Week 1

What is Anatomy?

- Scientific discipline that investigates the structure of body parts and how they relate to each
other
o Anatomy examines the relationship between the structure of a body part and its
function

Levels of Anatomy

- Gross Anatomy (macroscopic): structures examined without the aid of a microscope

o Systemic: body is studied system by system
 System: a group of structures that have one or more common functions
o Regional: body is studied area by area
 Identify the relationship between various structures in an area ( ex. nerves in
the arm)
 Within each region (ex. Head), all systems are studied simultaneously
- Surface Anatomy: study of the external form of the body and its relation to deeper
structures
o You identify surface landmarks which indicate deeper lying structures ex. Sternum
and ribs which overly the heart. You can use surface landmarks from the sternum
and the ribs to identify where the heart sits and different parts of the heart
- Microscopic: structures examined with the aid of a microscope
o Example: Cytology
 study of cells and their content (the structural features)
o Example: Histology
 The study of tissue, the cells which make up the tissue as well as the
materials surrounding them
- Developmental: structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span
o Between conception and adulthood

What is Physiology?
 - The study of the function or processes of living things
- To understand and predict the body’s responses to stimuli and to understand how the body
maintains conditions within a narrow range of values in a constantly changing environment

Levels of physiology

- Molecular physiology: examines the activity of the molecules in each cell

o Ex. Channels in cell membrane, receptors on cell membrane
- Cellular: examines how cells interact and communicate with each other (the processes that
occur in cells)
- Systemic: examines the physiology/ function of cells and tissues of organs of body systems
- Neurophysiology: the study of the physiology of the nervous system
- Renal: the study of physiology of the kidneys and the urinary system
- Cardiovascular: physiological study of the heart, blood circulation and blood vessels

Examples of Anatomical and Physiological Studies

- Measuring the electrical conductivity of the heart (physiology)

- Viewing cells under a microscope (anatomy)
- Using a vitalograph to test respiratory function (physiology)
- Dissecting a heart (anatomy)

Organisation of the Human Body

Chemical Level

- Atoms (ex. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen) combine to form molecules (DNA, RNA,
sugar, water)

Cellular Level

- Molecules (Ex. DNA, RNA) combine to form organelles (Ex. Nucleus, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum) of a cell
- Cell
o the basic structural unit of the human body

Tissue Level

- Numerous cells( ex. smooth muscle cells) join together to form a tissue (ex. Smooth muscle
tissue)
- Tissue
o Are groups of similar cells that work together towards a similar function

Organ Level

- Tissues (can be more than one type) form organs (Ex. Bladder)

Organ System Level

- One or more organs (Ex. Kidneys, ureters, bladder) make up a system (Ex. Urinary system)

Characteristics of Organisms

- Organisation
 o The relationships among the parts of an organism and how those parts interact to
perform specific functions
o Some cells are composed of highly specialised organelles which depend on the
precise organisation of large molecules
o Disruption of this organised state can result in loss of function or even death
o Example: thousands of smooth muscle cells which join together to form smooth
muscle tissue which make up a part of the wall of the urinary bladder.
- Metabolism
o Chemical reactions that take place in an organism
o Can take place in the cells or just in the internal environment of an organism
o Includes an organism’s ability to break down food molecules which are used as a
source of energy and raw material in order to synthesize its own molecules
o Energy also refers to when one part of a molecule moves relative to another part,
changing the shape of the molecule
 In single celled organisms and certain human cells, this change in molecular
shape can cause the whole cell to change shape which can allow the entire
organism or cell to move to a different location
o Necessary for responsiveness, growth, development and reproduction
- Responsiveness
o Organism’s ability to sense changes in its environment (internally or externally) and
adjust to those changes
- Growth
o An increase in the size or number of the cells
o An increase in the materials surrounding cells can also contribute to growth
 Example: bone grows because of an increase in cell number and the
deposition of mineralized materials around the cells
- Development
o Changes an organism undergoes through time beginning with fertilisation and
ending at death
o Involves growth, differentiation and morphogenesis
 Differentiation: involves changes in a cell’s structure and function from an
immature, generalised state to a mature, specialised state
 Morphogenesis: the change in shape of tissues, organs and the entire
organism
- Reproduction
o Formation of new cells or new organism

