed to the air and is a dry
membrane.

Serous membrane

Serous membrane or serosae are the moist found in closed ventral body cavities. Each serosa
consists of a parallel layer that lines the cavity wall and then reflects back as the visceral laver to cover the
outer surfaces of organs within the cavity. Each of these layers consists of simple squamous epithelium
(mesothelium) resting on a tiny amount of loose connective tissue

The mesothelial cells secrete thin, clear serious fluid that lubricates the facing surfaces of the parietal and
visceral layers, so that they slide across each other easily. This reduction of friction prevents organs from
sticking to the cavity walls and to each other.

The serosae are named according to site and specific

organ associations. For example, the serosa lining the
thoracic wall covering the lungs is the pleura that enclosing
the heart is pericardium: and those of the abdominopelvic
cavity and viscera are the peritoneums.

Glandular Epithelia

A gland consists of more cells that

produce and secrete a particular product.
This product, called a secretion is an aqueous
(water based) fluid, typically containing
proteins. Glands classified as endocrine as an
endocrine or exocrine. Depending on their
route or secretion the general function of
their products and as unicellular or
multicellular epithelial glands form by invagination of epithelial sheet and at least initially, have ducts
connecting them to the epithelial sheet.
Endocrine Glands

Endocrine glands eventually lose their ducts and are often called ductless glands. They produce
regulatory chemicals called hormones. Which they secrete directly into the extracellular space. The
hormones then enter the blood or lymphatic fluid. Since not all endocrine glands are epithelial derivatives,
consideration of their structure and function.

Exocrine Glands

Exocrine glands are far more numerous

than endocrine called ductless glands, and
many of their products are familiar ones. The
multicellular glands secrete their products
through a duct onto body surfaces or into
body cavities. Exocrine glands are diverse lot.
They include sweat and oil glands, salivary
glands, the liver (which secretes bile) the
pancreas (which synthesizes digestive
enzymes) mammary glands, mucous glands,
and many others.

Unicellular exocrine glands

Unicellular exocrine glands are

single cells interposed in an epithelium
between cells with other functions. They
have no ducts, in humans, all such glands
produce mucin (myosin) a complex
glycoprotein that dissolves in water.
Unicellular glands include the goblet cells
of the intestinal and respiratory mucosae
as well as producing cells found in other
body regions.
Multicellular glands

Multicellular glands have three common structure elements an epithelium- derived duct, a secretory
unit, and in all but the simplest glands, supportive connective tissue that surrounds the secretory unit and
supplies it with blood vessels and nerve fibers. Often, the connective tissue forms a fibrous capsule that
extends into the gland proper and divides the gland into lobes.

Multicellular glands can be divided into two major categories on the basis of their duct structures.
Simple glands have simple unbranched duct, whereas compound glands have a branching or divided duct.
The glands can be further described according to the structure

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue is found

anywhere in the body. It is the most
abundant and widely distributed of the
primary tissues, but its amount in
particular organs varies greatly. For
example, bone and skin are made up
primarily of connective tissue, whereas
the brain contains very little.
Connective tissue does much more
than connect body parts, it has many
forms and many functions. Its major
functions include binding, support,
protection, insulation and as blood
transportation of substances within the
body for example, cordlike connective tissue structure connect muscle to bone (tendons) and bones to
bones (ligaments) and fine, resilient connective tissue invades soft organs and supports and binds their cells
together bone and cartilage support and protect body organs by providing hard "underpinnings" fat
cushions insulates and protects body organs as well as providing reserve energy fuel.

Common characteristic of Connective Tissue

Despite their multiple and varied functions in the body connective tissues have certain common properties
that set them apart from other primary sources.
 1. Common origin- all connective tissues arise from mesenchyme; an embryonic tissue derived from
the mesoderm germ layer and hence have a common kinship.
2. Degrees of vascularity- unlike epithelium, which is a vascular and muscle and nervous tissue, which
have a rich vascular supply, connective tissues run the entire gamut of vascularity. Cartilage is a
vascular dense connective tissue is poorly vascularized and the other types have a rich supply of
blood vessels.
3. Matrix - whereas all other primary tissues are composed mainly of cells, connective tissues are
composed largely of non-living extracellular matrix, which separates, often widely, the living cells
of the tissue. Because of thud matrix, connective tissue is able to abuses, such as physical trauma
and abrasion that no other tissue could withstand.

Structural Elements of Connective Tissue

In any type of connective tissue, three elements must be considered: ground substance, fiber, and
cells. The ground substance and fibers up make up the extracellular matrix. (However, you should be aware
that some authors use the term matrix to indicate the ground substance only.) The properties of the cells
and the composition and arrangement of extracellular matrix elements vary tremendously, giving rise to an
amazing diversity of connective tissues, each uniquely adapted to perform its specific function in the body.
For example, the matrix can be 'delicate and fragile to form a soft "packing" around an organ, or it can form
"ropes"(tendons and ligaments) of incredible strength.

