ANATOMY REVIEWER: SURFACE ANATOMY

 Anatomy
o science of body structures and the relationships among them. It was first studied by
dissection of human body parts or the act of cutting apart body structures to study their
relationship. Whereas anatomy deals with the structures of the body

 Physiology
o e science of body functions, how the body part works and specifically studies the function
of the structures in how it maintains balance and keeps a person alive
 The Anatomic Position
o Standing upright, upper limbs by the sides, the face and the palms of the hands directed
forward, lower limbs close together with the feet parallel
 The Reclining Body
o Prone
 Body is lying face down
o Supine
 Body lying face up
 Sagittal Plane
o vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides.
o More specifically, when such a plane passes through the midline of the body or an organ
and divides it into equal right and left sides, it is called a midsagittal plane or a median
plane
o always remember if the body is equally divided into a left & right half it is what we call a
median or midsagittal plane
 Parasagittal Plane
o divides the body or an organ into unequal right and left sides
 Frontal / Coronal Plane
o divides the body or an organ into anterior or front and posterior or back portions.
 Transverse Plane
o divides the body or an organ into superior or upper and inferior or lower portions
 Oblique Plane
o passes through the body or an organ at an angle between a transverse plane and a
sagittal plane or between a transverse plane and a frontal plane. To make it simpler to
understand it crosses the body diagonally.
 Anterior – Front Posterior – back
 Superior – Towards the upper part Inferior – towards the lower part
 Medial – nearer to the midline Lateral – farther from the Midline
 Proximal – nearer to the attachment of a limb or the origin of a structure
 Distal – father from the attachment of a limb
 Contralateral – on the opposite of the body from another structure
 Ipsilateral – same side of the body
 Principal Regions: Head, Neck, Trunk, Upper Limbs, Lower limbs
 Head: consists of skull and face
 Neck: supports the head and connects it to the trunk
 Trunk: consists of chest, abdomen, and pelvis
 Upper Limb: Attached to the trunk
 Lower Limb: attached to the trunk
o Groin: area in the front surface marked by a crease
 Cranial Cavity
o fusion of 6 cranial bones. It is responsible for housing our brain.
o bones of the vertebral column that protects the spinal cord and the beginnings of spinal
nerves, forms the vertebral canal or cavity
o Both the cranial and vertebral cavity makes up the dorsal body cavity
 Thoracic Cavity
o One of the major body cavities
o or chest cavity is formed by the ribs, the muscles of the chest, the sternum (breastbone),
and the thoracic portion of the vertebral column (backbone).
o Pericardial Cavity
 Within the thoracic cavity are the pericardial cavity, a fluid filled that surrounds the
heart
o Pleural Cavity
 two fluid-filled spaces, one around each lung
 Mediastinum
o central part of the thoracic cavity is an anatomical region
o between the lungs, extending from the sternum to the vertebral column and from the first
rib to the diaphragm.
o contains all thoracic organs except the lungs themselves. Among the structures in the
mediastinum are the heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, and several large blood vessels
o mediastinum is further divided into the superior and inferior mediastinum, of which the
inferior part is larger. The inferior mediastinum is further divided into the anterior, middle
and posterior mediastinum.
o Superior Mediastinum
 contains the thymus, trachea, esophagus, thoracic duct and aortic arch and is
bordered by the first rib superiorly and T4 or 4th thoracic rib inferiorly
o Anterior Inferior Mediastinum
 contains the remnants of the thymus and lymph nodes, remnants we say because
when a person reaches adulthood his thymic organ shrinks and stops growing until
puberty.
o Middle Inferior Mediastinum
 contains the heart, pulmonary trunk while the posterior inferior mediastinum
bordered superiorly by T4, inferiorly by T12, anteriorly by back portion of the
pericardium and posterioly by the spine.
 o Diaphragm
 dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic
cavity.
o Abdominopelvic Cavity
 extends from the diaphragm to the groin and is encircled by the abdominal wall
and the bones and muscles of the pelvis
 It is subdivided into the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity
 Abdominal Cavity
 the superior portion which is the abdominal cavity, contains the stomach,
spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine.
 Pelvic Cavity
 inferior portion, the pelvic cavity, contains the urinary bladder, portions of
the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system. Organs
inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are called viscera
 Atoms
o considered to be the smallest unit of matter, and two atoms joined together make up a
molecule
 Cells
o basic structural and functional unit of a living organism. They are the smallest living units
of the body.
 Tissue
o Group of cells joined together and that works for specific functions
 Epithelial Tissue
 Muscular Tissue
 Nervous Tissue
 Connective Tissue
 Organ
o different types of tissue are joined together to perform a particular function they know
make up an organ.
 System
o When two or more related organs work and function together to perform tasks they make
up a system
 Organism
o When all of these cells, tissues, organs & organ system efficiently function altogether they
create a living organism.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LIVING HUMAN ORGANISM