Homeostasis

- The existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body
- To achieve homeostasis the body must actively regulate the conditions that are constantly
changing
- Includes body temperature, blood pressure, pH, glucose, CO 2
- Homeostatic mechanism maintain the body near an ideal normal point called the set point
o Set point for body temp: 37 degrees
o Set point for blood: pH 7.4
o Set point for blood glucose: 5millimoles per litre
 - Homeostasis is still maintained when small fluctuations occur above or below the set point
(normal range)
o These small fluctuations in the set point are considered to be minor changes to
homeostasis
o Example: body temperature increases and decreases slightly around the set point of
37 degrees Celsius to produce a normal range of values
- Failure of homeostasis can result in disease or even death
- Minor disturbances:
o Easy to recover from
o Example: If your body temperature goes down, you will shiver to generate body heat
which then brings your temperature up
- Major disturbances:
o you never fully recover or return to normal
o Requires assistance or medical intervention

The Anatomical Position

- An erect person whose:

o Face is directed forward
o Arms (upper limbs) are hanging by their side
o Palms of their hands facing forward
- It given us a point of reference to describe parts of the body

Supine

- Person lying face up

Prone

- Person lying face down

Supine vs Prone

- Supine is used when the palm is facing up

- Prone is used when the palm is facing down

Anatomical Directional Terms

- Superior
o Toward the direction of the head
 Example: the head is superior to the neck, the knees are superior to the
ankle, liver is superior to the urinary bladder
o Also known as cephalic or cranial
- Inferior
o Toward the tail
 Example: the pelvis is inferior to the stomach, right kidney is inferior and
posterior to the liver
o Also known as caudal
- Anterior
o Toward the front of the body
 Example: the breast is anterior to the spine, sternum is anterior to the heart
o Also known as ventral
 - Posterior
o Towards the back of the body
 Example: the ankles are
posterior to the toes
o Also known as dorsal
- Proximal
o Nearest to the point of
attachment to the body than
another structure
o Only used to describe the limbs
(only the arms and the legs)
 Example: the elbow is proximal to the wrist, knee is proximal to the ankle
 Point of attachment for your arms are your shoulders while the point of
attachment for your legs are your hips
- Distal
o Distant
o Farther from the point of attachment to the body than another structure
 Example the fingers are distal to the wrist, elbow is distal to shoulder
 Fingers are further away to the point of attachment (shoulder) compared to
the wrist
- Proximal and distal are used to describe linear structures, such as arms and legs
- Medial
o Toward the mid line of the body
 Example: the nose is medial (more closer to the mid line of the body than
the eyes) to the eyes, heart is me

- Lateral
o Away from the mid line of the body
 Example: the ears are lateral to the lips
 The ears are away from the midline of the body compared to the lips,
kidneys are lateral and superior to the urinary bladder
- Superficial
o Close to the surface of…
o Toward or on the surface
 Example: the epidermis is superficial
(closer to the surface than the
dermis) to the dermis and the
dermis is superficial to the muscle
- Deep
o Towards the interior of….
o Away from the surface
 Example: the bone is deep (is sitting
deeper than the adipose tissue) to
the adipose tissue

Body Planes

- Sagittal Plane
 o Median=mid-sagittal
 Divides the body into equal left and right halves
o Runs vertically down the body separating the body into left and right portions
o Sagittal plane does not have to be right down the middle
- Frontal Plane
o Aka coronal plane
o Runs vertically from right to left and divides the body into anterior and posterior
- Transverse Plane
o Aka horizontal plane
o Runs parallel to the group and divides the body into superior and inferior portions
- Oblique Plane
o A plane that does not run parallel to the frontal or transverse plane

