AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES

By: Bianca Himawan

Copyright © GCE Guide.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:
CHAPTER 1 Cell Structure Page 1
CHAPTER 2 Biological Molecules Page 5
CHAPTER 3 Enzymes Page 13
CHAPTER 4 Cell Membrane and Transport Page 17
CHAPTER 5 The Mitotic Cell Cycle Page 22
CHAPTER 6 Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis Page 27
CHAPTER 7 Transport in Plants Page 31
CHAPTER 8 Transport in Mammals Page 40
CHAPTER 9 Gas Exchange and Smoking Page 49
CHAPTER 10 Infectious Diseases Page 53
CHAPTER 11 Immunity Page 59

AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

CHAPTER 1 CELL STRUCTURE

PRESENCE OF ORGANELLES
animals both plants

centrosome surface membrane cell wall

centriole nucleus plasmodesmata
chromatin vacuole
DNA tonoplast
nucleolus chloroplast
cytoplasm chlorophyll
mitochondria
golgi

MAGNIFICATION & RESOLUTION

magnification the number of times an image is greater than the actual size of
the object
resolution the ability to distinguish between two objects very close together;
the higher the resolution, the greater the detail

magnification = image size / actual size

1 micrometer = 1000 millimeters

1 nanometer = 1000 micrometers


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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

TYPICAL FEATURES OF PROKARYOTES (BACTERIA)

always present sometimes present

cell wall flagellum (for locomotion)

surface membrane capsule (additional protection)

cytoplasm infold of cell membrane

circular DNA plasmid (small DNA circle)

ribosome pili (for attachment/sexual reproduction

LIGHT VS. ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

no. feature light electron

1. source of radiation light electrons

2. wavelength 400nm 0.005nm

3. max. resolution 200nm 0.5nm

4. lenses glass condenser electromagnetic

5. specimen live/dead dead

6. stains colored dyes heavy metals

7. image colored black/white

STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES

name structure function

nucleus double membrane (nuclear pores allow control/exchange of

envelope); outer membrane
continuous with ER; has nuclear synthesis; controls cell activities
pores
endoplasmic membrane extended as a
reticulum system of flattened sacs
interconnected to form
reticulum; rough ER covered
with ribosomes; smooth ER
lacks ribosomes
ribosome has large and small units
substances for protein
small sacs called vesicles can
break off rough ER to join golgi
body; smooth ER makes lipids
and steroids
for protein synthesis

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golgi stack of flattened sacs; collects, processes, sorts

constantly being formed by ER; molecules from rough ER, ready
single membrane for transport to other parts of
cell/out of cell (secretion);
vesicles also used for
lysosomes
lysosomes spherical sacs; single breaks down unwanted
membrane; no internal structure; structures (old organelles);
contains digestive (hydrolytic) digests bacteria in WBC;
enzymes hydrolytic enzymes work in and
out of cell
mitochondria double membrane; inner aerobic respiration; lipid
membrane folded to form synthesis; produce ATP; porin
cristae; outer membrane forms aqueous channels; inner
contains porin membrane controls entrance of
ions/molecules into matrix
surface membrane extremely thin (7nm); double partially permeable; controls
membrane; 3 layers exchange between cell and
environment
microvilli finger-like extensions of the increase surface area of
surface membrane membrane for absorption
microtubules long, rigid, hollow tubes in make up cytoskeleton
cytoplasm; made up of tubulin
centrioles; hollow cylinder formed from a centrosome makes up spindle
centrosome ring of short microtubules found for cell division
in centromeres
chloroplast elongated shape; double photosynthesis; contains
membrane chlorophyll for green color
cell wall rigid; contains cellulose fibers prevents cell from bursting;
gives cell definite shape
plasmodesmata fine strands of cytoplasm allow movement between cells;
outside cell wall link cells together
vacuole membrane-bound sacs within tonoplast controls exchange
cytoplasm between vacuole and
cytoplasm; contains fluid;
regulate osmotic properties of
cells

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

THE ENDOSYMBIONT THEORY

mitochondria and chloroplast are ancient bacteria which now live in larger cells of animals
and plants.

PROKARYOTES VS. EUKARYOTES

prokaryotes eukaryotes

diameter 0.5-5µm diameter 40µm

DNA circular and free in cytoplasm DNA not circular, inside nucleus

DNA naked DNA forms chromosomes

70S ribosomes 80S ribosomes

no ER ER present

few organelles many organelles

cell wall present cell wall sometimes present

VIRUSES
1. parasitic, needs a host
2. do not have cell structures, consists of:
– self replicating molecule of DNA/RNA acting as genetic code
– protective capsid (protein coat) called capsomere


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CHAPTER 2 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

macromolecule large biological molecule such as a protein, polysaccharide, or

nucleic acid
monomer relatively simple molecule used as basic building block for polymer
synthesis, usually by condensation of monosaccharides, amino
acids, nucleotides
polymer giant molecule of repeating subunits joined in a chain, monomers
are smaller subunits used

CARBOHYDRATES
monosaccharides

1. (CH2O)n

2. trioses (3C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C)

3. ring structure (pent/hexoses long enough to form rings)
– OH below ring is α-glucose
– OH above ring is ß-glucose
4. uses of monosaccharides
– source of energy in respiration
– building block for larger molecules
5. condensation – monosaccharides to disaccharides
6. hydrolysis – disaccharides to monosaccharides

disaccharides
1. made up of two monosaccharides with glycosidic bonds
2. types:
– maltose = glucose + glucose
– sucrose = glucose + fructose
– lactose = glucose + galactose

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polysaccharides
1. polymers of monosaccharides
2. uses for converting glucose to polysaccharides:
– to store as appropriate form for main energy source
– glucose accumulation in cells will dissolve and make cell contents too
concentrated, affecting osmosis
– glucose is reactive and will interfere with normal cell chemistry
3. starch in plants
4. glycogen in animals
5. glucose made available by enzyme-controlled action

cellulose
– has structural role
– mechanically strong
– polymer of ß-glucose
– why cellulose is strong:
1. one ß-glucose turned upside down for glycosidic bond
2. that arrangement results in strong molecules, since H atoms are weakly
attached to oxygen molecules
3. abundance in hydrogen bonds
4. cellulose molecules become tightly cross-linked to form microfibrils
5. microfibrils held together in bundles to form fibers by hydrogen bonds
6. cell wall has several fiber layers running in different directions
7. other molecules help cross-link the cellulose fibers and form glue-like
matrix
8. very high tensile strength, can withstand pressure

starch
– amylose + amylopectin mixture
amylose = α-glucose, 1,4-glycosidic bonds
amylopectin = 1,4 α-glucose, shorter than amylose, with 1,6 branches

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

glycogen
– 1,4 α-glucose
– 1,6 branches
– more branches than amylopectin

testing for presence of sugars

1. for reducing sugars: Benedict’s test
using: Benedict’s reagent
positive result: brick red
directions: add reagent, heat in water bath

2. for non-reducing sugars (sucrose): HCl test, Benedict’s test

using: HCl, Benedict’s reagent
positive result: change in color, clear to red
directions: heat with HCl to release monosaccharides, add Benedict’s reagent and
heat in water bath

3. for starch: Iodine test

using: iodine solution
positive result: color change, orange to blue-black
directions: add a drop of iodine to substance

LIPIDS
– fats are solid, oils are liquid (at room temperature)
– lipids are esters of fatty acids and alcohol

fatty acids
1. contain acidic group -COOH
2. have long hydrocarbon tails attached to the head
3. tails with C=C are unsaturated with a ‘kink’, melts more easily

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alcohols and esters

1. contain alcohol group -OH
2. glycerol has 3 -OH groups
3. acid + alcohol = ester (with ester bond)
4. forward reaction is condensation, reverse reaction is hydrolysis

triglycerides
1. most common lipids
2. 3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol
3. insoluble in water, soluble in ether, chloroform
4. hydrophobic tails
5. roles of triglycerides:
– energy reserves, richer in carbon-hydrogen bonds
– insulator against heat loss
– provides buoyancy in blubber
– metabolic source of water

phospholipids
1. hydrophobic tail, hydrophilic head
2. the 3 fatty acids replaced by polar phosphate group
3. has 2 tails
4. hydrophobic tails form a layer that is impermeable to hydrophilic substances

test for lipid: emulsion test

using: absolute ethanol
positive result: white suspension
directions: add ethanol, shake vigorously

