Lesson IV

THE GENERAL PLAN OF THE ANIMAL BODY

Lesson Objectives

1. Learn the basic organization of the body of vertebrates including the

main body cavities and the location of major organs.
2. Identify the level of body organization in animals.
3. Recognize the 11 body systems in animal’s body.

A. Levels of Body Organization

Living organisms are made up of four levels of organization: cells,

tissues, organs, and organ systems.
1. Cells- The first and most basic level of organization is the cellular
level. A cell is the basic unit of life and the smallest unit capable of
reproduction.
2. Tissues-are a group of similar cells of the same origin that carry out a
specific function together. Animals have four different types of basic
tissues.
 Connective tissues such as bone tissue are made up of fibrous
cells and give shape and structure to organs.
 Muscle tissue is made up of cells that can contract together and
allow animals to move.
 Epithelial tissues make up the outer layers of organs, such as
the skin or the outer layer of the stomach.
 Nervous tissue is made of specialized cells that transmit
information through electrochemical impulses, such as the
tissue of nerves, the spinal cord, and the brain.

3. Organs-An organ is a structure made up of different tissues that

perform specific bodily functions. Organs may be solid or hollow,
and vary considerably in size and complexity. The heart, lungs, and
brain are all examples of organs.
4. Organ Systems- a collection of organs that that work together to
perform a similar function. There are eleven different organ systems in
the animal’s body, each with its own specific functions.

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B. The organization of animal body
Animal body plan can have varying degrees of symmetry can be;
a. Asymmetrical- having disproportionate arrangement of parts;
exhibiting no patters.
b. Bilateral symmetry-having equal arrangement of parts about a vertical
plane running from head to tail.
c. Radial symmetry-a form of symmetry wherein identical parts is
arranged in a circular fashion around a central axis.

All farm animals are vertebrates, and as such they have a vertebral
column. The body exhibits bilateral symmetry. This means that the right and left
sides of the body are mirror images of each other.

Paired structures- similar right and left structures; lungs, kidney,

ribs, eyes, ears.
Unpaired structures-most are on or near the median plane,
and of course, only one of each unpaired structure
exists in any given animal. The tongue, trachea, vertebral
column, and heart are examples

Wherever organs are expected to be in more or-less constant motion and

must glide past one another without friction (e.g., the beating heart and moving
gut), a serosal cavity is present.

Body Cavities

The simple squamous epithelium lining various body cavities is also

called mesothelium, and the cavities have within them only a scant amount of
fluid to facilitate free movement of the tissues.
The diaphragm divides the embryonic body cavity into:

a. Thoracic cavity- contains

 Pericardial sac which surrounds the heart
 Pleural sac which surround the two lungs.
- These sacs are formed by a serous membrane, the pleura, a layer of
simple squamous epithelium with underlying connective tissue,
moistened with the small amount of fluid within the cavity of the sac.
b. Abdominopelvic cavity- somewhat arbitrarily divided into:
 Abdominal cavity contains the kidneys, most of the digestive
organs, and a variable amount of the internal reproductive organs
in both sexes.

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  Pelvic cavity contains the terminal part of the digestive system (the
rectum) and all of the internal portions of the urogenital system
not found in the abdominal
cavity.
- The abdominal and pelvic cavities are continuous with one another,
and the brim of the pelvis marks the transition.
- The serous membrane that surrounds the abdominal viscera and part
of the pelvic viscera is called peritoneum.

A transverse section through the abdominal cavity illustrates the general

plan of the body as a tube (the digestive tract and its derivatives) within a tube
(the body wall). Normally there are few air-filled spaces in the animal body
except in the respiratory system and the ear. However, for the sake of clarity,
many illustrations show a considerable separation between structures that in the
animal body are actually in contact.

Cross-section of the body wall and digestive tract

The layers of the body wall and the layers of the digestive tract show a
striking similarity, although in reverse order.
Layers of the body wall from outside inward are:
(1) epithelium (epidermis of the skin),
(2) connective tissue (dermis and fascia)
(3) muscle (striated)
(4) connective tissue (transverse fascia),
(5) mesothelium (parietal peritoneum).