Ground substance

Is an amorphous (unstructured) material that fills the space between the cells and contains the
fibers. It composed of interstitial fluid glycoproteins, and glycosaminoglycans a diverse group of large,
negatively charged polysaccharides. The long, strand like GAGs coil, intertwine, and trap water, forming a
substance that varies from fluid to a semi stiff hydrated gel. One type of GAG, hyaluronic acid, is found in
virtually all connective tissues, and its relative amount helps viscosity and permeability of the ground
substance.

The ground substance functions as a molecular "sieve," or medium, through which nutrients and
other dissolved substance can diffuse between the blood capillaries and the cells. The fibers in the matrix
impede diffusion somewhat and make the ground substance less pliable.

Fibers

Three types of fibers are found in the matrix of connective tissue: collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers. Of
these, collagen is by far the most important and abundant.

Collagen fibers are constructed primarily of the fibrous protein collagen. Collagen molecules are
secreted into the extracellular space, where they assembly spontaneously into fibers. Collagen fibers are
extremely tough and provide high tensile strength to the matrix. When fresh, they have a glistening white
appearance; they are therefore also called white fibers.

Elastic fibers are formed largely from another fibrous protein, elastin. Elastin has a randomly coiled
structure that allows it to stretch and recoil like a rubber band. The presence of elastin in the matrix gives it
a rubbery, or resilient, quality. Collagen fibers, always found in the same tissue, stretch a bit and them "lock"
in full extension, which limits the extent of stretch and prevents the tissue from tearing. Elastic fibers then
snap the connective tissue back to its normal length when the tension lets up. Elastic fibers are found where
greater elasticity is needed, for example, in the skin, lungs, and blood vessels walls. Since fresh elastic fibers
appear yellow, they are sometimes called yellow fibers.

Reticular fibers are believed to be fine collagenous with collagen fibers and are continuous with
collagen fibers. They branch extensively, forming a netlike reticulum in the matrix. They construct a fine
mesh around small blood vessels, support the soft tissue of organs, and are particularly abundant at the
junction between connective tissue and other tissue types, for example, in the basement membrane of
epithelial tissues.
Cell

Each major class of connective tissue has a fundamental cell type that exists in immature and mature
forms. The undifferentiated cells, indicated by the suffix blast are actively mitotic cells that secrete both the
ground substance and the fibers characteristic of their particular matrix. The primary blast cell types by
connective tissues class are (1) connective tissue proper: fibroblast; (2) cartilage: chondroblast (3) bone:
osteoblast.

Types of Connective Tissue

Connective tissue is consisting of living cells surrounded by a matrix. Their major differences reflect
cell type, fiber type, and proportion of the matrix contributed by fibers. Collectively, these three factors
determine not only major connective tissue classes, but also their subclasses and type.

Mesenchyme

Is embryonic connective tissue and represents the first definitive tissue formed from the mesoderm
germ layer. It arises during the early weeks of development and eventually differentiates (specializes) into
all other connective tissues. Mesenchyme is composed of star shaped mesenchymal cells and a fluid ground
substance containing fine fibrils.

Mucous Connective Tissue

Is a temporary tissue, derived from mesenchyme and similar to it, that appear in the fetus in very
limited amounts. Wharton's jelly, which supports the umbilical cord, is the best representative of this scant
embryonic tissue.

Areolar Connective Tissue

Areolar connective tissue has a semi fluid ground substance formed primarily of hyaluronic acid in
which all three-fiber type are loosely dispersed. Fibroblast, flat, branching cells that appear spindle-shaped
in profile, are scattered throughout. Fat cells appeared singly or in small clusters. Mast cells are identified
easily by the large, darkly stained cytoplasmic granules that often obscure their nucleus.

Mast cell granules contain heparin an anticoagulant that is released into the capillaries and helps prevent
blood clotting, and histamine, which is released during inflammatory reaction and makes the capillaries
leaky. Perhaps the most obvious structural feature of this tissue is the loose arrangement of its fibers, which
account for only small portion matrix.

The rest of the matrix, occupied by fluid ground substance, appears to be empty space when viewed though
the microscope; in fact, the Latin term areola means "a small open space." Because of its loose and fluid
nature, areolar connective tissue provides a reservoir of water and salts for surrounding body tissue body
tissues. If extracellular fluids accumulate in excess, the affected areas swell and became puffy, a condition
called edema.