 Metabolism
o sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body
o Catabolism
 breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components
o Anabolism
 building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components
 Responsiveness
o ability to detect and respond to changes. Different cells in the body respond to
environmental changes in characteristic ways.
o In a situation where oneself is in danger, your body either goes into a fight ready stance
meaning you are ready to engage the threat and control it or flight stance where you flee
to avert danger towards yourself. A survival instinct to say the least.
 Movement
o motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside
cells.
o Inside the cell, various parts move from one position to another to carry out their
functions. So movement is not totally exclusive with anything seen externally but is also
currently happening within the body
 Growth
o increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an
increase in the number of cells, or both.
 In addition, a tissue sometimes increases in size because the amount of material between cells
increases. In a growing bone, for example, mineral deposits accumulate between bone cells,
causing the bone to grow in length and width. Also note that an increase in the size of the cells is
called cellular hypertrophy while an increase in the number of cells is cellular hyperplasia. It is
important for us to correctly distinguish these terminologies to properly describe bodily changes.
 Differentiation
o development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state.
o Each type of cell in the body has a specialized structure and function that differs from that
of its precursor (ancestor) cells.
 o all cells are originally what we call are stem cells but through the process of differentiation
these cells can become any type of cell the body needs.
 Reproduction
o either to the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or to the
production of a new individual.
 Homeostasis
o condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment due to the constant
interaction of the body’s many regulatory processes.
o ICF
 The fluid within cells in intracellular fluid
o ECF
 The fluid outside body cells is extracellular fluid
 Nervous System
o regulates homeostasis by sending electrical signals known as nerve impulses (action
potentials) to organs that can counteract changes from the balanced state
 Endocrine System
o includes many glands that secrete messenger molecules called hormones into the blood.
Nerve impulses typically cause rapid changes, but hormones usually work more slowly.
 Feedback System
o cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed,
remonitored, reevaluated, and so on.
o Receptor
 body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a
control center
o Control Center
 sets the range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained,
evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates output commands
when they are needed
 In our skin temperature example, the brain acts as the control center, receiving
nerve impulses from the skin receptors and generating nerve impulses as output
o Effector
 body structure that receives output from the control center and produces a
response or effect that changes the controlled condition.
 Negative Feedback Loop
o Reverses a change in a controlled condition.
 Positive Feedback Loop
o tends to strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions.
o The control center still provides commands to an effector, but this time the effector
produces a physiological response that adds to or reinforces the initial change in the
controlled condition.