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PROTEINS
1. all enzymes are proteins
2. act as receptor/signaling proteins in cell membrane
3. hormones (insulin, glucagon)
4. haemoglobin/myoglobin
5. antibodies
6. collagen
7. keratin
8. actin/myosin for muscle contractions
9. storage products (casein in milk; ovalbumin in egg)

amino acids
1. all have central carbon atom bonded to amine group (-NH2), and -COOH, and hydrogen,
and R group
2. R groups differ with each type of amino acid

peptide bond
condensation
O=C–NH <—————————- amino acids

O=C–NH —————————-> amino acids

hydrolysis

primary structure
1. peptide bond
2. sequence of amino acids is a polypeptide
3. amino acids linked into a long chain

secondary structure
1. hydrogen bonds
2. structure of a protein molecule resulting from the regular coiling/folding of amino acid
chain (α-helix, ß-pleated sheet)

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tertiary structure
1. disulfide bonds
2. compact structure of a protein molecule resulting from the three-dimensional coiling of
already-folded chain of amino acids

quaternary structure
1. hydrogen bonds
2. e.g. haemoglobin
3. three-dimensional arrangement of two or more polypeptides, or of a polypeptide and a
non-protein component such as a haem in a protein molecule

globular / fibrous proteins

globular fibrous

ball-shaped long strands

soluble not usually soluble

metabolic roles structural roles

haemoglobin
1. oxygen-carrying pigment found in RBC
2. globular protein
3. 4 polypeptide chains, 4 haem groups
4. α and ß globin
5. spherical
6. hydrophobic inwards, hydrophilic outwards, to maintain solubility
7. 4 O2 molecules, 8 O atoms
8. oxyhemoglobin is red, deoxyhaemoglobin is purple
9. sickle cell anaemia:
– one amino acid, glu, is replaced with val, results in less soluble haemoglobin

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

collagen
1. fibrous protein
2. insoluble
3. structural protein
4. why it is strong:
– each molecule consists of 3 polypeptide chains, each in helix shape, wound around
each other to form 3-stranded rope called triple helix
– it is held together by hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds
– glycine is found in the strand, small size allows strands to lie closer together to form
tight coil
– each 3-stranded molecule interacts with other molecules running parallel to it
– there are covalent bonds between R groups of amino acids lying next to each other
– cross-links hold many molecules side by side to form fibrils
– the ends of parallel molecules are staggered
– many fibrils lie alongside each other to form strong bundles called fibers
– flexible with great tensile strength
– fibers line up according to forces they must withstand
– in tendons, they line up in parallel bundles in direction of tension
– in skin, they form layers with fibers running in different directions in different layers

test for proteins: Biuret test

using: Biuret reagent
positive result: purple
directions: add reagent, no heating

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WATER
1. major component of cells
2. provides environment for water organisms
3. liquid because of hydrogen bonds
4. liquidity provides medium for molecules/ions
5. causes non-polar molecules to group together
6. high cohesion and surface tension, allows organisms to live on its surface
7. acts as a reagent inside cells (hydrolysis; photosynthesis as source of hydrogen)
8. hydrogen bonding makes molecules more difficult to separate
9. excellent solvent for ions/polar molecules
10. as a transport medium:
– in blood
– lymph
– digestive system
– vascular tissue
11. high specific heat capacity
– amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1kg by 1ºC
12. high latent heat of vaporization
– measure of heat energy needed to vaporize a liquid (change from liquid to gas)


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CHAPTER 3 ENZYMES

intracellular enzyme enzyme inside of cell

extracellular enzyme enzyme outside of cell

INDUCED FIT HYPOTHESIS

enzyme or substrate changes their shape slightly to fit together

LOCK AND KEY HYPOTHESIS

1. enzymes are globular proteins with hydrophilic R groups that give active sites their
specific shape according to their substrate
2. active site is where the substrate binds
3. substrate is the ‘key’ to the enzyme, which is the ‘lock’
4. enzymes and substrate form enzyme-substrate complex

HOW ENZYMES BREAK DOWN SUBSTRATES

1. enzymes have active sites (tertiary structure), complementary to substrate
2. random movement of enzyme and substrate brings them together, binds by active site
3. enzyme-substrate complex forms temporarily
4. R groups of amino acids in active site interacts with substrate and break it apart
5. enzyme-product complex forms temporarily
6. product molecules leave active site, enzyme remains unchanged
7. enzyme ready to bind with other substrate molecules

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EFFECT OF ENZYMES
– reduce activation energy

without enzyme with enzyme

COURSE OF REACTION
vol O2

time

1. when enzyme and substrate are first mixed, there is still an abundance of substrates
2. as more substrate turns to product, there are fewer substrate left to bind with enzyme
3. the graph steepest at start (initial rate of reaction) because action fastest at beginning
4. no more substrate is left after some time, only product, curve flattens

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FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTION

1. enzyme concentration
– greater enzyme concentration = greater product value
2. substrate concentration
– greater substrate concentration = faster rate of reaction
3. temperature and pH
– low temperature = slow/no activity
– optimum temperature = best performance
– high temperature = denatured

INHIBITORS
– affect the tertiary structure of an enzyme
competitive inhibitor
– affects active site, binds to it and prevents proper substrate from doing so
– similar in shape to substrate, complementary to active site

incompetitve inhibitor
– affects parts of enzyme other than active site
– deforms active site
– enzyme cannot bind to substrate without specific active site shape

MICHAELIS-MENTEN CONSTANT

– Km = 1/2 Vmax

– significance:
1. helps how reaction in proposed pathway proceeds
2. compare quantitatively enzyme preference for different substrates
3. design better catalysts
4. compare performance of enzymes from other organisms
5. calculation can be used in other fields (e.g. antibody-antigen binding)
6. proportion of active sites occupied can be calculated for any substrate
concentration

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IMMOBILIZING ENZYMES
1. for commercial applications
2. keeps low cost
3. can be immobilized by alginate beads (for lactose)
4. produce lactose-free milk
5. keep/reuse enzymes
6. more tolerant to temperature/pH changes (held firmly in shape)


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CHAPTER 4 CELL MEMBRANE AND TRANSPORT

PHOSPHOLIPID

saturated only single bonds in tail

unsaturated double bonds form ‘kink’, keeps membrane fluid in low temperatures

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

1. membrane is a bilayer of phospholipids
2. individual phospholipids move about to form non-polar hydrophobic interior, heads face
aqueous medium
3. unsaturated phospholipids provide fluidity, since tail is bent and they fit together more
loosely
4. tail length short for more fluidity
5. unsaturated phospholipids increase fluidity in low temperatures
6. cholesterol increases fluidity

ROLES OF COMPONENTS

name function

phospholipid forms the bilayer; tails non-polar and makes the entrances of
polar molecules/ions difficult; can become signaling molecules to
activate other molecules like enzyme; can be hydrolyzed to form
aqueous glycerol-related molecules that diffuse through
cytoplasm and bind to receptors
cholesterol small, with hydrophobic/hydrophilic parts to fit between
phospholipids; absent in prokaryotes; increases fluidity at low
temperatures; prevents rigidity/close packing of phospholipids;
interaction with phospholipids helps stabilize cells at higher
temperatures; important for mechanical stability of the membrane

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glycolipid/glycoprotein project like antennae into watery fluid outside; receptor molecules
that bind with particular substances at cell surface; unique for
each substance; signaling receptors; endocytosis; act as antigens
for cell recognition
protein medium for transport in and out of cell by facilitated diffusion;
channel protein, carrier protein; enzyme

