ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

AN OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy is the study of body structures and their relationships.
Physiology is the science of how body parts function.

SOME SUB-DISCIPLINES OF ANATOMY INCLUDE:

a) Embryology – the study of structures that emerge from the time of the fertilized egg through
the eight week in utero.
b) Histology – the study of the microscopic structures of tissues.
c) Surface anatomy – the study of anatomical landmarks on the surface of the body through
visualization and palpation.
d) Gross anatomy – the study of structures that can be examined without using a microscope.
e) Systemic anatomy – the study of structures of specific systems of the body.
f) Regional anatomy – the study of structures in specific regions of the body such as head or
chest.
g) Radiographic anatomy – the study of body structures that can be visualized with x-rays
h) Pathological anatomy – the study of structural changes associated with disease.

SOME SUB-DISCIPLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY INCLUDE:

a) Neurophysiology – the study of properties of nerve cells.
b) Endocrinology – the study of hormones and how they control body functions.
c) Cardiovascular physiology – the study of the heart and blood vessels.
d) Immunology – the study how the body defends itself against disease-causing agents.
e) Respiratory physiology – the study on the functions of the air passageways and lungs.
f) Renal physiology – the study of the function of the kidneys.
g) Pathophysiology – the study of functional changes associated with disease and aging

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
The levels of structural organization of the body, from simplest to most complex, are: chemical, cellular,
tissue, organ, organ system, and organismal.

A. Chemical level – includes inorganic and organic chemicals make

up all matter, both living and non-living.
B. Cells – the basic structural and functional units of the body.
C. Tissues – groups of similar cells bound by supporting matrix that
performs specific functions.
D. Organs – structures that are composed of two or more different
types of tissue that are integrated to perform a particular function.
E. Systems – consist of related organs that have a common function.
Table 1. The Organ Systems of the Human Body
Organ System Major component
organs
Integumentary Skin, nails, hair, skin
glands
Skeletal Bones, cartilages,
ligaments, joints
Muscular Muscles attached to bones > Produce body movement
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves,
and special sense organs
Endocrine Pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal,
pancreas, ovaries, testes,
pineal, thymus
Cardiovascular Heart, blood, and blood
vessels
Lymphatic/lmmune Lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, spleen, thymus,
and tonsils
Respiratory Nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, and
lungs
Digestive Mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach,
intestines, teeth, tongue,
salivary glands, pancreas,
liver, and gall bladder
Urinary Kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, urethra
Reproductive Male: testes, scrotum,
penis and duct systems
Females: ovaries, uterus,
fallopian tubes, vagina
and external genitalia
Function
> Protects deeper organ from injury and dehydration.
> Excretes salts and urea.
> Helps regulate body temperature.
> Supports and protects internal organs.
> Provide lever for muscular action.
> Stores minerals (calcium, etc.)
> Provide site for blood cells formation.
> Stabilizes body position (posture)
> Generates heat
> Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate
body activities.
> Allows body to detect changes in its internal and external
environment, interprets the changes, and responds by
causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions.
> Helps maintain short-term homeostasis of the body via
rapid transmission of electrical signals
> Promotes growth and development; produces chemical
"messengers"(homones) transported in the blood to a target
organ
> Plays a role in regulation of long-term homeostasis.
> Transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, ions,
hormones and other substances; pumping action of the heart
propels blood through the blood vessels.
> Protects the body with blood clots, antibodies, and other
protein molecules in the blood.
> Returns proteins and fluid to blood Carries lipid from GI
tract to blood Cleanses blood of pathogens and other debris
> Houses cells that act in the immune response to protect the
bod from foreign substances
> Keeps blood continuously supplied with oxygen while
removing carbon dioxide
> Contributes to the acid-base balance of body fluids.
> Breaks down ingested food to simple chemical structures
which can be absorbed into the blood for delivery to the
body's cells
> Eliminates undigested residues of food
> Produces, stores and eliminates urine Eliminates
wastes and regulates volume and electrolyte of blood
> Helps maintain the acid-base balance of body fluids
> Produce sex cells (sperm and egg cells) for the perpetuation
of the species
BASIC LIFE PROCESSES
All living organisms carry out certain vital functional activities necessary for life, including
maintenance of boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion,
reproduction, and growth.

1. Maintaining boundaries. Living organisms must be able to maintain its boundaries so that its
"inside" remains distinct from its "outside".
2. Movement includes motion of the whole body, individual organs or single cell.
3. Responsiveness or irritability is the ability to sense changes in the environment and react to
them.
4. Digestion is the process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules
5. Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that occur within body cells.
6. Excretion the process of removing excreta or wastes from the body.
7. Reproduction is the production of offspring.
8. Growth is the increase in size, usually accomplished by an increase in the number of cells.

HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis is a state of good health maintained by the normal metabolism (functioning) of the
organ systems. The body constantly responds to internal and external changes, yet remains stable; its
many aspects of metabolism are kept within normal limits (usually a range of values, not a single
value).

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS

Control systems of the body contain at least three elements: receptor(s), control center, and
effector(s).
a) Negative feedback mechanism—a control system in which a stimulus initiates a response
that reverses or reduces the stimulus, thereby stopping the response until the stimulus occurs
again and there is a need for the response. Body temperature, heart rate, breathing rate and
depth, and blood levels of glucose and certain ions are regulated by negative feedback
mechanisms

b) Positive feedback mechanism intensify the initial stimulus, leading to an enhancement of the
response. They rarely contribute to homeostasis, but blood clotting and labor contractions are
regulated by such mechanisms

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Disruptions of homeostasis can lead to disorders, diseases, and even death. With age, the efficiency
of negative feedback mechanisms declines, and positive feedback mechanisms occur more frequently.

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY AND BODY PLAN

Anatomical Position: Standing erect facing the observer, with the head level and eyes facing directly
forward. The feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the arms are at the sides, with the
palms turned forward.
BODY LANDMARKS

Planes and sections – cutting the body or an organ in a specific way.

 Frontal or coronal – separates front and back parts.
 Sagittal – separates right and left parts.
 Midsagittal – exact midline
 Parasagittal – when not exactly midline
 Transverse – separates upper and lower parts.
 Cross – a section perpendicular to the long axis.
 Longitudinal – a section along the long axis.

BODY CAVITIES AND THEIR MEMBRANES

Body cavities are spaces within the body that contain the internal organs.
  Dorsal cavity - located in the posterior region of the body; lined with membranes called
meninges; consists of the cranial and vertebral cavities. Cranial cavity encases the brain.
Vertebral cavity encloses the spinal cord.
 Ventral cavity – found in the anterior region of the trunk; the diaphragm separates the thoracic
and abdominal cavities; the pelvic cavity is inferior to the abdominal cavity.
a. Thoracic cavity: superior to the diaphragm; contains the lungs and heart.
Pleural membranes line the chest wall and cover the lungs.
Pericardial membranes surround the heart
b. Abdominal cavity: inferior to the diaphragm; contains many organs including the stomach,
liver, and intestines.
The peritoneum lines the abdominal cavity; the mesentery covers the abdominal organs.\
c. Pelvic cavity: contains the urinary bladder and reproductive organs.
Other cavities: oral, nasal, orbital, synovial

ABDOMINOPELVIC REGIONS
a. Abdominal quadrants – The method divides the abdominal cavity into four quadrants.

Right upper quadrant Right lower quadrant Left upper quadrant

> Right lobe of the liver
> Gall Bladder
> Pylorus
> Duodenum
> Head of Pancreas
> Hepatic Flexure of the
colon
> Portions of the ascending
and transverse colon
> Cecum and appendix > Left lobe of the liver
> Portion of the ascending > Stomach
colon > Body of the pancreas
> Splenic flexure of the colon
> Portion of the transverse
Left lower quadrant
and descending colon
> Sigmoid colon
> Portion of the descending
colon

b. Abdominopelvic regions
The abdomen is a large area of the lower trunk of the body. It is divided into nine smaller regions or
areas:
1) Upper areas — above the level of the rib cartilages are the left hypochondriac, epigastric and right
hypochondria.
2) Middle areas — the left lumbar, umbilical and right lumbar
3) Lower areas — below the level of the top of the pelvic bone are the left iliac, hypogastric and right
iliac.
These areas are often used to describe the location of organs.
DIRECTIONAL TERMS – Helps to describe the exact location of a structure in relation to another part.
 TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE

SUPERIOR above, or higher The lungs are superior to the liver.

INFERIOR below, or lower The stomach is inferior to the lungs.

ANTERIOR toward the front The chest is on the anterior side of the
body.
POSTERIOR toward the back The lumbar area is posterior to the
umbilical area
VENTRAL toward the front The mammary area is on the ventral side
of the body.
DORSAL toward the back The buttocks are on the dorsal side of the
body.
MEDIAL toward the midline The heart is medial to the lungs.

LATERAL away from the midline The shoulders are lateral to the neck

INTERNAL within, or interior to The brain is internal to the skull

EXTERNAL outside, or exterior to The ribs are external to the lungs.

SUPERFICIAL toward the surface The skin is the most superficial organ.

DEEP within, or interior to The deep veins of the legs are surrounded
by muscles
CENTRAL the main part The brain is part of the central nervous
system.
PROXIMAL closer to the origin The humerus is proximal to the radius.

DISTAL farther from the origin The palm is distal to the elbow