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Cell Biology
Ilze Krauze
16/01/2021
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Introduction
The purpose of this illustrated report is to demonstrate the understanding of cells. The report will
look at the structure of cells, the characteristics of living cells; the differences between prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells and looking at the impact viruses have on them. Also, an analysis on the
eukaryotic substructure and organelles; cellular metabolism, explaining the role of the cell
membrane and how it regulates nutrients to create energy and expel waste; how nutrients help in
suppling animal cells energy for growth, movement, and reproduction; what the role of nucleic acids
plays in the nucleus and cytoplasm; along with the synthesis of proteins. The report will then follow
on to cell growth and reproduction, looking at the generation of specialised tissues from embryonic
cells; importance of interphase and factors that initiate cell division; how the same genetic
information is received by each daughter cell and then compare cancer cells with normal cells.

Sources, tables, and diagrams are from online articles, online revision hubs and educational videos,
as well as study materials provided by Learndirect, to present my understanding of cell biology.

Contents

Title page 1
Introduction 2
Contents 2
Chapter 1 – Cell structure 3-6
Chapter 2 – Cellular metabolism 7 - 13
Chapter 3 – Cell growth and reproduction 13 - 15
Conclusion 15
Recommendations 16
References 16-17
Bibliography 17-18
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Cell structure
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is
the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the ‘’building blocks of life’’ (En.wikipedia.org,
2021).
All living organisms have the following seven characteristics in common:

M Movement The ability to make use of space in the environment

R Respiration The ability to create energy
S Sensitivity The ability to adapt to changes in the environment
G Growth The ability to gain mass and learn
R Reproduction The ability to replicate
E Excretion The ability to expel waste
N Nutrition The ability to absorb substances and minerals and use them
(Hughes, page 1.1)
An interesting way to remember the living characteristics of cells is to use the acronym ‘MRS
GREN’. Each letter represents one of the seven characteristics that are important to the
organisms in sustaining life.

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Eukaryotic cells are complex organisms that function as self – sustaining ecosystems. They
form pluricellular organisms, such as animals and plants. Procaryotic cells are less complex
and they form unicellular organisms, such as bacteria.
The main differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells are the following:

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

No separate nucleus Separate nucleus
Smaller Larger
Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Simple flagella and cilia Complex flagella cilia
No endoplasmic reticulum Endoplasmic reticulum
No Golgi body Golgi body
No centrioles Centrioles
No lysosomes Lysosomes
No mitochondria Mitochondria
No peroxisomes Peroxisomes
No chloroplasts Chloroplasts
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Although prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have many differences, they share some common
features, including the following:

 DNA: Genetic coding that determines all the characteristics of living things.
 Cell or plasma membrane: outer layer that separates the cell from the surrounding
environment and acts as a selective barrier for incoming and outgoing materials.
 Cytoplasm: Jelly – like fluid within a cell that is composed primarily of water, salts,
and proteins.
Ribosomes: Organelles that make proteins.
(Livescience.com 2021)

In this diagram of the prokaryotic cell one can observe the

different organelles and the overall structure of the cell,
including the genetic material that is not inside of a
nucleus, instead it is free in the cytoplasm.
under
by Unknown Author is licensed

Figure 1 Prokaryotic cell

 Reproduction.

Prokaryotic cells reproduce trough binary fusion, a process in which a cell duplicates
its genetic information and then divides this half, producing two cells with the same
amount of genetic information as the original cell.

Eukaryotic cells reproduce trough mitosis, a process that results in the production of
two daughter cells with the same number of genetic materials as the nucleus cell.
Organisms that reproduce sexually experience meiosis, that results in the production
of four daughter cells with half as much genetic material as the nucleus cells (Bailey
2019).

 Respiration.