CELL SIGNALING
– control and coordinate the bodies of living organisms
– to respond appropriately to their environments
– signaling pathway:
1. receive stimulus
2. transmission of message to receptor
3. conversion of message (transduction)
4. transmission to target (effector)
5. response formed
– includes both electrical and chemical events and interactions (hormones/neurotransmitter)
– signaling molecules mostly water-soluble
– hydrophilic signaling molecules can diffuse directly across membrane and bind to
receptors in cytoplasm/nucleus
– receptor has specific shape with its signaling molecule
– signaling pathway (with second messenger):
1. signal arrives at protein receptor
2. transduction to inside cell, or G protein
3. G protein activates enzyme
4. enzyme makes second messenger (small, soluble, amplifies signal)
5. second messenger activates an enzyme, which further activates others, increasing
amplification (this is called signaling cascade)
6. response formed
– ways in which receptor can alter cell activity:
1. opening ion channel, changes membrane potential
2. acting as membrane-bound enzyme
3. acting as intracellular receptor inside cell

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MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES
diffusion
– the net movement of molecules or ions from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration down a gradient, as the result of random particle movement
– factors affecting the rate of diffusion
1. steepness of concentration gradient
2. temperature
3. surface area
4. size/polarity of molecules (nature of molecule)

facilitated diffusion
– the diffusion of a substance through transport proteins in a cell membrane; the proteins
provide hydrophilic areas that allow the molecules or ions to pass through the membrane
that would otherwise be permeable
– channel proteins
1. water-filled pores
2. allow charged substances (ions) to diffuse
3. ‘gated’; inner part can open/close for control
4. repolarization in nerve cell surface membranes, one type of channel allows
entrance of sodium ions, another the exit of potassium ions during recovery phase
5. fixed shape
– carrier proteins
1. can flip between two shapes; binding cute can be open to one side of membrane
to another
2. direction depends on concentration in/out of membrane
3. cystic fibrosis caused by defect in carrier proteins of lungs, prevents movement of
chloride ions

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osmosis
– diffusion involving water only, through partially-permeable membrane
– solute + solvent = solution
– water potential (tendency of water to move out of solution)
1. how much water in solution compared to solutes
2. how much pressure applied
– solute and pressure potential
1. (solute) contribution of concentration of solution to water potential; the
more solute, the lower the tendency of water moving out
2. (pressure) contribution of pressure to water potential; the higher the
pressure, the greater the tendency of water moving out
– in animal cells
1. water potential too high, cell bursts
2. too low, it shrinks
– in plant cells
1. too high, cell wall pushes against expanding protoplast, builds rapid
pressure; turns turgid
2. too low, protoplast shrinks away from cell wall; plasmolysis

active transport
– against concentration gradient, high to low regions of concentration
– movement of molecules/ions
– requires ATP, to change shape of carrier protein
– through transport protein
1. Na+ — K+ pump
2. 3 Na+ ions out, 2 K+ ions in per ATP molecule
– significance:
1. important in kidney reabsorption
2. absorption of digestion products in gut
3. load sugar from photosynthesizing leaf cells to phloem tissue for transport

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bulk transport
– transport of large quantities of products
– endocytosis into cells; exocytosis out of cells
– requires ATP, as it is a form of active transport
– endocytosis (engulfing material by cell membrane to form small sac ‘endocytic vacuole’)
1. phagocytosis: ‘cell eating’; bulk uptake of solid material; by phagocytes; forms
phagocytic vacuole
2. pinocytosis: ‘cell drinking’; bulk uptake of liquid material; vacuoles formed often
small, called micropinocytosis
– exocytosis: removal of materials from cells; reverse of endocytosis; secretion


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CHAPTER 5 MITOTIC CELL CYCLE

CHROMOSOMES
structure
1. made of two identical structures called chromatids
2. chromatids joined together by a centromere
3. each chromatid contains one DNA molecule
4. DNA made up of a series of genes
5. genes are coding for one polypeptide that is involved in a specific function of organism
6. also made of chromatin
– euchromatin: loosely coiled
– heterochromatin: tightly coiled
7. chromatin is a combination of DNA and protein

MITOSIS
the cell cycle

G2 M

S cytokinesis

G1

G1 – interphase; S – DNA replication; G2 – interphase after S phase;

M – nuclear division by mitosis; cytokinesis – cell division


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phase description

G1 cells make RNA, enzymes, other proteins needed for growth; at the end of
G1, cell becomes committed to dividing or not dividing
S a signal may be received if the cell has to divide again; DNA replicates so
that each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids
G2 cell continues to grow and new DNA is checked and any errors are repaired;
preparations are made to begin process of division
M nuclear division; prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

cytokinesis animal cell division involves constriction of the cytoplasm between the two
new nuclei; plant cell involves the formation of a new cell wall between two
new nuclei

mitosis
– prophase

early prophase late prophase

(early prophase)
1. centrosomes replicate just before prophase
2. chromosomes start to appear as the chromatin coils up, becoming shorter and thicker
3. there are centromeres with attached kinetochore
4. nuclear envelope still intact, nucleolus still visible

(late prophase)
1. centrosomes move to opposite ends of nucleus
2. chromosomes are seen to consist of two identical chromatids
3. nucleolus and envelope disappears (becomes small vesicles invisible to light microscope)

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– metaphase

1. each centrosome reaches a pole

2. spindles are formed (from protein microtubules)
3. chromosomes line up across the equator of the spindle
4. chromosomes are attached by centromeres to spindle

– anaphase

1. chromatids move to opposite poles

2. pulled by microtubules by centromeres

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– telophase

1. nucleus reforms
2. remains of spindle breaks down
3. centrosome will replicate during interphase
4. nuclear envelope reforming
5. chromatids have reached the poles of the spindle; they then uncoil again
6. cytokinesis will occur to split the cell by constriction from edges of cell

centromeres, centrosomes, centrioles

1. centromere needed for separation of chromatids during mitosis
2. site of attachment for spindle microtubules
3. each metaphase chromosome has two kinetochores at its centromere, one on each
chromatid
4. kinetochore made of protein molecules which bind specifically to DNA and microtubules
5. spindle shortens, resulting in chromatids placed in opposite poles

significance of mitosis
1. growth
2. replacement of cells and repair of tissues
3. asexual reproduction
4. immune response (reproduction of B/T lymphocytes)

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TELOMERES
– the ends of chromosomes are ‘sealed’ by telomeres
– significance
1. permit continued replication
2. prevent loss of genes
3. protect ends of chromosomes from being degraded
4. prevent ends of chromosomes from attaching to each other

STEM CELLS
– cell that can divide an unlimited number of times by mitosis
– each new cell has the potential to remain a stem cell or develop into a specialized cell
– potency: extent of power that a stem cell has to produce different cell types
1. totipotent: can develop to any type of cell (e.g. zygote)
2. pluripotent: lose ability to produce placenta cells but can produce all cells to
develop into embryo
3. multipotent: can only produce few types of cells; in bone marrow (in adults)
– for growth and repair
– stem cell therapy
1. introduction of new adult stem cells into damaged tissue to treat disease/injury
2. bone marrow transplantation

CANCER
– result of uncontrolled mitosis; cancerous cells divide repeatedly to form tumor
– tumor: irregular mass of cells; shows abnormal changes in shape
– mutation: when changes occur to genes that control cell division
– oncogene: mutated gene that causes cancer
– carcinogen: any agent that causes cancer
– benign tumors: do not cause cancer
– malignant tumor: causes cancer
1. interfere with the normal functioning area where they grow
2. cells can break off to blood/lymphatic system to other parts of body to form
secondary growth; metasis


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CHAPTER 6 NUCLEIC ACIDS & PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

STRUCTURE OF DNA AND RNA

DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid (has 1 less oxygen molecule than RNA; double strand in helix)
RNA – ribonucleic acid (single-stranded)

nucleotides
– nucleotides make up DNA/RNA; polynucleotides
– made up of 3 smaller components:
1. nitrogen-containing base
2. pentose sugar
3. phosphate group
– 5 types:
1. adenine
2. thymine (DNA only)
3. guanine
4. cytosine
5. uracil (RNA only)
– purine vs. pyrimidine
1. purine (PURE As Gold): adenine and guanine
– has 2 rings
2. pyrimidine: thymine, cytosine, uracil
– has only 1 ring