Body Cavities

- The central region of the body consists of the head, neck and the trunk
- The trunk of the body contains 3 large cavities
o Thoracic Cavity
 Rib cage surrounds the thoracic cavity
 Mediastinum
 Collective word to include the oesophagus, thymus, blood vessels,
heart, trachea, nerves
 Separates the left and right sides of the thoracic cavity
 Sits midway in the chest between the left and right lung and
therefore splits the thoracic cavity into right and left parts
 Diaphragm
 Muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the top from the
abdominal cavity from below
o Abdominal cavity
 Enclosed anteriorly by the abdominal muscles
 Contains stomach, intestines, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, liver
o Pelvic cavity
 Contains the urinary bladder, reproductive organs and parts of the large
intestine
 Encased by the pelvic bones
- No physical structure that separates the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity therefore it is
sometimes called abdominopelvic cavity

Sub Divisions of the Abdomen

- The one where it is divided into 9 parts are called regions, the other are split into quadrants
- top two left and right region are called Hypo (below) Chondriac (cartilage) regions
o Below the cartilage in your ribs
- Middle two, left and right are called the lumbar regions and are referring to vertebrae
- Umbilical region is referring to the umbilical chord
- Iliac region left and right are referring to the lilium of the pelvic bones
 - Hypogastric region
o Sits below the gastro
intestinal system
- The appendix is in the right
lower quadrant and the pain of
acute appendicitis is usually
felt there
- Spleen is located in the left
upper quadrant
- The urinary bladder is the left
and right lower quadrant
- Liver is found in the right hypochondriac region and epigastric region
- Urinary bladder is found in the hypogastric region
- Large intestine would be found in the left iliac region
- During pregnancy, central abdominal obesity and abdominal tumour growth may cause
organs to move to different locations within the abdominopelvic cavity
- Epigastric region includes liver, stomach, pancreas and major blood vessels
- Remember when naming these parts remember that they are named in the point of view of
the subject not you
- We divide the abdomen into quadrants or regions for descriptive purposes and as reference
points for underlying organs

Serous Membrane

- Also known as serosa

- Hold various organs in place
- Reduce friction of the organs rubbing against other organs or the body wall
- Line the cavities in the trunk of the body and cover the organs within these cavities
- Thin, slippery, double layered membrane
- 2 layers
o Parietal
 Found against the outer wall of a body cavity
 Layer that lines the trunk cavity
o Visceral
 Layer that lines the organs in a body cavity
- Both layers join together
- Heart
o Pericardium
o Between the parietal and visceral pericardium is the
pericardial cavity which contains pericardial fluid
o Visceral pericardium covers the heart, which is contained
within a connective tissue sac lined with the parietal
pericardium
- Lungs and thoracic cavity
o Pleura
o Between the parietal and visceral pleura is pleural fluid
which is contained within a pleural cavity
 o
Each lung is covered by visceral pleura and surrounded by a pleural cavity
o
The parietal pleura lines the inner surface of the thoracic wall, the outer surface of
the parietal pericardium and the superior surface of the diaphragm
- Abdominopelvic Cavity
o Peritoneum
 Where the blue is the parietal peritoneum and the
purple + red lining the organs is the visceral
peritoneum
o Retro peritoneum
 Retro = behind
 Structures that are sitting behind the peritoneum (Ex.
Pancreas, kidneys)
o Mesenteries
 Specialised membranes that anchor the organs to the body wall and provide
a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs
 Consists of 2 layers of the peritoneum fused together and connect the
visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to the parietal
peritoneum on the body wall
 Also connect certain organ’s visceral peritoneum to other abdominopelvic
organ’s visceral peritoneum

Serous fluid

- produced by the membrane fills the cavity between the two layers and acts as a lubricant
between the organ and body wall
- Thin, lubricating film which is produced by the membranes
- Especially important for organs that move (Ex. Heart, stomach)
- This continuous movement of these organs (rub against the body wall or against another
organ) can cause friction between the visceral and parietal layers  this friction is reduced
by the serous fluid
o The combination of serous fluid and the smooth serous membranes reduces the
friction