To produce the energy necessary to survive, eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells both
experience cellular respiration. In eukaryotic cells, this process tends to take place in
the mitochondria, and in prokaryotic cells, it takes place in the cytoplasm or the
cellular membrane. (Bailey, 2019)
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 Viruses

A virus is sub-microscopic
infectious agent unable to grow or reproduce outside of
another living host cell.
Viruses can infect cellular forms of life grouped into
animal, plant, or bacterial types. Viruses lack the same
characteristics of cells, in the following ways:

 They have no cells.

 They are unable to reproduce amongst their species.
 They have no metabolism Figure 2 (mun.ca/biology 2014)
 They have no stimulus response.
 They have no means of self-regulation.

A virus is opportunistic and parasitic and uses a cell as a host to take advantage of a living
cells.
Two different ways that viruses reproduce are the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle. In the
lytic cycle, the virus attaches itself to the host cell, injecting its genetic material into the
cytoplasm. Then the virus uses the cells resources to replicate itself, causing the cell to lyse.
This allows the replicated viruses to escape and infect other cells. In the lysogenic cycle, the
virus attaches itself to the cell host, injecting its genetic material into its interior. Here the
virus’s genetic material infiltrates the host genetic material, and when the host replicates, it
replicates the virus’s genetic material with it. The virus genetic material then stays dormant
until the lytic cycle is triggered, and the infected cells start replicating viruses. (Amoeba
Sisters, 2018).

Eucaryotic sub-cellular and organelles

Eucaryotic cells are complex

organisms which function as a
self-sustaining ecosystem. They
have many membrane-enclosed
organelles which have precise
responsibilities to play within the
life cycle of the cell. The entire cell
operates in unison with other
organelle processes which allows
it to carry out the selected cell
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characteristics, reproduction, growth, feeding and expelling, movement and

metabolising, aka MRS GREN.
Figure 3 (Ck12.org/biology, 2021).

Organelle Function
Cytoplasm (Cytosol) Jelly like material with that occupies
most of the cell, functions as the site of
energy production, storage, and
manufacture of cellular components. If
there were no organelles in this the
soluble part left would be Cytosol.
Nucleus Stores the cells genetic information or
DNA
Nucleolus Main function is to produce and
assemble subunit which form
Ribosomes.
Mitochondrion Responsible for cellular respiration to
make ATP, which provides energy for all
the cell’s functions.
Ribosomes Make protein. Can be found floating
around in cytoplasm or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) SER is a series of membrane channels
involved in lipid synthesis and the
transport of lipid materials needed by
the cell.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Responsible for processing the proteins
made by ribosomes and for modifying
them, as well as being able to add
carbohydrate to them. It then exports
them from the cell via the Golgi body.
Golgi Apparatus Function is to receive proteins from the
endoplasmic reticulum, modify and re-
package them for use in the cell via
exocytosis.
Vacuole Main purpose is to store water and
other nutrients.
Lysosomes Responsible for collecting waste, such
as damaged particles or toxins.
Cytoskeleton Is a network of protein fibres which
extends throughout the cell and is used
for support. It is attached to the cell
membranes and can assist in moving
chromosomes during cell division.
Chloroplast Chloroplast is found in plant and algal
cells but not in animal cells. This is the
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organelle which is responsible for

photosynthesis.
The table gives a brief overview of what each organelle role is within a cell.

Cellular Metabolism

The role of the cell membrane

Figure 4 (biologydictionary.net, 2021)

The cell membrane is selectively permeable, and its function is to control what enters and
leaves the cell (Biologydictionary.net/cell-membrane/, 2021). Its outer barrier is called the
plasma membrane and is made up of four different types of molecules: phospholipids,
cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates, which form a mosaic-fluid like structure (Figure 4)
Phospholipids are lipid molecules that form a double- layered membrane called the
phospholipid bilayer. There are two important parts of a phospholipid: the head and the
two tails. The head is a phosphate molecule that is attracted to water. The two tails are
made up of fatty acids that are not compatible with, or repel, water. (Figure 5) The cell
membrane is exposed to water mixed with electrolytes and other materials on the outside
and the inside of the cell. When cellular membranes form, phospholipids assemble into two
layers. The phosphate heads in each layer face the aqueous or watery environment on
either side, and the tails hide away from the water between the layers of heads.