Areolar connective tissue is soft and pliable and serves as kind of universal packing material
between other tissue. Most widely distributed connective tissue in the body, it separated muscles, allowing
them to move freely over one another; wrap small blood vessels and nerves; surrounds glands; and forms
the subcutaneous tissue, which attaches the skin o underlying structures. It is present in all mucous
membranes as the lamina propria.

Adipose Tissue

Adipose tissue is basically an areolar connective tissue in which the adipocytes, commonly called
fat cells, have accumulated in large numbers. A glistening oil droplet (almost pure neutral fat), which
occupies most of a fat cell's volume, compresses the nucleus and displaces it to side; only a thin rim of
surrounding cytoplasm is seen. Since the oil-containing region looks empty, and the thin cytoplasm
containing the bulging nucleus looks like a ring with a seal, fat cells have been called "signet ring "cells.

Mature adipocytes are among the largest cell that are incapable of cell division. As they take up or
release fat, they become plumper or more wrinkled looking, respectively. Compare to other connective
tissue, adipose tissue is very cellular; adipose cells account for approximately 90% of the tissue mass and
are packed closely together, giving a chicken wire appearance to the tissue.
Very little matrix is seen, except for the separating the adipose cells into lobules (cells clusters) and
permitting the passage of blood vessels and nerves to the cells. Adipose tissue is richly vascularized,
indicating its high metabolic activity, and it has many functions; most importantly, it acts as a storehouse of
nutrients. Without stored fat, we could not live for more than a few days without eating.

Adipose tissue may almost anywhere areolar tissue is plentiful, but it usually accumulates in
subcutaneous tissue, where it acts as a shock absorber and as insulation. Since fat is a poor conductor of
heat, it helps prevent heat loss from the body. Other sites of fat accumulation include genetically
determined fat depots such as the abdomen and hips, bone marrow, around the kidneys, and behind the
eyeballs.

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Dense Regular Connective Tissue is one variety of the dense connective tissue, all of which have
fibers as their predominant elements. For this reason, the dense connective tissues are often referred to as
dense fibrous connective tissue. Dense regular connective tissue contains regularly arranged bundles of
closely packed collagen fibers running in the same direction.

This results in a white, flexible tissue with great resistance to pulling forces. It is found in areas where tension
is always exerted in a single direction. Crowded between the collagen fibers are row of fibroblast that
continue to form fibers and scant ground substance.

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue has the same structural elements as the regular variety, but the
collagen fibers are interwoven and arranged irregularly that is, they run in more than one plane. This type
of tissue usually forms sheet in body areas where tension is exerted from many different directions. It is
found in the skin as the dermis, and forms the fibrous capsules of some organs (testes, lymph, nodes, and
liver) and fibrous coverings of bones, cartilages, and glistening white sheets that surround the muscles.

Elastic Connective Tissue

The vocal cords and some ligaments, such as the ligament flava connecting adjacent vertebrae, are
composed almost entirely of elastin fibers. These structures combine strength with elasticity. They yield
easily to a pulling force (or pressure) and then recoil to their original length as soon as the tension is
released. This dense, fibrous is called elastic connective tissue to distinguish it from the dense varieties in
which collagen fibers predominant.

Cartilage

Has qualities intermediate between dense connective tissue and bone; it is tough and yet flexible,
providing a resilient rigidity to the structure it supports. Cartilage is avascular and devoid of nerve fibers.
Its ground the substance consists of large amounts of the GAG chondroitin sulfate, as well as hyaluronic
acid bound to proteins. The ground substance is heavily invested with firmly bound collagen fibers and, in
some cases reticular or elastic fibers. As a result, the matrix is usually quite firm.

Hyaline Cartilage Hyaline cartilage

Hyaline Cartilage Hyaline cartilage or gristle, is very resistant to wear and tear. Although it contains
large amounts of collagen fibers, they are not apparent and the matrix appears amorphous and glassy white.
The most widely distributed cartilage type in the body, hyaline cartilage provides firm support with some
pliability. It covers the ends of long bones as articular cartilage, providing springy pads that absorb
compression stresses at joins. Hyaline cartilage also supports the tip of the nose, connects the ribs to the
sternum, and forms most of the larynx and supporting cartilages of the trachea and bronchial tube.