CELLS & TISSUES

 cell consider to be the basic membrane-bound living unit that contains the fundamental
molecules of life and of which all living things are composed
 Robert Hooke
o The one who discovered cells when he observed under a microscope what was from very
thin slices of bottle cork.
 Theodor Schwann & Matthias Jakob Schleiden
o Developed the cell theory
o Matthias Jakob Schleiden
 suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of
cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either
within other cells or from the outside.
o Theodor Schwann
 states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells
in their structures
o Rudolf Virchow
 states that All cells arise only from pre-existing cells.
 Plasma Membrane
o separating the inner contents, or cytoplasm also known as protoplasm, from the
environment around the cell.
o Cytoplasm
 Inside the cytoplasm are structures called organelles, surrounded by a fluid we
call the cytosol. Organelles perform essential cellular functions
 defined as the protoplasm or all the material that exists within the cell except for
the nucleus
 Cytoplasm manages to give a cell its shape. It rounds out the cell and keeps
organelles in their place
 o Protoplasm
 defined as the total colorless material that exists within the cell including the
cytoplasm, nucleus, and other parts. Protoplasm is made from a blend of little
particles
 Protoplasm actually consists of the cytoplasm along with the nucleus
 Composed of: Water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids and carbohydrates
 Nucleus
o considered to be the control center and is the largest organelle contains the cell's genetic
information encoded in molecules of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
 Prokaryotic Cell
o organisms made up of cells that lack a cell nucleus or any membrane – bound organelles
 Eukaryotic Cell
o made up of cells that possess a membrane-bound nucleus that holds genetic material as
well as membrane-bound organelles.
 Intracellular Organelles
o The physical nature of each organelle is as important as the cell's chemical constituents
for cell function. Each type of organelle has a characteristic shape and specific functions
 Plasma Membrane
o forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separating the cell’s internal environment (inside
the cell) from the external environment (outside the cell). It is a selective barrier that
regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell
o envelops the cell, is a thin, pliable, elastic structure. It is composed almost entirely of
proteins and lipids
o Its basic structure is a lipid bilayer, which is a thin, doublelayered film of lipids and each
layer is only one molecule thick, that is continuous over the entire cell surface
o Interspersed in this lipid film are large globular protein molecules. These are membrane
proteins, most of which are glycoproteins.
o Cell Membrane Proteins:
 Integral Proteins
 protrude all the way through the membrane
 Peripheral Proteins
 attached only to one surface of the membrane and do not penetrate all the
way through.
o The basic structural framework of the plasma membrane is the lipid bilayer, two back-to-
back layers made up of three types of Lipid Molecules
 Phospholipids
 lipids that contain phosphorus
 These compound lipids are major components of the cell membrane and
also provide a fluid character to the membranes. In cell membranes, these
phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail, which forms
the inside of the bilayer.
 Cholesterol
 essential component of cell membranes, which are the structures that
border every cell in the human body.1 Without cholesterol, T-cells (a type of
white blood cell), for example, would not maintain their cell membranes,
leading to rupturing of the cells.
 Glycolipids
 A carbohydrate, usually an oligosaccharide, that is covalently linked to
a lipid molecule, such as those found in the cell membrane
 Glycocalyx
o carbohydrate portions of glycolipids and glycoproteins form an extensive sugary coat
called the glycocalyx.
o protects the cell from interaction with inappropriate proteins from chemical and physical
injury.
o the glycocalyx acts like a molecular “signature” that enables cells to recognize one
another
o glycocalyx enables cells to adhere to one another in some tissues and protects cells from
being digested by enzymes in the extracellular fluid.