P
BASE
SUGAR

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ATP
– structure similar to nucleotide
– adenosine triphosphate (3 phosphate groups); diphosphate; monophosphate
– adenine + ribose = adenosine

polynucleotides
– DNA/RNA
– made up of many nucleotides linked together in long chain
– takes place inside nucleus, during interphase of cell cycle
– formed of alternating sugars and phosphates linked together with bases to one side
– covalent sugar-phosphate bonds link 5-carbon of one sugar to 3-carbon of the next
– have 3’ and 5’ ends
– DNA molecules
1. made of 2 polynucleotide strands lying side by side, running opposite ways
2. antiparallel
3. two strands held together by hydrogen bonds between bases
4. must be purine + pyrimidine
5. complementary base pairing (AT 2 bonds; GC 3 bonds)
6. double helix structure

GENES AND MUTATIONS

– gene: part of DNA molecule where the nucleotide sequence codes for just one polypeptide
– DNA contains many genes
– mutation: change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene

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DNA REPLICATION
semi-conservative replication
– half of original molecule is kept (conserved) in each of the new molecules
– original DNA made up of heavy isotope of nitrogen called 15N; after replication it contains
both 15N and a lighter nitrogen isotope, called 14N; after further replication, some DNA
contains 14N only
– mechanism:
1. the DNA double helix unwinds as the hydrogen bonds between bases break
2. in the nucleus, there are nucleotides to which two extra phosphates have been
added
3. the extra phosphates activate the nucleotides, enabling them to take part in
the following reactions
4. each of the bases of the activated nucleotides pairs up with its complementary
base on each of the old DNA strands
5. DNA polymerase links the sugar and innermost phosphate groups of next-door
nucleotides together
6. the two extra phosphates are broken off and released into the nucleus
7. DNA polymerase will only link an incoming nucleotide to the growing new chain if it
is complementary to the base on the old strand

DNA, RNA, PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

DNA and control of protein synthesis
– cell activities are chemical reactions
– chemical reactions controlled by enzymes
– enzymes are proteins
– proteins are coded by DNA
– DNA thus controls cell activities

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triplet code
– a sequence of three bases
– makes one amino acid
– complementary strand called anti-sense strand
– read in direction of lower strand

transcription
1. in nucleus, part of DNA unwinds as the hydrogen bonds between bases break
2. free activated RNA nucleotides pair up with the exposed bases of one strand only
3. as RNA nucleotides pair up with complementary ones, their sugar-phosphate groups are
bonded together by RNA polymerase to form sugar-phosphate backbone
4. the new single-stranded molecule formed is called messenger RNA (mRNA)
5. mRNA leaves nucleus by nuclear pore in nuclear envelope
6. in cytoplasm, there are free amino acids and transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules
7. at one end of each tRNA is a site to which an amino acid can bind
8. at the other end are three unpaired bases called anticodon
9. each tRNA bonds with particular amino acid, controlled by enzyme and ATP

translation
1. in cytoplasm, mRNA attaches to ribosome
2. ribosome made up of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein; contain small/large subunit
3. mRNA binds to small subunit
4. six bases at a time exposed to large subunit
5. first codon always AUG
6. tRNA with the complementary anticodon forms hydrogen bonds with AUG
7. this tRNA has amino acid methionine attached to it
8. second tRNA bonds with the next 3 bases, brings different amino acid
9. two amino acids held close together and peptide bond forms between them
10. this reaction catalyzed by the enzyme peptidyl transferase (found in small subunit)
11. ribosome moves along mRNA to read next 3 bases
12. third tRNA molecule brings third amino acid, joining to second one, first leaves
13. polypeptide chain continues to grow until stop codon exposed (UAA, UAC, UGA)


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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

CHAPTER 7 TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

– move substances from absorption site to required site

– move substances from production site to metabolism site
– move substances to storage site

XYLEM AND PHLOEM

xylem
– carries water and mineral salts
– transports from roots to rest of plant

phloem
– carries products of photosynthesis
– transports from leaves to rest of plant

STRUCTURE OF STEM, ROOTS, LEAVES

– main organs involved in transport in plants
– organelles > cells > tissue > organs > organisms

monocotyledons and dicotyledons

– monocot: long, narrow leaves
– dicot: has leaves with blades and stalks (petioles), broad leaves

name structure function

epidermis continuous layer on the outside of provides protection; cuticle is

the plant; one cell thick; covered
with waxy cuticle; in leaves, has
pores called stomata; in roots,
may have extension called root
hairs
waterproof and protects organ from
drying/infection; stomata allows
entry of CO2; root hairs increase
surface area

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

parenchyma made up of thin-walled cells used very metabolically active; for

as packing tissue; has air spaces storage of foods like starch; help
between cells; contain support plant; prevent wilting when
chloroplasts in leaves (palisade/ turgid; air spaces allow gas
spongy mesophyll) exchange; water/mineral salts
transported through walls/loving
contents of cells; forms cortex
(outer region) in roots and stems,
pith (central region) in stems;
chloroplast for photosynthesis
collenchyma modified form of parenchyma with extra cellulose provides extra
extra cellulose deposited at strength; midrib of leaves contain
corners of cells collenchyma
endodermis one cell thick; surrounds vascular contains Casparian strip (band of
tissue in stems and roots suberin) which forms an
impenetrable barrier to water in
walls of endodermis cells
mesophyll made up of specialized specialized for photosynthesis;
parenchyma cells found between palisade in upper surface to get
lower and upper epidermis of leaf; more sunlight
contain chloroplast;
palisade(column shaped)/spongy
(round); spongy has large air
spaces between cells; palisade
near upper surface of leaf, contain
more chloroplast than spongy
pericycle layer of cells, one/several layers lignified cells for extra strength;
thick; just inside endodermis; next new roots can grow from the layer
to vascular tissue; one-cell thick in in roots
roots; in stems, forms tissue
called sclerenchyma, has dead
lignified cells

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

vascular tissue made up of xylem and phloem; sclerenchyma fibers provide extra
both contain more than one type support for stem
of cell; in stems, xylem and
phloem found as vascular
bundles; the outside of bundles
has caps made of sclerenchyma
fibers

xylem: contains tubes called xylem: allows long distance

vessels made from dead cells transport of water/mineral salts;
called xylem vessel elements; provides mechanical support and
walls of cells are reinforced with strength
strong waterproof material called
lignin; in roots, in center and X-
shaped

sclerenchyma fibers are long, sclerenchyma only have

dead, empty cells with lignified mechanical function and do not
walls (similar to xylem); only have transport water (unlike xylem)
mechanical function and do not
transport water (unlike xylem)

phloem: contains tubes called phloem: allow long distance

sieve tubes made from living cells transport of organic compounds
called sieve tube elements like sucrose

TRANSPORT OF WATER
1. water uptake near root tips
2. water enters xylem
3. water moves up xylem
4. water moves from xylem to leaf cells
5. evaporation of water into leaf air spaces
6. transpiration of water vapor through open stomata into air (mainly underside leaf)

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

TRANSPIRATION
the loss of water vapor from a plant to its environment by diffusion down a water potential
gradient; most transpiration takes place through stomata in leaves

water movement through leaf

1. water vapor diffuses from air space through open stomata
2. water carried away from from the leaf surface by air movements
3. this reduces water potential inside the leaf
4. water evaporates from mesophyll cell wall into the air space
5. water moves through the mesophyll cell wall or out of the mesophyll cytoplasm into
cell wall
6. water leaves xylem vessel through non-lignified area such as a pit; may enter the
cytoplasm or cell wall of a mesophyll cell
7. water moves up the xylem vessels to replace water lost from the lead

factors affecting transpiration

1. humidity
– if water potential gradient between in/out of leaf becomes steeper, rate increase
– low humidity = increase rate
2. wind speed/temperature
– rate increase when wind speed/temperature increase
3. light intensity
– stomata opens during day, closes at night
– increase in light intensity = increase in rate
4. very dry conditions
– plant partially closes stomata
– this prevents turgidity

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

xerophytes
plants that live in places where water is in short supply; keep water loss minimal
1. curled leaf
2. sunken stomata
3. cuticle contains cutin, a waterproof substance
4. hairs
5. leaves are needles (reduced surface area)
6. swollen succulent stems (to store water)
7. stomata only at underside of leaf