The layers of the gut wall from outside inward are:

(1)mesothelium (visceral peritoneum),
(2) connective tissue (subserous connective tissue)
(3) muscle (smooth)
(4) connective tissue (submucosa),
(5) epithelium (mucous membrane)

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 The serous membranes mentioned previously (pericardium, pleura, and
peritoneum) are all derivatives of the lining of the celomic cavity of the embryo.
Each serous membrane forms a continuous sac that is usually empty except for
a small amount of serous (watery) fluid. In other words, no viscera are found
inside any of the serous sacs, although most viscera are covered by at least one
layer of a serous membrane. A simple analogy is that of pushing one’s fist into a
partially inflated balloon. The fist is never actually within the balloon proper,
but still it is surrounded by a portion of the balloon

A) Invagination of serous membrane to form outer (parietal) and inner (visceral)

layers. B and C) This is similar to a fist pushed into a balloon.

The part of the serous membrane covering a viscera is called the visceral
serous membrane (visceral pericardium, visceral pleura, and visceral
peritoneum).
The serous membrane lining a body cavity is called the parietal serous
membrane (parietal pericardium, parietal pleura, and parietal peritoneum). The
continuity of each serous sac is maintained by connecting layers of serous
membrane that extend from the visceral layer of each serous membrane to the
parietal layer of the same serous membrane. The names of these connecting
layers of serous membranes are based on the specific areas they connect, and
they are discussed in some detail along with the relevant systems later.

C. The 11 body systems

The body is made up of many, many millions of cells which you can not
see unless you use a microscope. Special cells come together to make an organ.
An organ is a complex structure within the body. It has a special job or
jobs to do.
A body system consists of a number of organs which work together to
carry out a special job.

The animal body is made of 11 systems:

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 Skin- The skin covering the body consists of two layers, the epidermis
and dermis. Associated with these layers are hairs, feathers, claws, hoofs,
glands and sense organs of the skin
 Skeletal System- This can be divided into the bones of the skeleton and
the joints where the bones move over each other.
 Muscular System- The muscles, in conjunction with the skeleton and
joints, give the body the ability to move.
 Cardiovascular System- This is also known as the circulatory system. It
consists of the heart, the blood vessels and the blood. It transports
substances around the body.
 Lymphatic System- This system is responsible for collecting and
“cleaning” the fluid that leaks out of the blood vessels. This fluid is then
returned to the blood system. The lymphatic system also makes
antibodies that protect the body from invasion by bacteria etc. It consists
of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the spleen and thymus glands.
 Respiratory System- This is the system involved with bringing oxygen in
the air into the body and getting rid of carbon dioxide, which is a waste
product of processes that occur in the cell. It is made up of the trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, diaphragm, ribs and muscles that move the
ribs in breathing.
 Digestive System- this is also known as the gastrointestinal system,
alimentary system or gut. It consists of the digestive tube and glands like
the liver and pancreas that produce digestive secretions. It is concerned
with breaking down the large molecules in foods into smaller ones that
can be absorbed into the blood and lymph. Waste material is also
eliminated by the digestive system.
 Urinary System-this is also known as the renal system. It removes waste
products from the blood and is made up of the kidneys, ureters and
bladder.
 Reproductive System- this is the system that keeps the species going by
making new individuals. It is made up of the ovaries, uterus, vagina and
fallopian tubes in the female and the testes with associated glands and
ducts in the male.
 Nervous System-this system coordinates the activities of the body and
responses to the environment. It consists of the sense organs (eye, ear,
semicircular canals, and organs of taste and smell), the nerves, brain and
spinal cord.
 Endocrine System-This is the system that produces chemical messengers
or hormones. It consists of various endocrine glands (ductless glands) that
include the pituitary, adrenal, thyroid and pineal glands as well as the
testes and ovary.

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References:

Frandson, R.D, Wilke W.L, Fails, A. D, 2009, Anatomy and Physiology of

Farm Animals 7th edition, John Wiley and Sons Inc., Publication

Levels of Organization
https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/B ok
%3A_Anatomy_and_Physiology_(Boundless)/1%3A_Introduction_t
_Anatomy_and_Physiology/1.2%3A_Life/1.2C%3A_Levels_of_Organi ation

Animal Form and Functionhttps://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-

biology/chapter/animal-form-and-function/

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