 Protein
o One of the most important role that these membrane proteins deliver is they facilitate
movement of molecules, ions across the plasma membrane. Some integral membrane
proteins form ion channels, pores or holes through which specific ions, such as potassium
ions can flow to get into or out of the cell. Most ion channels are selective; they allow only
a single type of ion to pass through
o Other integral proteins act as carriers, selectively moving a polar substance or ion from
one side of the membrane to the other. Carriers are also known as transporters.
o Carrier Protein
  bind with molecules or ions that are to be transported; conformational changes in
the protein molecules then move the substances through the interstices of the
protein to the other side of the membrane
 Can utilize ATP - driven transport mechanisms to ferry specific substances across
the plasma membrane against a concentration gradient. Primary, Secondary
Active Transport
 Nuclear Envelope
o contains special pores for ribosomes and RNA
o Protects DNA from Nuclease enzymes
 Nucleoplasm
o Location of DNA
 Nucleolus
o Densely packed RNA and proteins
o Location of ribosome assembly
o Ribosomes have a big impact on cell processes
 Ribosomes
o site of protein synthesis. The name of these tiny organelles reflects their high content of one type of
ribonucleic acid, ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)
o Ribosomes are also located within mitochondria, where they synthesize mitochondrial proteins.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
o network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs or tubules
o The ER is so extensive that it constitutes more than half of the membranous surfaces within the cytoplasm
of most cells
o Two forms of ER:
 Rough ER:
 usually is folded into a series of flattened sacs
 The outer surface of rough ER is studded with ribosomes, the sites of protein synthesis
 Proteins synthesized by ribosomes attached to rough ER enter spaces within the ER for
processing and sorting. Thus rough ER produces secretory proteins, membrane proteins,
and many organellar proteins.
 Smooth ER
 extends from the rough ER to form a network of membrane tubules
 smooth ER contains unique enzymes that make it functionally more diverse than rough ER.
 Smooth ER does not synthesize proteins, but it does synthesize fatty acids and steroids,
such as estrogens and testosterone. It detoxify certain drugs
 Golgi Apparatus
  Most of the proteins synthesized by ribosomes attached to rough ER are ultimately
transported to other regions of the cell. The first step in the transport pathway is through
an organelle called the Golgi complex. It consists of 3 to twenty cisternae
 The golgi complex is also termed as the packaging center of the cell, as it functions to
store, pack and transport proteins.
 Lysosomes
 membraneenclosed vesicles that form from the Golgi complex. digests organelles that
aren't functional anymore.
 A lysosome can engulf another organelle, digest it, and return the digested components to
the cytosol for reuse. In this way, old organelles are continually replaced. For this specific
function the lysosomes are also known as the "suicide bags" organelle
 Autophagy
o entire worn-out organelles are digested is called autophagy. cell eats its own
component and it recycles waste to form another energy.
o In autophagy, the organelle to be digested is enclosed by a membrane derived
from the E-R to create a vesicle called an autophagosome; the vesicle then fuses
with a lysosome.