FROM XYLEM ACROSS LEAF

symplastic pathway
1. water enters cytoplasm by osmosis through partially permeable membrane
2. water moves into sap in vacuole, through the tonoplast by osmosis
3. water may move from cell to cell via plasmodesmata
4. water may move from cell to cell via adjacent cell surface membranes/cell walls
apoplastic pathway
1. water enters cell wall
2. water moves through cell walls
3. water may move from cell wall to cell wall via intracellular spaces
4. water may move directly from cell wall to cell wall

xylem tissue
1. made from cells joined end to end to form tubes
2. cells are dead
3. walls of cells are thickened with hard strong material called lignin
4. functions: support and transport
5. in flowering plants, xylem tissue contains:
– vessel elements and tracheids: cells that are involved with the transport of ware
– sclerenchyma fibers: elongated, dead, empty cells with lignified walls to support
plant
– parenchyma cells

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

xylem vessels and vessel elements

– vessels made up of elongated cells (vessel elements)
– vessel element begun as normal cell, but wall lignin laid down
– lignin is hard, strong, impermeable to water; builds up around cell; contents die to leave
hollow lumen inside
– no lignin laid down in plasmodesmata; seen as ‘gaps’ in thick walls of xylem vessel (pits)
– pits not open pores; crossed by permeable/unthickened cellulose wall; in one cell link with
those in neighboring cells, so water can pass between
– end walls of neighbor vessel elements break down, forms continuous tube (xylem vessel)

FROM ROOT TO STEM AND LEAF IN XYLEM

– hydrostatic pressure difference between top and bottom of xylem vessels cause water to
move up (great pressure below, low on top)
– lignified walls strong enough to prevent collapse from pressure
– all the water molecules move up xylem together as a body of liquid (mass flow)
– cohesion vs. adhesion
1. cohesion: water molecules attached to each other by hydrogen bonding
2. adhesion: water molecules attracted to cellulose/lignin in walls of xylem vessels
– dead cells mean no protoplasm can get in way of transport
– narrow lumen helps prevent air bubbles; ‘air lock’, water cannot move with bubble

root pressure
– increase pressure difference by raising water pressure at the base of vessels
– pressure raised by active secretion of solutes into the water in xylem vessels in roots
– cells surrounding xylem vessels use energy to pump solutes across membranes and into
xylem by active transport
– presence of solutes lowers water potential of the solution in xylem, draws water from
surrounding root cells
– water transport is passive process, driven by transpiration

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

FROM ROOT HAIR TO XYLEM (in order)

1. water potential inside root lower than in soil, causes water to move down gradient and into
root through root hair
2. water either moves by apoplastic/symplastic pathway through cortex
3. normally, more water travels by symplast, but at high transpiration rates, more water
travels by apoplastic pathway
4. apoplastic pathway blocked once water reaches endodermis due to thick waterproof waxy
band of suberin in cell walls (Casparian strip; see table above)
5. older endodermal cells have greater suberin deposits, but water can pass freely through
passage cells instead
6. this lets plant control entrance of mineral ions into xylem; helps with generating root
pressure
7. once across endodermis, water moves through pericycle and into xylem through pits

FROM SOIL INTO ROOT HAIR

1. epidermis drawn out into long, thin root hairs to increase surface area, thus increasing
rate of water absorption; reach into spaces between soil particles and absorb water
2. water moves into root hairs by osmosis through membrane, into cytoplasm and vacuole
3. have fungi to assist with water absorption, called mycorrhizas; act like roots

TRANSPORT OF MINERAL IONS

– mineral ions in solution absorbed along with water by roots
– same as water; apoplastic/symplastic; mass flow

TRANSLOCATION
– can be applied to transport in both xylem and phloem
– moving from one place to another
– transport assimilates (sugars from photosynthesis) to sink for storage through sieve
elements and companion cells


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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

sieve tubes and sieve elements

– phloem contains unique tube-like structures (sieve tubes)
– made of living cells
– sieve tube made up of many sieve elements joined vertically to form continuous tube
– sieve element has cellulose cell wall, surface membrane, and cytoplasm with ER,
mitochondria; cytoplasm amount very small and only forms thin layer inside cell wall; no
nucleus or ribosomes
– sieve plate is where sieve element walls meet; perforated (visible through light mic.)

companion cells
– each sieve element has one companion cell beside it
– have ‘normal’ plant cell structure
– very closely associated with sieve element; single functional unit

contents of phloem sieve tubes

– liquid inside called phloem sap
– sieve plates can block itself; prevent escape of sap when cut; then sealed with
carbohydrate called calls (clotting)

how translocation occurs

1. moves by mass flow; requires ATP (active process)
2. pressure difference caused by active loading of sucrose from source to sieve element
3. sends sucrose to sink
4. entrance of sucrose in sieve elements decreases water potential, causing osmosis; builds
up more pressure
5. high pressure difference between source and sink causes mass flow towards low press.
6. flows up/down/side unlike xylem (which only moves up)


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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

loading sucrose into phloem

1. photosynthesis sometimes produce triode sugars which are then converted to sucrose
2. sucrose then moves from mesophyll cell, across leaf, to phloem (symplastic/apoplastic)
3. sucrose loaded into companion cell or directly into sieve element by active transport
4. H+ ions are pumped out of the companion cell into its cell wall, using ATP
5. H+ along with sucrose can then move back into cell through carrier protein
6. sucrose molecules then move from companion cell to sieve tube via symplastic pathway

unloading sucrose from phloem

1. unloading occurs into any tissue requiring sucrose
2. both symplastic/apoplastic
3. requires ATP; similar methods to loading
4. once in tissue, sucrose converted by enzyme to decrease concentration and maintain
concentration gradient (sucrose > glucose + fructose; by invertase)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SIEVE TUBES AND XYLEM VESSELS

sieve tubes xylem

movement by mass flow down pressure movement by mass flow down pressure
gradient; through tubes stacked end to end gradient; through tubes stacked end to end
living cells dead cells

no lignified walls lignified walls

reduce resistance to flow must withstand high negative pressure

(tension)
thin layer of cytoplasm no cell contents

can seal itself when cut cannot

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

CHAPTER 8 TRANSPORT IN MAMMALS

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
made up of heart and blood vessels

type description

closed circulation blood always remains within blood vessels

double circulation blood travels twice through the heart on one complete circuit;
has deoxygenated and oxygenated flows; systemic +
pulmonary
systemic circulation blood pumped out of left ventricle into aorta, travels to all
parts of body except lungs, returns to right side of heart in
vena cava; higher blood pressure than pulmonary circ.
pulmonary circulation blood pumped out of right ventricle into pulmonary arteries,
carried to the lungs, return to left side of heart through
pulmonary veins

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

BLOOD VESSELS

name structure description

arteries carries blood away from heart;

transport blood swiftly at high pressure
to tissues;
three layers:
1. inner endothelium (tunica minimize friction with moving blood;
intima): made up of a layer of flat
cells; very smooth

2. tunica media (middle): smooth allow wall to stretch as pulses of blood

muscle, collagen, elastic fibers surge through at high pressure;
(thickest layer)

3. tunica externa: elastic fibers and

collagen fibers

thick walls to withstand high pressures that blood

narrow lumen travels at; has thickest wall of all
elastic vessels; elasticity important in allowing
them to ‘give’, reducing likelihood that
they will burst; artery walls stretch as
the high pressure blood surges into
them, and then recoil inwards as
pressure drops to give small ‘push’;

smaller vessels called arterioles:

greater proportion of smooth can contract to narrow lumen; reducing
muscle blood flow, control volume of blood
flowing into tissue;
during exercise: arterioles that supply
blood to leg muscles dilate, those to
gut constrict

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

veins capillaries join one another to form
venules, which join to form veins;
lower pressure than arteries; has
same three layers of arteries (but
tunica media much thinner, fewer
elastic/muscle fibers); large lumen;
run very close to leg muscle;
semilunar valves
capillaries very small; forms network (capillary linking arteries and veins; take blood to
beds); 7µm diameter, about same
size as RBC; single layer of
endothelial cells; has small gaps in
endothelium
carries blood toward heart;
tensing muscles temporarily raise
pressure;
prevent back flow of blood
almost every cell in the body; take
blood as close to cell as possible to
reduce distance for substance
diffusion; gaps for exchange of blood
components

