THE LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL

ORGANIZATION
The levels of organization of life start from molecules, cells,
tissues, organs, organ systems, individuals, populations,
ecosystems, to biomes.

A. MOLECULES
At the molecular level, atoms bond together to form
molecules. These molecules will make up the cell organelles.
For example, cell membranes or plasma membranes are
composed of protein molecules, phospholipids, cholesterol,
water, carbohydrates, and other ions.
B. CELLS
Cell is the smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up
all living organisms and the tissues of the body.

SHAPES AND CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS

Based on the presence or absence of a nuclear membrane, living
things are divided into two:
a. Prokaryotes are living things that do not have a nucleus.
Example: blue-green algae, bacteria and mycoplasma.
b. Eukaryotes are living things that have a nucleus. Example:
plants, animals, protists, fungi.

Based on the number of cells that make up the body, living things
are divided into two.
c. Unicellular is an organism that consists of a single cell. Every
living activities are done by the cell itself. Example: bacteria,
protists, and blue algae.
d. Multicellular is an organism that consists of more than one
cell. Every cell has their own tasks. Example: fish, bird, and
human.
 PARTS OF CELL

1) CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, is
found in all cells and separates the interior of the cell from the
outside environment. The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
that is semipermeable, which allows certain substances to pass
through it but not others. The cell membrane’s function is to
regulate the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.
The substances that can go through cell membrane are water, fat
soluble substances, and certain ions.

2) PROTOPLASM
Protoplasm is the living part of a cell that is surrounded by a
plasma membrane. It is responsible for regulating all cell activities.
Proteins, water, fats, enzymes, mineral salt, carbohydrates, all make
up the protoplasm.
The protoplasm contained in the nucleus of the cell is called
the nucleoplasm. The protoplasm outside the cell nucleus is called
the cytoplasm. The structures found in the cytoplasm of both
eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are called organelles. Every
organelle has certain job and function.
 PARTS OF ORGANELLE

1) NUCLEUS
The nucleus is a double membrane-bound structure
responsible for controlling all cellular activities as well as a center
for genetic materials, and it’s transferring. It is one of the large cell
organelles in cytoplasm of eukaryote cell. It is often termed the
“brain of the cell” as it provides commands for the proper
functioning of other cell organelles. Inside, there is a chromosome,
as genetic material that is responsible for carrying the genetic
information from one generation to another.

2) CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane’s function is to regulate the transport of
materials entering and exiting the cell.

3) NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
A nuclear membrane is a double membrane that encloses and
protect the cell nucleus.

4) CELL WALL
Cell wall is only found in plant cell. It is present outside the
cell membrane in some cells that provides structure of the cell
because it is stiff.
5) CHLOROPLASTS
• Chloroplasts are plastids that contain a green pigment.
• Plastids that contain red or yellow color are chromoplasts.
• Plastids that do not contain color pigments are leucoplasts.
• Plastids that contain amylum are amyloplasts.
• Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll (green leaf substance). It can
only be found in plant cells.
6) MITOCHONDRIA
A mitochondria contains two membranes with the outer layer
being smooth while the inner layer is marked with folding and
finger-like structures called cristae. Inside the cristae is a matrix
filled with semicolloidal fluid. It is responsible for the supply and
storage of energy for the cell. There is respiration process to
produce energy. Active cells contains a lot of mitochondrias.
7) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is present as an interconnection of
tubules that are connected to the nuclear membrane in eukaryotic
cells.

There are two types of ER based on the presence or absence of

ribosomes on them:
• Rough ER (RER) with ribosomes attached on the cytosolic face of
Endoplasmic Reticulum and thus is involved in protein synthesis.
• Smooth ER (SER) lacks ribosomes and has a function during lipid
synthesis.
8) RIBOSOME
Ribosome is the smallest structure in cytoplasm that looks like
granules. In prokaryotes, they exist freely while in eukaryotes, they
are found either free or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosome is required for protein synthesis.

