2.

3 Cellular components

2.3.1 Membrane, cell wall, and cytoplasm

Davson-Danielli model of the membrane

The 3-layered structure of a membrane as seen from an electronmicrograph

Confirming the 3-layered structure of membranes consisting of a bilayer of phospholipids sandwiched in

between 2 layers of protein.
The fluid mosaic membrane model by Singer & Nicholson
1. A membrane is a sheetlike tissue that covers, connects, or lines biological cells and their
organelles, organs, and other structures. Cell membranes are also known as plasmalemma or
plasma membrane.
2. In 1935, H. Davson and J.F. Danielli proposed a model of the cell membrane which consists of a
bilayer of phospholipids sandwiched between two layers of protein. This
static structure of the membrane has been replaced by the fluid mosaic model by
Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicholson in 1972 after realizing that membranes must have a
complex structure to carry out their many and varied activities.
3. According to this model, the membrane is a mosaic of protein molecules suspended in a fluid
bilayer of phospholipids with the polar heads facing water or outwards and the nonpolar tails
facing each other away from water. Cholesterol is wedged between phospholipid molecules to
stabilise the membrane (by reducing phospholipids movement at moderate temperatures and
preventing solidification at low temperatures).
4. The protein molecules are called intrinsic proteins (or integral) when they are embedded in the
lipid bilayer and extrinsic proteins (or peripheral) when they are confined to the outer or inner
surface. The exposed regions of the membrane proteins are hydrophilic as they are exposed to
water.
5. Some intrinsic proteins act as transport channels, or as enzymes within the cell. Extrinsic
proteins on the inner surface attach onto the cytoskeleton to anchor the membrane in place. All
protein molecules contribute to the mechanical strength of membranes.
6. Carbohydrate groups are added to membrane proteins and lipids forming glycoproteins and
glycolipids which extend from the cell surface like antennae or feelers acting as chemical
receptors or cell identity markers of the cell.
7. Biochemical analyses show that membranes are approximately 45% lipid, 45% protein and 10%
carbohydrate.

Functions of cell membrane proteins(summary)

Functions of cell surface membranes

1. Acts as a boundary between a cell and its surroundings.

2. Control the passage of materials in and out of cells/selective permeability: diffusion, osmosis,
endocytosis, exocytosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport.
3. Recognition of other cells by cell surface markers (e.g marker proteins in the immune system uses
MHC/major histocompatibility complex proteins & glycolipids on organs and tissues)
4. Receptor sites for hormones and neurotransmitters
5. Transmission of nerve impulses
6. Insulation of nerve cells
7. Form physical connection with other cells called cell junctions (e.g. desmosomes which hold cells
together, organizing junctions (tight junctions) which partition the plasma membrane into separate
compartments and communicating junctions (gap junctions) which pass small molecules from one
cell to another).

Functions of membranes inside cells

1. Acts as a reaction surface

2. Acts as an intracellular transport system
3. Provides separate intracellular compartments, isolating different chemical reactions

Movement of substances through membranes

Cell membranes are partially permeable and regulates the flow of materials in and out of the cell. They
are permeable to water and fat-soluble substances but impermeable to polar substances (e.g. sugars).
Movement of ions across a membrane occurs by carrier-mediated processes, including active transport
and facilitated diffusion.

Types of transport across membranes are:

1) Passive transport
a) Diffusion
b) Facilitated diffusion
c) Osmosis
2) Active transport
3) Endocytosis
a) Pinocytosis
b) Phagocytosis
4) Exocytosis

The Cell Wall of Plant Cells

Diagrammatic representation of the structure of a cellulose fibre

(a) Thin primary wall in (b) Thick secondary wall in young cells
mature cells

1. Cellulose cell walls are found in plant cells and they are
fully permeable to water and solutions.

2. They are made up of cellulose fibres (cellulose is an

unbranched polymer of β-D-glucose) laid down in an
amorphous (non-crystalline) polysaccharide matrix (base
material) e.g. pectin or lignin. Each fibre is made up of several
hundred microfibrils in which about 2000 cellulose molecules
are held together by hydrogen bonds.

3. In young cells, the wall is thin - called the primary wall

with fibres orientated at random. As a cell grows, more
cellulose fibres are laid down closely in an orderly way on the
inside of the primary wall, forming a thicker secondary wall.