BLOOD PLASMA AND TISSUE FLUID

plasma
– pale yellow liquid
– mostly water
– contains solutes (glucose; urea; protein molecules/plasma proteins)
– seeps through gaps in capillary walls to spaces between cells

tissue fluid
– leaked plasma that resides in spaces between cells
– identical in composition to blood plasma, but less proteins
– less proteins because they’re too large to fit through gaps of cap. walls
– contains white blood cells
– when blood pressure too high, too much fluid pushed into tissue; build up of tissue fluid
called oedema
– helps with homeostasis (later in A-Level content)


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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

LYMPH
– lymph: fluid inside lymphatics
– tissue fluid that does not seep back into capillaries (10%)
– returns to blood through lymph vessels or lymphatics
1.lymphatics: tiny blind-ending vessels; found in almost all tissues of the body;
contain tiny valves which allow tissue fluid to flow but not escape; work
like vessels, can contract to put pressure on fluid
2. lymph vessel: many lymphatics joined together; brings blood back to veins
beneath collarbone (subclavian veins)
– valves wide enough to allow large protein molecules to pass, since capillaries too small
– lymph nodes: at intervals along lymph vessels; for protection against disease; remove
bacteria and secrete antibodies

BLOOD
red blood cells (erythrocytes)
– contain haemoglobin: red pigment; 4 haem groups; carries 8 oxygen molecules
– transport oxygen to respiring tissues
– (fetus) RBC formed in liver; (after birth) RBC formed in bone marrow
– structure:
1. biconcave disc: increases surface area; oxygen diffuses faster
2. small: 7µm; can fit in capillaries; haemoglobin close to membrane; quick exchange
3. flexible: can deform to pass through narrower capillaries
4. no nucleus, ER, mitochondria: more room for haemoglobin

white blood cells (leucocytes)

– made in bone marrow
– structure:
1. have nucleus (but different shapes in different kinds of WBC)
2. larger than RBC (except lymphocytes)
3. spherical/irregular in shape

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

– phagocytes and lymphocytes

phagocytes
– cells that destroy invading microorganism by phagocytosis
– neutrophils: lobed nuclei; granular cytoplasm
– monocytes: oval nucleus

lymphocytes
– secrete antibodies
– smaller than other phagocytes
– large nucleus; small amount of cytoplasm

HAEMOGLOBIN
– transport oxygen (can combine with 8 O molecules)

haemoglobin dissociation curve

– percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen can be plotted against the partial
pressure of oxygen and results in a curve
1. at low partial pressure of oxygen, percentage of saturation low; haemoglobin
combined with very little oxygen (e.g. in respiring muscle)
2. at high partial pressure of oxygen, percentage of saturation high (e.g. in capillary in
lungs)
saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen/%

partial pressure of oxygen/kPa

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

s shaped curve
1. when first oxygen molecule combine with a haem group, haemoglobin molecule is slightly
distorted
2. distortion makes it easier for rest of oxygen molecules to combine with second haem
group
3. shape of dissociation curve reflects the binding of oxygen with haemoglobin

Bohr shift
– amount of oxygen haemoglobin carries also affected by partial pressure of CO2
– reactions of CO2 and haemoglobin
carbonic anhydrase
1. CO2 + H 2O ⇌ H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

2. carbonic acid dissociates:

H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3– (hydrogencarbonate ion)

3. carbon dioxide + haemoglobin = carbaminohaemoglobin

– haemoglobin + hydrogen ion = haemoglobinic acid (HHb)
1. to neutralize pH (buffer) ; if ions left in solution, blood too acidic
2. at high partial pressure of CO2, haemoglobin release oxygen (Bohr effect)
– higher CO2 concentration = curve shifts to the right
*Low CO2 = Left

carbon dioxide transport

1. CO2 produced from respiring cells; enter RBC (95%), or plasma (5%, in solution)
2. in RBC (95%), two ways:
– 85% becomes carbonic acid, then exits to plasma as hydrogencarbonate ion
– 10% remains in RBC, becomes carbaminohaemoglobin
3. all these reactions are reversible; reversible important to return CO2 to lungs


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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

PROBLEMS WITH OXYGEN TRANSPORT

carbon monoxide
– haemoglobin combines permanently with carbon monoxide
– carboxyhaemoglobin = haemoglobin + carbon monoxide

high altitude
– lower partial pressure of oxygen the higher the altitude
– haemoglobin becomes less saturated with oxygen
– less oxygen carried around the body
– results in altitude sickness; symptoms:
1. increase in rate and depth of breathing
2. dizziness and weakness
3. arterioles in brain dilate; fluid leaks out of capillaries; cause disorientation
4. fluid also leaks into lungs, prevent them from functioning properly
– altitude sickness can be prevented by adaptation:
1. RBC increases
2. broader chests; greater lung capacity
3. larger heart, especially at right side

THE HEART

right side: deoxygenated

left side: oxygenated

coronary arteries bring blood to

heart muscle

right side of image is left of heart

left side of image is right of heart


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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

CARDIAC CYCLE
– remember by: A V1 V2
1. atrial systole:
– heart is filled with blood and muscle in atrial walls contract
– blood forced down through atrioventricular valves and enter ventricles
2. ventricular systole:
– 0.1 seconds after atria contract
– ventricles contract
– blood forced into pulmonary artery or aorta (semilunar valves open)
– lasts 0.3 seconds
3. ventricular diastole:
– heart muscle relaxes, pressure in ventricles drops
– semilunar valves close, prevent back flow of blood
– blood from veins flow into atria
4. cycle repeats

structure for function

1. walls of ventricle thicker than atria, because they need to push blood up vessels
2. left ventricle has thicker walls than right ventricle
3. right ventricle produces relatively small force; send blood to lungs; lungs close to heart
– if pressure too large, fluid accumulates in lungs and hampers gas exchange

CONTROL OF HEART BEAT

– cardiac muscles myogenic: naturally contract; require no impulse from nerve to contract

name description

sinoatrial node specialized patch of muscle in right atrium wall;

initiates cardiac cycle (pacemaker);
sets rhythm for all other cardiac muscle cells;
set up wave of electrical activity which spreads out rapidly over
atrial walls

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

atrioventricular node patch of conducting fibers in the septum;

causes delay (so muscles do not contract together);
picks up excitation wave as it spreads across atria;
passes it to Purkyne tissue after 0.1 seconds
Purkyne tissue runs down the septum between ventricles;
transmits excitation wave down to base of septum;
spreads wave outwards and up ventricle walls, cause contraction

fibrillation
chaotic excitation waves; passes through ventricular muscle in all directions, re-stimulate
areas that have already been stimulated

ELECTROCARDIOGRAM (ECG)

P – atria contracts
QRS – ventricles contract
T – atria and ventricles contract

at atrioventricular valve semilunar valve

P open close
QRS close open
T open close

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

CHAPTER 9 GAS EXCHANGE AND SMOKING

GAS EXCHANGE
1. to clean and warm air that enters during breathing
2. maximize surface area for diffusion of oxygen and CO2 between blood and atmosphere
3. minimize distance for diffusion
4. maintain adequate gradients for diffusion

CARTILAGE IN TRACHEA, BRONCHI AND BRONCHIOLES

in structure function

trachea C-shaped rings keeps airways open; prevents

from collapsing/bursting from
bronchi irregular blocks change in air pressure

bronchioles no cartilage surrounded by smooth muscle;

can contract/relax to adjust
diameter; relax to allow greater
flow; lack of cartilage allows this

COMPONENTS

airway diameter cartilage goblet smooth cilia site of gas

cells muscle exchange
trachea 1.8 cm
yes yes
bronchus 1.2 cm
yes yes
terminal 1.0 mm no
bronchiole
respiratory 0.5 mm
a few
bronchiole no no
alveolar 400µm no
duct no yes
alveoli 250 µm