Fibrocartilage

The coarse collagen fibres of fibrocartilage are arranged in thin, roughly parallel bundles that give
the matrix a grainy fibrous appearance. The chondrocytes are seen squeezed between the collagen bundles.
Fibrocartilage looks quite similar to dense regular connective. Because it is compressible and resist tension
well, fibrocartilage is found where strong support and the ability to withstand heavy pressure are required.
For example, the intervertebral discs, which provide resilient cushions between the bony vertebrae, and the
spongy cartilages of the knee, are fibrocartilage structures.
Elastic Cartilage

Histologically, elastic cartilage resembles hyaline cartilage. However, elastic cartilage varieties,
which gives this tissue a yellow color in the fresh state. It is found where strength and exceptional ability to
stretch are needed. Elastic cartilage forms the "skeletons" of the auditory tubes, the external ear, and the
epiglottis. The epiglottis is the flap that covers the opening to the respiratory passageway when we swallow,
preventing food or fluids from entering the lungs.

Bone (Osseous Tissue)

Because of its hardness, bone, or osseous tissue, has an exceptional ability to support and protect
softer tissue. Bones of the skeleton also provide cavities for fat storage synthesis of blood cells. The matrix
of bone is similar to that of cartilage, but it is harder and more rigid because bone matrix has far more
collagen fibers and deposits of inorganic salt (bone salt).

Muscle Tissue Muscle

Muscle Tissue Muscle tissue are highly cellular, well-vascularized tissue that are responsible for most
type of body movement. Among the most important characteristics of the muscle cells are their elongated
shape, which enhances their shortening (contraction) function, and their possession of specialized
myofilaments, composed of the contractile protein's actin and

Nervous Tissue Nervous tissue system: the brain, spinal cord, and nerves that conduct impulse to and
from the various body organs. It composed of two major cell types.

Neurons are highly specialized cells that generate and conduct nerve impulse typically, they are
branching or stellate cells: their cytoplasmic extension allow them to conduct the electrical impulses over
substantial distance within the body.

Neuroglial cells are nonconducting cell support, insulate, and protect the delicate neurons.

Tissue Repair

The body has many techniques for protecting itself from uninvited "guest" of injury. Intact
mechanical barriers such as the skin and mucosae, the ciliary activity of epithelial cell lining the respiratory
tract, and a strong acid (chemical barrier ) produced by stomach glands represent three defences exerted
at the local tissue level. When tissue injury does occur, it stimulates the body's inflammatory response in a
relatively nonspecific reaction that occurs wherever and whenever tissues are injured. Essentially,
inflammation represents an offensive action on the part of the body to eliminate the injuries agent, prevent
further injury, and restore the tissue to a healthy condition.

Tissue repair occurs in two major ways: by regeneration and by fibrosis. Which of these occurs
depends on the type of tissue damaged and the severity of the injury. Regeneration is replacement of
destroyed tissue by proliferation of the same kind of cells, whereas fibrosis involves proliferation of fibrous
connective tissue that is scar, tissue information. In the most tissue repair involves both activities.
TISSUE REPAIR, REGENERATION AND WOUND HEALING

Process of Tissue repair (wound healing)

When the skin is injured, our body sets into motion an automatic series of events, often referred to
as the "cascade of healing," in order to repair the injured tissues. The cascade of healing is divided into
these four overlapping phases:

Homeostasis, Inflammatory, Proliferative, and Maturation

HOMEOSTASIS PHASE

 The first phase of healing, begins at the onset of injury, and the objective is to stop the
bleeding. In this phase, the body activates its emergency repair system, the blood clotting
system, and forms a dam to block the drainage.
 During this process, platelets come into contact with collagen, resulting in activation and
aggregation. An enzyme called thrombin is at the center, and it initiates the formation of a
fibrin mesh, which strengthens the platelet clumps into a stable clot.

DEFENSIVE/INFLAMMATORY PHASE

 Focuses on destroying bacteria and removing debris-essentially preparing the wound bed
for the growth of new tissue. Type of white blood cells called neutrophils enter the wound
to destroy bacteria and remove debris. These cells often reach their peak population
between 24 and 48 hours after injury, reducing greatly in number after three days. As the
white blood cells leave, specialized cells called macrophages arrive to continue clearing
debris. These cells also secrete growth factors and proteins that attract immune system
cells to the wound to facilitate tissue repair. This phase often lasts four to six days and is
often associated with edema, erythema (reddening of the skin), heat and pain.

PROLIFERATIVE PHASE

Once the wound is cleaned out, the wound enters Phase 3, the Proliferative Phase, where the focus is to fill
and cover the wound.

The Proliferative phase features three distinct stages:

 filling the wound;

 contraction of the wound margins; and
 covering the wound (epithelialization)

MATURATIVE PHASE

 The new tissue slowly gains strength and flexibility. Here, collagen fibers reorganize, the tissue
remodels and matures and there is an overall increase in tensile strength (though maximum
strength is limited to 80% of the pre-injured strength).
 The healing process is remarkable and complex, and it is also susceptible to interruption due to
local and systemic factors, including moisture, infection, maceration age, nutritional status, body
type (systemic).