9) VACUOLE
Vacuole is a space within a cell that is empty of cytoplasm.
In animal cells, vacuoles are generally small . In plant cells,
vacuoles are bigger as storage of food and other chemical
substances.
10) GOLGI APPARATUS
The golgi apparatus is a stacked collection of chambers, tiny
bubbles, and tiny pockets.  A major function is the modifying,
sorting and packaging of proteins for secretion. It is also called
secretion organelle. In plant cells, golgi apparatus is called
dictyosome.
11) LYSOZYME
A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that
contains digestive enzymes. Lysosomes are involved with various
cell processes. They break down excess or worn-out cell parts.
They may be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria.
 ANIMAL CELL VS PLANT CELL

NO DIFFERENCIAL FACTORS ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

1. Cell Wall No cell wall. Cell There is cell wall

membrane is made of
elasctic. cellulose/pectin
so it is stiff

2. Chloroplast No chloroplast Has chloroplast

3. Vacuole • Small vacuole • Big vacuole

• small amount • a lot of
of vacuole vacuoles.
4. Centriole Has centriole to No centriole
collect
chromosome
during cell
division

5. Food Storage • Lipid • Amylum

• Glycogen • Starch

6. Shape Irregular shape Fixed shape

C. TISSUES
1. PLANT TISSUES

A. MERISTEMATIC TISSUE
It is also called as embryonic tissue because it consists of a
collection of young cells that continue to divide to produce other
tissues. It is found at root tips, stem tips, and in the cambium.
Meristematic tissue at root tips and stem tips cause the plant to
grow taller, called primary meristematic tissue. Meristematic tissue in
the cambium causes the plant to grow bigger, called secondary
meristematic tissue.

B. PERMANENT TISSUE
Permanent tissue is a tissue that has no longer been
differentiated.

1) Protecting Tissue and CoveringTissue

Protecting Tissue (Epidermis)
Epidermis is the most outer tissue of plant that covers the root,
stem, and leaves. The epidermis serves several functions: it protects
against water loss, regulate gas exchange, secretes metabolic
compounds, and (especially in roots) absorbs water and mineral
nutrients.
Stomata is a place where gas exchange happens.
Stem’s epidermis tissue will make a thick layer (cuticle) or hairs
(trichome) that function as protection. Root’s epidermis tissue will
create bumps, called root hair to absorb more water and minerals.
Covering Tissue (Periderm)
Periderm Tissue is made of cork cambium. Periderm tissue
will replace the epidermis. It is consisted of dead cells. At the
parts that are not covered by suberin, there is lenticel. Lenticel
is a place of gas exchange for the stem.
2) Ground Tissue (Parenchyma)
Ground tissue is a place for other tissues. In ground tissue,
there are vascular tissue, xylem, phloem, and cambium. At the root
and stem, there is parenchyma to storage starch as food storage.

3) Supporting Tissue
This tissue is to support other tissues to make the plant
stronger. It is consisting of;
a. Collenchyma ; a tissue of living cells. On the cell wall, there is
cellulose, pectin, and hemicellulose. This tissue is as a support
for a growing young plant and wet plant.
b. Scelerenchyma ; a tissue of dead cells. The wall is very thick
and strong because it contains lignin (a support). This tissue is a
support for old plants. Based of the shape, there are fiber
sclerenchyma and sclereid.

4) Vascular Tissue
This tissue can only be found in tall plants. The shape is list
vessels. It consists of;
c. Xylem; conveys water and dissolved minerals from the roots to
the rest of the plant and also provides physical support.
d. Phloem;  conducts foods made in the leaves during
photosynthesis to all other parts of the plant.
5) Cambium Tissue
Cambium tissue is a layer of actively dividing cells
between xylem and phloem tissues that is responsible for the
secondary growth of stems and roots (secondary growth
occurs after the first season and results in increase in
thickness). Only in Dicot plants.
 TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES

NO TISSUE FUNCTION
1. Epidermis Protect the tissues under it
2. Cork Protect the tissue under it
3. Parenchyma As ground tissue
4. Palisade A place for photosynthesis
mesophyll
5. Spongy A place for gas exchange and
mesophyll photosynthesis
6. Collenchyma To support a growing young plants
7. Sclerenchyma To support an old plant
8. Xylem To transport water and minerals from the
soil to the leaves and all over the plants
body
9. Phloem To transport the food product of
photosynthesis from the leaves to all over
the plant’s body.
10 Cambium Cause the plant to grow bigger, especially
around the root and stem