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

WARMING AND CLEANING AIR

goblet cells
– swollen with mucin droplets which have been secreted by cell
– mucus is slimy solution of mucin
– mucus composed of glycoprotein with carbohydrate chains that make them sticky and able
to trap inhaled particles
– mucus also produces by mucous glands beneath epithelium

ciliated cells
– continual beating of cilia carries mucus upwards toward larynx
– when mucus reaches top of trachea, it gets swallowed and destroyed by stomach acid

macrophages
– patrol surface of airways, scavenging for small particles like bacteria/dust
– during infection, macrophages are joined by phagocytic cells that leave capillaries to help
remove pathogens

ALEVEOLI
– alveolar walls contain elastic fibers that stretch/recoil during in/expiration of air
– elasticity allows expansion according to volume of air breathed in
– expansion increases surface area available for diffusion
– recoil forces out air
– extremely thin walls, pressed closely to capillaries, distance of diffusion small
– steep concentration gradient maintained by breathing and flow of blood

TOBACCO SMOKE
tar
– a carcinogen
– mixture of compounds that settle on lining of airways in lungs and stimulate a series of
changes that leads to obstructive lung disease and lung cancer

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

nicotine
– the drug in tobacco; addictive
– absorbed very readily by blood, travels to brain within seconds
– stimulates nervous system to reduce diameter of arterioles and to release adrenaline from
adrenal glands
– heart rate and blood pressure increase, with decrease in blood supply to the extremities,
reducing oxygen supply
– increases risk of blood clotting

carbon monoxide
– forms irreversible carboxyhaemoglobin; reduces chances of oxygen to bind with
haemoglobin
– CO damages lining of arteries, leads to build up of fatty tissue and reduction of blood flow;
result to CHD/stroke

LUNG DISEASES
1. chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD; chronic bronchitis and emphysema)
2. lung cancer

chronic bronchitis
1. tar stimulates goblet cells/mucous glands to enlarge and secrete more mucus
2. tar inhibits cleaning motion of cilia, destroys many of them and weakens remaining ones
3. mucus accumulates in bronchioles
4. dirt/bacteria accumulation stimulates ‘smoker’s cough’
5. damaged epithelia replaced by scar tissue, narrows airways, difficult to breath
6. infections easily develop, lining of lungs become inflamed, further narrows airways
7. damage and obstruction called chronic bronchitis
8. symptoms: severe cough, difficulty breathing


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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

emphysema
1. inflammation of constantly-infected lungs cause phagocytes to line airways
2. phagocytes release elastase (digests elastin in alveoli) to make pathway for phagocytes
3. alveoli cannot stretch/recoil without elastin
4. bronchioles collapse during expiration, traps air in alveoli, which can burst
5. bursting decreases surface area for diffusion, less oxygen absorbed
6. air cannot be refreshed during ventilation
7. blood vessels in lungs become more resistant to blood flow, pressure in pulmonary artery
increase, right side of heart enlarges
8. symptoms: wheezing, breathlessness

lung cancer
1. tar contains carcinogens that react with DNA in epithelial cells to cause mutation
2. mutations lead to build up of tumor
3. spreads through bronchial epithelium and enters lymphatic tissues
4. cells can break away for secondary growths
5. symptoms: coughing up blood; chest pain; difficulty breathing


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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

CHAPTER 10 INFECTIOUS DISEASES

disease illness or disorder of the body or mind that leads to poor health;
each disease is associated with a set of signs and symptoms
pathogen disease-causing organisms

infectious diseases diseases caused by pathogens, can be passed from infected

person to a healthy person
carrier people who carry diseases without showing symptoms

transmission cycle way in which pathogen passes from one host to another

vector organism which carries a disease, not causative agent

CHOLERA

pathogen Vibrio cholerae

type of pathogen bacterium

methods of food-borne; water-borne

transmission
incubation period two hours to five days

site of pathogen walls of small intestine

action
clinical features severe diarrhea; loss of water/salts; dehydration; weakness

methods of microscopic analysis of feces

diagnosis
methods of disease secrete a toxin called choleragen that disrupts the functions of the
epithelium lining the intestine, so that salts and water leave the
blood, causes severe diarrhea and loss of fluid
treatment oral rehydration therapy using glucose

prevention provide drainage and clean water supply;

fully cook meals;
washing with clean water;
vaccine useless because it is a bacteria and not in blood stream

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

MALARIA

pathogen Plasmodium falciparum; P. vivax; P. ovale; P. malariae

type of pathogen protoctist

methods of insect vector Anopheles female; female because blood contains

transmission proteins to fertilize eggs; also blood transfusion with unsterile
needles
incubation period 1 week – 1 year

site of pathogen liver, RBC, brain

action
clinical features fever; anaemia; nausea; headache; muscle pain; shivering;
sweating; enlarged spleen
methods of microscopical examination of blood; dip stick test for malaria
diagnosis antigens in blood
methods of disease anticoagulant injected when mosquito feeds on blood; parasite
enters blood with anticoagulant and multiply
treatment prophylactic (preventative drug) to stop infection;
chloroquine inhibits protein synthesis, hence prevent parasite from
spreading;
proguanil inhibits sexual reproduction of Plasmodium inside biting
mosquito
prevention vaccine;
reduce no. of mosquitoes;
avoid being bitten;
use drugs to prevent parasitic infection

control measures:
1. stocking ponds; irrigation; drainage ditches with fish that feed on
mosquitoes
2. spraying a preparation containing bacteria (Bacillus thuringienis)
that kills mosquito larvae but not other forms of life

problems:
1. Plasmodium resistant to drugs
2. mosquitoes resistant to DDT/insecticides
3. expensive
4. difficulties in developing vaccine
5. severe forms of malaria
6. migration of people

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AS-LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BIANCA HIMAWAN

improvement in 1. modern techniques to gene sequencing and drug design

control of malaria 2. development of vaccines targeted against different stages of
parasite’s life
3. international will to remove burden of disease from poorest parts
of the world; donations; foundations

AQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS)

pathogen human immunodeficiency virus

type of pathogen virus (retrovirus, so contains RNA not DNA)

methods of semen; vaginal fluids; sexual intercourse; infected blood or blood

transmission products; contaminated hypodermic syringes; mother to fetus
through placenta; mother to infant through breast milk; (cannot
survive outside human body)
incubation period few weeks – 10 years

site of pathogen T-helper lymphocytes; macrophages; brain cells

action
clinical features HIV infection – flu-like, then symptomless
AIDS – opportunistic infections (e.g pneumonia, TB, cancer);
weight loss; diarrhea; fever; sweating; dementia
methods of testing blood, saliva, urine, for presence of antibodies against HIV
diagnosis
methods of disease when in host, viral RNA converted back to DNA to be incorporated
in human chromosomes; virus infects and destroys cells of body’s
immune system (T-helper cells); the reduction of this causes
opportunistic infections to occur, and body is unable to defend
itself;
AIDS not a disease, instead a collection of opportunistic diseases
associated with HIV infection
treatment no cure for AIDS, no vaccine for HIV; drug therapy to slow down
onset of AIDS and increase life expectancy (but its expensive with
side-effects); drugs can prevent replication of virus inside host
cells, similar to DNA nucleotides (e.g. zidovudine, binds to reverse
transcriptase and blocks action, like inhibitor); taking medication
must be in pattern or else HIV develops resistance
prevention contact tracing; condoms/femidoms/dental dams; widespread
testing; difficulty caused by symptomless people

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TUBERCULOSIS

pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis; M. bovis

type of pathogen bacteria

methods of airborne droplets (M. tuberculosis);

transmission uncooked/unpasteurized milk (M. bovis)
incubation period few weeks – several years

site of pathogen lungs (primary infection);

action lymph nodes, bones, gut (secondary infection)
clinical features racking cough; coughing blood; chest pain; shortness of breath;
fever; sweating; weight loss
methods of microscopical examination of sputum for bacteria; chest X-ray
diagnosis
methods of disease dormant bacteria can live inside body, and become active later;
usually activated by weakening of body (malnutrition, HIV);
treatment isolation; antibiotics/drugs (must complete full course, or else
resistance)
prevention problems faced:
1. drug resistant TB bacteria
2. poor housing
3. HIV/AIDS pandemic
4. partial treatment (antibiotics not taken properly)

methods of prevention:
1. contact tracing
2. vaccine

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MEASLES

pathogen Morbillivirus

type of pathogen virus

methods of airborne droplets; inhaled by healthy people

transmission
incubation period 8 – 14 days

site of pathogen upper respiratory tract

action
clinical features rashes; fever; runny nose; cough; red/watery eyes (conjunctivitis);
white spots in cheek
serious/severe:
pneumonia; ear/sinus infections; brain damage; convulsions
treatment bed rest; taking medication for the fever; disease clears after about
10 days
prevention vaccination