Figure 5 (oerpub.github.io/epubjs-demo-
book,2021)
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Cholesterol within cell membranes helps in the regulating of molecules entering and
exiting the cell, while the proteins of the membrane is usually involving in the
transporting of substances across the membrane.

How substances move across the cell membrane

When substances move across the cell membrane it will depend upon its nature as
to how it moves. There are different methods by which this can happen, and they
are classified as follow: -
1. Lipid diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated diffusion.
4. Active transport
5. Using vesicles
(Hughes, page 2.1)

Lipid Diffusion
Lipid diffusion is used to transport the lipid soluble molecules such as water, oxygen,
steroids, and carbon dioxide. The lipid bilayer of the membrane is where the
diffusion occurs, and this is where the substances move down gradients of
concentration levels. So, a substance will move from a region of high concentration
to a lower concentration region, no energy will be used up from the cell.
(Figure 6)

Figure 6(oerpub.github.io/epubjs-demo-book,2021)

Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a region of higher concentration to
a region of lower concentration across the membrane. So, the water molecules will
move from a dilute solution containing a vast amount of water to a more
concentrated solution where there is less (Figure 7)
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Figure 7 (Brighthubeducation.com, 2021)

Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion (Figure 8) uses trans-membrane proteins to help molecules cross the
membrane down its gradient, without using any energy. The two trans-membrane proteins
used are channel proteins and carrier proteins. 
 

Figure 8 (en.wikipedia.org, 2021)

Channel proteins (Figure 9) span the membrane and

allow diffusion to happen by the channel protein
making hydrophilic tunnels across the membrane and passing the molecule through it.

Figure 9 (Expii.com, 2021)

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Carrier proteins (Figure 9) help by changing their shape to assist with the movement of the
molecule from one side to another.
Both the channel and carrier proteins are selective, meaning that they will only accept a
certain type of molecule or those that are relatively similar molecules and move from a
higher concentration area to a lower area.
Active Transport
One of the most common types of active transport involves proteins that serve as pumps.
Energy from ATP is required for these membrane proteins to transport substances—
molecules or ions—across the membrane, usually against their concentration gradients
(from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration).
An example is the action of the sodium potassium pump (Figure 10)

Figure 10 (Oerpub.github.io. demo-book, 2021)

Vesicles
Vesicles help to transport larger molecules that are found in proteins. There are two terms
that are used for transportation of molecules, endocytosis which is when substances move
into a cell and exocytosis for when they are moved out of the cell.
Endocytosis is the process whereby cells will take substances from their external
environment and will follow the three basic steps (Figure 11)

 The membrane will fold inwards and will form a cavity within the extracellular fluid,
dissolved molecules, food particles, foreign matter, pathogens, or other substances.

 The membrane then folds back on itself and will start trap the fluid inside of the forming
vesicle.

 The vesicle is then closed off from the membrane as the ends of the cavity are fused
together and the cell will then start to process the vesicle (Nayturr.com, 2021)
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Exocytosis is then the reverse function to endocytosis whereby the cell will export the
substance for within itself back out to the external environment and the three basic steps
are followed (Figure 12)
Figure 11 (Nayturr.com, 2021)

 Vesicles containing molecules are transported from within the cell to the cell membrane.

 The vesicle will then attach itself to the cell membrane.

 The cell membrane will then fuse with the vesicle and release the contents within it to the
external environment.
This process is important in living organisms as it allow the cells to take in key nutrients and
expel waste that is not needed to help sustain life.