4. Cell walls may be further strengthened

by lignin or waterproofed with
suberin/cutin.

5. Cell walls have openings that allow

cytoplasmic connections, called
plasmodesmata, to connect adjacent cells.
The middle lamella, which is made of
pectic substances bind adjacent plant cells
together.
 Functions of cell walls

1. To provide support in herbaceous plants (turgidity - kesegahan). Mechanical strength can be

increased by the presence of lignin in the matrix between the cellulose fibres.

2. To allow movement of water through and along it.

3. Acts as a waterproofing layer when impregnated with other substances such as cutin, suberin or
lignin.(*)

Question: Why do fruits turn “soft” as they ripen?

Answer: Enzymes are produced which break down the middle lamella, allowing adjacent cells to
be less ‘stuck’ to each other. Bacteria produce the similar enzymes when they decompose
(mengurai) plant material.

* Cutin = complex mixture of fatty acids which make up plant cuticle.

Lignin = complex aromatic compound deposited on cell walls of sclerenchyma, xylem vessels and
tracheids, making them strong and rigid.
Suberin = complex mixture of fatty acids, found in walls of cork (gabus) cells, making them
waterproof.

Cytoplasm

1. The cytoplasm is the jelly-like material surrounding the nucleus of a cell. It consists of a matrix
(surrounding substance) or cytosol (‘cyto’ = cell, ‘sol’ fr. ‘solution’) which contains the
microfilaments of the cytoskeleton. The cell’s organelles are suspended (terampai) in the cytosol.

2. The cytosol or hyaloplasm is an aqueous suspension of ions such as sodium, phosphates and
chlorides, organic molecules such as amino acids, ATP and nucleotides, and storage material such as
oil droplets.

3. The cytoplasm may be differentiated into a dense outer ectoplasm (‘ecto-’ = external) which is
concerned primarily with cell movement, and a less dense endoplasm (‘endo-’= internal), which
contains most of the cell’s structures.

nucleus
pseudopodium
pseudopodium
Plasmasol
(endoplasm)

Plasmagel Fat droplet

(ectoplasm)
Food vacuole
Excretory crystals
Diagram shows cytoplasm of amoeba differentiated into denser plasmagel and plasmasol which is
less dense.
Plasmalemma Contractile
(Plasma membrane) vacuole
4. The cytoskeleton provides structural support to the cell, also functions in cell motility* and regulation
of cytoplasmic streaming / movement of organelles in the cytoplasm / alteration of cell shape e.g. when
forming pseudopodium. It is made up of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

(*motile (adj) = having the power of motion - motility.

mobile (adj) = having the freedom of movement- mobility)

2.3.2 Organelles

Membranous organelles Non-membranous structures

1. Nucleus 1. Ribosomes
2. Chloroplast 2. Storage granules(starch, glycogen, oil)
3. Mitochondrion 3. Microtubules
4. Endoplasmic reticulum 4. Cilia and flagella
5. Golgi apparatus / body 5. Centrioles
6. Lysosomes 6. Microfilaments
7. Microbodies (peroxisomes) 7. Microvilli
8. Vacuoles 8. Cellulose cell wall

1) Nucleus: Control center of the cell

1. It is the largest organelle, bounded by a double membrane, the nuclear membrane. It possesses
many large pores, 40-100 nm in diameter, which allow the passage of large molecules such as
RNA, between it and the cytoplasm.

2. The cytoplasm-like material within the nucleus is called the nucleoplasm. It contains
chromosomes made up of chromatin, which consists of coils of DNA bound to proteins called
histones.
 3. Within the nucleus are one or two small round dense bodies each called a nucleolus, which
synthesise rRNA (ribosomes - rRNA + proteins).

4. Diameter of nucleus – 10 → 20 microns

Function

1. Contains the genetic material of a cell in the form of chromosomes – carries genetic info.
2. Acts as a control centre for the activities of a cell.
3. Nuclear DNA carries the instructions for protein synthesis.
4. Production of ribosomes and RNA takes place in the nucleus.
5. Plays an essential role in cell division (mitosis = karyokinesis – nuclear div. + cytokinesis)

2) Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum:

(Walls within the cell)

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Structure

1. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER: endoplasmic means ‘within the cytoplasm’ and reticulum means ‘a
little net’) is an elaborate system of membranes found throughout the cell, forming a cytoskeleton. It
is an extension of the outer nuclear membrane.
2. The ER forms a series of sheets which enclose flattened sacs called cisternae.
3. When the ER is lined with ribosomes, it is known as rough endoplasmic reticulum; where
ribosomes are absent, the term smooth endoplasmic reticulum is used.