ANTIBIOTICS
1. drug that kills/stops growth of bacteria without harming cells of infected organism
2. how they work:
– interfere with growth or metabolism of target bacterium such as:
1. synthesis of bacterial cell walls
2. activity of proteins in the cell surface membrane
3. enzyme action
4. DNA synthesis
5. protein synthesis
3. how penicillin works:
– prevents synthesis of cross-links between peptidoglycan polymers in cell walls of
bacteria by inhibiting enzymes that build the cross-links
– only active against bacteria that are growing

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antibiotic resistance
– vertical transmission:
1. bacterial chromosome and plasmid replicate in resistant parent cell
2. cell division occurs
3. daughter cells each receive a copy of the plasmid and are resistant

– horizontal transmission
1. single DNA strand of plasmid from resistant cell transferred to non-resistant cell by
conjugation
2. conjugation: tube forms between two bacteria to allow DNA movement

increasing effectivity of antibiotics

1. choosing effective antibiotics:
do antibiotic sensitivity test (using petri dish), most effective antibiotic has largest
diameter of clear area where no bacteria grow
2. only use antibiotics when necessary
3. reduce antibiotics sold without prescription
4. avoid using wide-spectrum antibiotics
5. complete course of medication
6. patients should not keep unused antibiotics for future self-medication
7. changing types of antibiotics for certain diseases to reduce resistance
8. avoid using antibiotics in farming


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CHAPTER 11 IMMUNITY

antigen substance that is foreign to the body and stimulates an immune

response
antibody a glycoprotein (immunoglobulin) made by plasma cells derived from
B-lymphocytes, secreted in response to an antigen; the variable
region of antibody specific to antigen shape
immune response the body’s complex series of responses to the entry of a foreign
antigen; involves the activity of lymphocytes and phagocytes
non-self any substance that is recognized by the immune system as foreign
and will stimulate immune response
self any substance that is produced by the body, immune system does
not recognize as foreign, does not stimulate immune response

EXTERNAL DEFENSE SYSTEM

1. epithelia that cover airways
2. hydrochloric acid in stomach
3. blood clotting

CELLS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM

1. phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages)
2. lymphocytes


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PHAGOCYTES
– produced in bone marrow (myeloid stem cells), stored there before being distributed
through blood
– neutrophils (lobed nuclei)
1. travel throughout body
2. can leave blood by squeezing through capillary walls to patrol tissues
3. short-lived
– macrophages
1. larger than neutrophils
2. found in organs such as lungs, liver, spleen, kidney, lymph nodes
3. made in bone marrow; travel in blood as monocytes
5. long-lived
6. cut up pathogens to display antigens to be recognized by lymphocytes

phagocytosis
1. cells under attack release chemical called histamine, attracting passing neutrophils (called
chemotaxis)
2. neutrophil moves toward pathogen, which may be clustered together and covered with
antibodies
3. antibodies further stimulate the neutrophil to attack pathogens
4. this is because neutrophils have receptor proteins on surfaces that recognize antibody
molecules and attach to them
5. when neutrophil attaches to pathogen, neutrophil’s membrane engulfs pathogen, and
traps it in a phagocytic vacuole (endocytosis)
6. digestive enzymes secreted into phagocytic vacuole to destroy pathogen
7. after killing and digesting pathogens, neutrophil dies
8. dead neutrophil often collect at infection site to form pus


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LYMPHOCYTES
– smaller than phagocytes, large nucleus
– produced in bone marrow (lymphoid stem cells)

B-lymphocytes
– spread throughout body, concentrating in lymph nodes and spleen
– become plasma and memory cells
– maturation:
1. in bone marrow, immature cells divide by mitosis
2. still in bone marrow, each B cell matures
3. mature B cells produce antibody receptors in surface membrane
4. mature B cells circulate and concentrate in liver and spleen
– mode of action:
1. a B cell has specific antibodies to antigen
2. B cell divides by mitosis, daughter cells become plasma/memory cells
3. plasma cells secrete antibodies that bind to antigen
4. when antigen re-enters body, memory cells produced earlier respond by dividing
into plasma cells and more memory cells; second response faster than first due to
memory cells

antibodies
– globular glycoproteins with quaternary structure
– form groups of plasma proteins called immunoglobulins
– consist of four polypeptide chains (two long/heavy chains; two short/light chains)
– disulfide bonds hold chains together
– variable region of one light and one heavy chain make antigen-binding sites
– hinge region between two heavy chains give flexibility in binding to antigen
– heavy chains have chain of sugar molecules attached to them
– functions:
1. combine with virus/toxins
2. attach to bacteria flagella
3. cause agglutination of bacteria
4. coat bacteria, makes it easier for phagocytes ingest them


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T-lymphocytes
– created in bone marrow, and collect in thymus when mature
– helper and killer T cells
– maturation:
1. in bone marrow, immature T cells divide by mitosis
2. in thymus, each T cell matures
3. T cells produce receptors in cell surface membrane
4. mature T cells circulate as helpers/killers
– mode of action:
1. helper/killer T cells binds to antigens of infected body cell
2. helper/killer cells divide by mitosis
3. helper T cells either:
– divide into memory cells
– secrete cytokines that stimulate B cells to divide and form plasma/memory
cells
4. killer T cells either:
– divide into memory cells
– punch holes in cell surface membrane of infected body cell and secrete
toxic substances to kill body cell and pathogen inside

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY

type description

active immunity gained when antigen enters body; immune response occurs

passive immunity gained without immunity response

natural immunity gained by being infected or by receiving antibodies from

breast milk
artificial immunity gained by vaccination or injecting antibodies

*Colostrum: yellowish fluid produced by mother’s breast containing antigens


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VACCINES
– preparation containing antigens
– used to stimulate immune response
– artificial active
– given by injection; or taken orally
– problems with vaccines:
1. poor response (do not develop B/T cells)
2. live virus and herd immunity (vaccinate large amounts of people at same time;
herd immunity interrupts transmission in population)
3. antigenic variation (regular mutation)
4. antigenic concealment (pathogen hides in body cells/host proteins)

ERADICATION OF SMALLPOX
– success caused by:
1. variola virus stable
2. vaccine made of harmless strain of similar virus
3. vaccine was freeze-dried and could be kept at high temperatures
4. infected people were easy to identify
5. vaccine easy to administer
6. virus did not linger in body
7. virus did not infect animals
8. teens were enthusiastic vaccinators/suppliers of information


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AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES

disease area of body affected main effects of disease

myasthenia gravis (MG) neuromuscular junctions progressive muscle

weakness
multiple sclerosis central nervous system progressive paralysis

rheumatoid arthritis joints progressive destruction of

the joints
type 1 diabetes islets of Langerhans – destruction of cells that
endocrine tissue in the secrete insulin
pancreas
systemic lupus skin, kidneys, and joints progressive deformity
erythromatosus

MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES (MABS)

– production:
1. antigen injected to mouse; mouse B cells recognize antigen and form plasma cells
2. plasma cells harvested from mouse spleen
3. plasma cells fused with cancer cells
4. hybridoma cells
5. tiny samples are taken so that there is only one cell present in a well; every well
tested so hybridoma cells that produce required antibody can be found
– uses in diagnosis
1. locate position of blood clots in body; fibrin protein found in blood clots
– radioactively-labeled antibodies: attach gamma radiation to antibodies
– labeled antibodies then introduced to patient’s blood
– mabs bind to fibrin molecules; gamma ray camera used to detect clot
2. locate cancer cells
3. identify exact strain of virus/bacterium causing infection
4. blood-typing before transfusion
5. tissue-typing before transplants
– antibodies produced by non-humans, trigger immune response; solution:
1. altering gene code for heavy/light polypeptide chain in antibodies
2. change type/position of sugar groups attached to heavy chain

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