Growth, Movement and Cell Division

Animal cells required nutrients to supply adequate energy
to maintain the cell. Cells take oxygen and glucose to
produce ATP, energy for the cells use. This is also known
as cellular respiration. (Interactive Biology, 2021)

Figure 12 (Scienceabc.com, 2021)

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Respiration
Within cell growth or synthesis as it is also known,
anabolism happens. Anabolism is the process
involving a sequence of chemical reactions that
constructs or synthesises molecules from smaller
macromolecules, usually requiring input energy ATP
in the process (Biology Online Dictionary, 2021). ATP
is made via the process of cellular respiration, by
breaking down glucose and oxygen into carbon
dioxide and water. There are three stages to this
process, glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport:

 Glycolysis: takes place in the cytoplasm and

breaks down of the glucose, it can happen with
or without oxygen.
 Krebs cycle or the citric acid cycle; takes place
in the mitochondrion and is a series of chemical
reactions to release stored energy, by
producing electron carriers.
 Electron transport: happens within the inner
membrane of the mitochondrion and is the last
stage in the respiration chain
Figure13(Dreamstime.com,2021 and is where the ATP is produced. (Figure13)

As glucose and oxygen are used in the process of cellular respiration water, carbon dioxide
and ATP are the end products.
Nucleic Acids and Protein synthesis
Ribosomes are found in abundance in the cytoplasm are responsible for synthesising
proteins. Proteins are made up of amino acids and play a key role in the growth and repair
of cells. All cells function through messages the proteins that they contain provide. This
makes protein synthesis vital to survival. Protein synthesis is initiated by two nucleic acids:
DNA and RNA. (Figure 14, 15)

Figure 15(Creative-biostructure.com, 2021)

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Figure 14 (Wikipedia.org. Nucleic acid, 2021)

Nucleic acids are macromolecules that are a source of genetic information, made up of
chains of individual nucleotides. (Hughes, page 2.4)
Both DNA and RNA contain genetic information, but RNA is a smaller molecule that
contains copies of the same genetic material. There
are three categories of RNA: mRNA (messenger
RNA), tRNA (transfer RNA) and rRNA (ribosomal
RNA). (Hughes, page 2.3)
Proteins are ejected from the nucleus, but they
must be replaced on a continual basis. During
synthesis, DNA is reproduced and bonded to the
mRNA. The mRNA is smaller than DNA and can fit
through a nuclear pore in the nuclear membrane.
The mRNA then travels into the cytoplasm. (Hughes, page 2.3)
Cytoplasm supports the mRNA to travel to the ribosome where they merge. When this
occurs, it signals for a tRNA which uses an amino acid (to create a peptide bond) to meld it
together. This changes into the shape of a protein and can be stored in the cell for future
use. (Hughes, page 2.3)

Cell Growth and Division

The generation of specialised tissues from embryonic stem cells

Embryonic stem cells are derived from undifferentiated cells, they are pluripotent meaning
that they can grow into derivatives of three primary germ layers (Figure 16) ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm.
Figure 16 (Pinterest.co.uk, 2021)
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 The ectoderm the outside layer; within animal cells will form into the central nervous
system.
 The mesoderm the middle layer; will form into muscle, blood, and organs.
 The endoderm the innermost layer, will form into tissue that covers or lines a
structure.
For cells to grow this relies on processes of differentiation and cell division.
Differentiation
Cellular differentiation is a process where a less specialised cell becomes a more specialised
cell type. (Wikipedia, cell differentiation, 2021).
Within multicellular organisms differentiation (Figure17) is important as it can
change and become one that can perform a specialised function within the body.

Figure 17(Cryo-cell.com, 2021)

Interphase and factors that initiate cell division.

Interphase is the part of the cycle that happens

between cell divisions. It consists of the G1, S and G2
phases. During interphase, the cell grows and
replicates its genetic material as it prepares for
division. (Sciencing.com,2021)

Cell divisions is a normal process that takes place in

all living things. Growth, healing, reproduction and
even death are the results of cell division. Several
factors cause and affect cell division. Some factors
improve health and development while others cause cancer, birth defects, a variety of
disorders and even death. Single called organisms use a type of mitosis as their only form
of reproduction. Multicellular organisms use cell division to grow and change by
expanding the number of total cells.