Functions

1. Forms a transport network throughout the cell

2. Provides a large surface area for chemical reactions
3. Collects and stores manufactured material (mainly proteins)
4. Forms a structural skeleton to help maintain the shape of the cell
5. Rough ER processes proteins (synthesized by ribosomes) to be exported e.g. enzymes and hormones.
(When the protein is complete, it passes through the ER membrane into the vesicle-forming Golgi
apparatus).
6. Smooth ER produce lipids and steroids.

3) Mitochondria (sing. mitochondrion)

Structure

1. They vary in shape and size but are usually

rod shaped with a diameter of approximately
1.0 μm & length of about 2.5 μm.
2. The wall consists of two thin membranes.
The inner one is folded to form cristae
which function to increase the surface area
for enzyme attachment in stalked particles.

3. The remainder of the mitochondrion is the

matrix which is a semi rigid material containing protein, lipids & traces of DNA.

4. Cells which expend a lot of energy have numerous mitochondria (up to a 1000) e.g. muscle cells.

5. Mitochondria can replicate themselves by splitting in two.

Functions

1. As sites for certain stages of aerobic respiration to produce ATP.

Cytoplasm

Glycolysis

Aerobic Krebs’ Matrix

respiration Cycle Mitochondrion

Inner
Oxidative mitochondrion
phosphorylation membrane
4) Golgi apparatus (dictyosome): The delivery system of the cell
in plants
Structure

1. Named after its discoverer Camillo Golgi, the Golgi apparatus is

similar in structure to smooth ER.

2. It is composed of stacks of flattened sacs made of membranes.

3. The sacs are fluid-filled and smaller membranous sacs called

vesicles pinch off at their ends.

Functions

1. Produces glycoproteins such as mucin required in secretions, by adding the carbohydrate part to
the protein and glycolipids by adding the carbohydrate to a lipid.

2. Produces secretory enzymes e.g. the digestive enzymes of the pancreas (amylase, lipase).

3. Secretes carbohydrates such as those involved in the production of new cell walls (cellulose).

4. Transports and stores lipids.

5. Forms lysosomes.

(It collects, packages, & distributes molecules that are synthesized at one location in the cell, to
be used at another.)

4. Lysosomes: Recycling centers of the cell

Structure
1. Lysosomes (lysis-‘splitting’; soma-‘body’) are spherical organelles 0.2-0.5 μm in diameter which
contain enzymes, mostly hydrolases, in acid solution.

2. They are similar in size to spherical mitochondria and are bounded by a single membrane. They are
formed by the Golgi complex.

3. Lysosomes that are not functioning actively are known as primary lysosomes. When it becomes
active (fused to a food vacuole or other organelle), it is known as a secondary lysosome.

Functions

1. Destruction of unwanted or worn-out cell organelles (autophagocytosis)

2. Digestion of material engulfed by a cell, e.g. bacteria engulfed by white blood cells
3. Release of enzymes outside the cell (exocytosis) to digest external material
4. Complete digestion of a cell after its death (autolysis) e.g. destruction of the cells in the tail when a
tadpole develops into a frog.
(It is not known why the lysosome membrane itself is not digested by its own enzymes.)

Ribosomes

Structure

1. These are small cytoplasmic granules

about 20 nm in diameter in eukaryotic
cells (80S type) but slightly smaller in
prokaryotic cells (70S type).

2. Ribosomes are made up of 2 subunits of

RNA & protein molecules; a large
subunit and a smaller subunit.

3. They occur either singly or in groups called polysomes. They may be associated with ER or
occur freely in the cytoplasm.

Function
 1. Play an important role in protein synthesis.
Chloroplasts

Structure

1. Chloroplasts belong to a larger group of organelles known as plastids. Those containing pigments are
known as chromoplasts (e.g. chloroplast) and those that are colourless are leucoplasts (elaioplast for
fats or oils, aleuroplast for proteins, amyloplast for starch).

2. In higher plants, most chloroplasts are 4-10 μm long and are bounded by a double membrane, (the
inner one is folded into a series of lamellae???).