 Autolysis
 Lysosomal enzymes may also destroy the entire cell that contains them, a process known
as autolysis
 Tay-Sachs Disease
o In some instances, individuals with faulty or absent lysosomal enzymes are considered, people with
lysosomal storage disorder.
o inherited condition which can be passed through your genes and is characterized by the absence of a
single lysosomal enzyme called Hexosaminidase - This enzyme normally breaks down a membrane
glycolipid called ganglioside GM2 that is especially prevalent in nerve cells. As a result of this condition,
the ganglioside accumulates and proliferates in the nerve cell causing it to function less efficiently.
 Peroxisome
o they are believed to be formed by self – replication
o contain oxidases rather than hydrolases. Several of the oxidases are capable of combining oxygen with
hydrogen ions derived from different intracellular chemicals to form hydrogen peroxide (H-2-O-2).
Hydrogen peroxide is a highly oxidizing substance and is used in association with catalase, another oxidase
enzyme present in large quantities in peroxisomes, to oxidize many substances that might otherwise be
poisonous to the cell.
o A byproduct of the oxidation reactions is hydrogen peroxide.
o peroxisomes protect other parts of the cell from the toxic effects of hydrogen peroxide.
 Mitochondria
o called the "powerhouses" of the cell. Without them, cells would be unable to extract enough energy from
the nutrients
o Further, the mitochondria are concentrated in those portions of the cell that are responsible for the major
share of its energy metabolism
o In addition, the inner cavity of the mitochondrion is filled with a matrix that contains large quantities of
dissolved enzymes that are necessary for extracting energy from nutrients. These enzymes operate in
association with the oxidative enzymes on the shelves to cause oxidation of the nutrients, thereby forming
carbon dioxide and water and at the same time releasing energy
o The liberated energy is used to synthesize a "highenergy" substance called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ATP is then transported out of the mitochondrion, and it diffuses throughout the cell to release its own
energy wherever it is needed for performing cellular functions
 Cytoskeleton
o network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol
 o Microfilaments
 thin filaments are the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton. They are composed of the protein
actin
 They help generate movement and provide mechanical support. (muscle contraction)
 Microfilaments provide much of the mechanical support that is responsible for the basic strength
and shapes of cells
o Intermediate Filaments
 thicker than microfilaments but thinner than microtubules.
 They are found in parts of cells subject to mechanical stress, help stabilize the position of
organelles such as the nucleus, and help attach cells to one another.
o Microtubules
 largest of the cytoskeletal components and are long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly
of the protein tubulin
 The assembly of microtubules begins in an organelle called the centrosome
 Microtubules help determine cell shape. They also function in the movement of organelles such as
secretory vesicles, of chromosomes during cell division, and of specialized cell projections, such as
cilia and flagella
 Nucleus
o It is also considered to be the control center of the cell. Briefly, the nucleus contains large quantities of
DNA, which are the genes. The genes determine the characteristics of the cell's proteins, including the
structural proteins, as well as the intracellular enzymes that control cytoplasmic and nuclear activities.
o A double membrane called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
 TRANSPORT MECHANISM ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE
o Endocytosis
 Substances taken in by other particles are often large polar molecules that cannot cross the
hydrophobic plasma membrane. Many single celled eukaryotes employ endocytosis to ingest such
food particles.
 In this process, the plasma membrane extends outward and surrounds the food particle. Cells use
three major types of endocytosis:
 Phagocytosis
o material being taken in is particulate such as bacterium or fragment if organic
matter
 Pinocytosis
o If the material is liquid
 Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
o Specific molecule such as low density lipoproteins
 Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
 Passive
o Simple Diffusion
 movement of molecules across cell membrane without using energy. When a cell uses simple
diffusion, molecules naturally move from an area of high concentration to low concentration
through a permeable membrane
 Speed at each side reaches the equilibrium is dependent on the porosity of the membrane. The
more porous the membrane, the faster the molecules diffuse
 Net Diffusion
 amount of material moving from side to side. It moves down the concentration gradient
from high concentration to areas of low concentration.
o Osmosis
 movement of water molecules from a solution with a high concentration of water molecules to a
solution with a lower concentration of water molecules, through a cell's partially permeable
membrane
 lower to higher as the nature tries to equalize the concentration on either side
 Osmotic Pressure
 pressure caused by this tendency for water to cross the membrane. If there is a little
difference on the osmolarities of either side of the membrane, the osmotic pressure is
low. When the difference is high then the pressure is high.
 it is influenced by the particles that cannot move to the membrane. Particles that can
move to the membrane doesn't impact it as they will be present in equal concentration.
 Hypertonic
 Much salty
 Hypertonic than the cell because it has much higher concentration of solute molecules
and a much lower concentration of water
 Since the solute molecule can't pass through the membrane to reach equilibrium but
water molecules can. The water molecules on the outside of the cell are going to be
obstructed from passing through by the many molecules of solvent. However, the
molecules inside have much less solvent getting in the way. Water will come out from the
cell and the cell will shrink. Cell contraction plasmolysis - shrink.
 Hypotonic
 Much watery
 Compared to the cell, it's much less salty. Some water molecules will exit the cell but even
more will rush in because they aren't obstructed by solute particles. The cell grows in size
and it may even under go cytolysis and burst.
 Isotonic
 Equal amounts
  Equal amounts of water molecules continue to pass in and out of the cell. The system is in
dynamic equilibrium particles are continuing to move but the net movement is zero - the
cell neither shrinks nor grows is much more likely to survive.
o Active Transport
 When the molecules of a substance need to move from an area of low concentration to high
concentration, they use specialized proteins in the cell membrane. This process expends energy
and is called active transport.
 Primary Active Transport (Uphill)
 Direct input of metabolic energy in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
 Carrier – mediated

o Secondary Active Transport

 A pump that transport two s

substances at the same time is

called a symport protein