Before mitosis occurs, the cell must enter prepare itself for division, which happens in
three steps – G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase.

Mitosis

During mitosis, the parent cell divides into two, identical daughter cells. This type of cell
division helps the organism grow and replace old or damaged cells.

The phases of mitosis include:

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 Prophase: The parent cell's chromosomes condense and become compact. Spindle

fibers form, and the nuclear membrane starts to dissolve. Some sources place
another phase, called prometaphase, in between prophase and metaphase.
 Metaphase: The parent cell's chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, and
the mitotic spindles attach to the chromatids.
 Anaphase: The sister chromatids of the chromosomes separate and start to move
to opposite poles of the parent cell.
 Telophase: Chromosomes reach the opposite poles, and new nuclear
envelopes start to form around each set. The mitotic spindle starts to disintegrate.
 Cytokinesis: The two identical cells separate. (Figure 18)

After mitosis ends, the cell can enter interphase until it is time to divide again.

Figure18 (Thoughtco.com,2021)

Cancer cells

Cancer is a condition where cells in a specific part of the body grow and reproduce
uncontrollably. The cancerous cells can invade and destroy surrounding healthy tissue,
including organs. (Nhs.uk,2021)

Cancer cells are always present in the body, but the immune system typically recognises
them and destroys the cell (Figure 19) it is when the cancer cells go unrecognised that
they can multiply and can start to influence the living organism.
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Figure 19(Differencebetween.com,2021)
The table below shows primary differences between normal and cancer cells:

Normal cells Cancer cells

Large cytoplasm Small cytoplasm
One nucleus Multiple nuclei
One nucleolus Multiple nucleoli
Fine chromatin Coarse chromatin

Conclusion
Every organism is made up of millions, and millions, of equally complex microorganisms.
They divide to an extent they can build up into our own multifaceted organs, working in
synchronicity with each other and, eventually, other body parts. Due to the intricacy of the
cell, there are processes that need to constantly trigger at the right times to function and
sustain life. It is incredible the way cells able to look after themselves, grow, metabolise, and
divide, on such a tiny scale and without intervention. It is vital that cells keep themselves as
healthy as possible so that they can undergo their routine functions effectively. Without
required consumption of nutrition and energy production, cells would not be able to
operate efficiently and carry out their jobs, such as repairing tissue. To understand cell
theory is to comprehend what we need to modify in terms of medicine. For example,
through research behind IVF, observing gametes and developing procedures to help with
fertility issues, we can propagate our own species. Although cells are amazing, they are also
vulnerable to mutations and viruses, just as we are. Through stem cell therapies and
research advancement, we are closer than ever to finding cures for cancer, immune
conditions, physical disabilities, and neurological diseases. Cell biology gives us, as humans,
the power to understand life and how to make it better for all living beings. Knowing how
we came to be leads to the preservation, and possible resurrection, of living organisms. At
the end however, cells are just another species looking to best survive in the world.

Recommendations
The number of technical terms, biological models and chemical processes were a bit beyond
my ken. I did not have all information immediately to hand and looking up everything online
was a bit time consuming. I now have a slightly better understanding of the basic concepts
behind cell biology, but I will have to dedicate more time to revising the information in
future. Reading about chemical formulas and other compounds was slightly intimidating for
me and I must overcome this by dedicating more time to understanding basic principles of
this before moving on. I am, however, learning much more about these processes when
information is presented through video, than reading a wall of text. I hope to use more
physical research and evidence in future assignments and learn to not rely purely on online
articles and sources. While they are easy to access, they often raise more questions than
answers, leading me on tangents far off the original topic.
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