3. They contain membranous structures called thylakoids which are piled up into stacks called a
granum (a few to several dozen thylakoids) and surrounded by a gel-like matrix called stroma. On
the surface of the thylakoids are the light-capturing photosynthetic pigments. A chloroplast may
contain a hundred or more grana.

4. Also present within the stroma are starch grains which act as temporary stores for the products of
photosynthesis, a small amount of DNA, ribosomes (70S type) and oil droplets.

5. Like mitochondria, all plastids come from the division of existing plastids.

Functions

1. The lamellae hold the chlorophyll in the most suitable position for photosynthesis.

2. The stroma contains enzymes for the reduction of carbon dioxide.

Centrioles: Producing the cytoskeleton

Centriole with a ring of 9 triplet microtubules Flagellum with a ‘9 + 2’ arrangement

Structure

1. Centrioles are organelles associated with the assembly and organization of microtubules in the
cells of animals and most protists.

2. Microtubules are long hollow cylinders about 25 nm in diameter, composed of the protein
tubulin. They are each composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring.

3. In some cells, centrioles divide to produce basal bodies which anchor the cilia or flagella to the
cell. The basal body is thus structurally identical to a centriole. However, cilia and flagella have a
‘9 + 2’ arrangement of microtubules, with nine doublets in the ring and two single microtubules
in the centre of the ring.

4. Centrioles occur in pairs in animal cells and are found at right angles to each other near the
nuclear envelope. The cells of plants and fungi lack centrioles and basal bodies, and their
microtubules are organized by amorphous structures.

5. Centrioles arise in a distinct region of the cytoplasm known as the centrosome located near the
nucleus.

Function

1. Formation of the microtubules of the spindle (gelendung) at cell division. Despite the absence of
centrioles, cells of higher plants do form spindles.

2. Gives rise to cilia and flagella.

Cytoskeleton: Interior framework of the cell
(cytoskeleton is not in the syllabus but microtubules and microfilaments are)

The cytoskeleton is a network of

protein fibers in the cytoplasm that
supports the shape of the cell and
anchors organelles such as the nucleus
to fixed locations. The three types of
cytoskeleton fibers are:
a) Microtubules
b) Microfilaments or actin filaments
c) Intermediate filaments

Microtubules

Structure

1. Consists of slender
unbranched hollow tubes of
about 20 nm in diameter and
up to several microns in
length.

2. Each microtubule consists of a ring of 13 protein protofilaments made of tubulin subunits.

Functions

1. Provide an internal skeleton (cytoskeleton) for cells and so help determine their shape.

2. May aid transport within cells by providing routes along which materials move.

3. Form a framework along which the cellulose cell wall of plants is laid down.

4. They are major components of cilia and flagella where they contribute to their movement.

5. They are found in the spindle during cell division and within the centrioles from which the
spindle is formed.

Microfilaments

Structure

1. They are very thin strands about 6nm in diameter. Each fiber is made up of two chains of the protein
actin loosely twined around one another like two strands of pearls.

Functions

1. Play a role in movement within cells and possibly of the cells as a whole because actin filaments can
form, dissolve & re-form readily.
2. Play a major role in determining shape of cells.
Intermediate filaments (not in syllabus)

Structure
1. Tough protein fibers of 8 – 10 nm in diameter, intermediate in size between actin filaments and
microtubules.
2. Each filament is a rope of threadlike protein molecules (vimentin) wrapped around one another like
the strands of a cable.

Functions
1. Provide the cell with mechanical support, also act as intracellular tendons preventing excessive
stretching of cells.

Vacuoles

Structure

1. A fluid-filled sac surrounded by a single membrane.

2. In plant cells, it is normally a single large central

vacuole surrounded by a membrane called a
tonoplast. It contains mineral salts, amino acids,
sugars, wastes (e.g. tannins) and sometimes
pigments such as anthocyanins.

Functions

1. A temporary food store with the presence of amino acids and sugars.

2. The anthocyanins are of various colours and so may colour petals to attract pollinating insects, or
fruits to attract animals for dispersal.

3. They act as temporary stores for organic wastes, such as tannins. These may accumulate in the
vacuoles of leaf cells and are removed when the leaves fall.

4. They occasionally contain hydrolytic enzymes and so perform functions similar to those of
lysosomes.

5. They support herbaceous plants through turgor pressure (tekanan segah).

Summary of organelle functions