The Tissues & the

Integumentary
System

CU 3 ppt tjsalcedo’21
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES & OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course unit, the learners will be able to:
• Describe the general makeup of a tissue.
• Discuss the four types of tissues based on the descriptions &
functions.
• Identify the structures & functions of the various epithelial
tissues.
• Describe the different types of connective tissues
• Explain the locations & functions of each type of muscle tissue
• Discuss the unique characteristics of nervous tissues
• Describe the general functions of the integumentary system
• Discuss the different structures & physiology of the
Integumentary System
 INTRODUCTION
In some ways, the human body is like a complex
machine with many parts. Similarly, the many parts
of the human body are made of collections of
specialized cells & the materials surrounding them.
As the human body contains trillion of cells, these
cells further group together to form tissues.
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure &
function as well as similar extracellular substances
located between the cells. These tissues were
made from specialized cells that were made during
development & intended to group together to
perform specific functions.
 TERMINOLOGIES :
ADIPOSE TISSUE - Type of loose connective tissue dominated by fat cells.
AREOLAR TISSUE - Type of loose connective tissue that lies beneath almost all
epithelia.
CHONDROCYTES - Cartilage-forming cells.
COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM - Epithelial tissue composed of cells having a tall,
columnar shape.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE - serves to connect the body together & to support, bind, or
protect organs. The most widespread, & the most varied of all the tissues.
CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM - Epithelial tissue consisting of cells having a cube-like
shape.
ENDOCRINE GLAND - A gland that secretes its product, called a hormone, directly
into the bloodstream.
EPITHELIUM - The layer of cells forming the epidermis of the skin & the surface layer
of mucous & serous membranes
EXOCRINE GLAND - A gland that secretes its product into a duct, which then empties
onto a body surface or inside a body cavity.
FIBROBLASTS - Cells that secrete collagen, which forms scar tissue inside a wound.
 TERMINOLOGIES :
FIBROSIS - The repair & replacement of damaged tissue with connective
tissue, mainly collagen. Fibrosis means thickening or scarring of the tissue.
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM - Type of epithelium consisting of glands that
secrete a particular substance.
GOBLET CELL - Modified columnar cell containing secretory vesicles that
produce large quantities of mucus.
GRANULATION TISSUE - Newly formed tissue inside a wound.
MUCOUS MEMBRANE - Epithelial membrane that lines body surfaces that
open directly to the body’s exterior.
MUSCLE TISSUE - Tissue consisting of contractile cells or fibers that effect
movement of an organ or body part
NERVOUS TISSUE -Tissue with a high degree of excitability & conductivity
that makes up the nervous system
OSSEOUS TISSUE - Bone tissue.
 TERMINOLOGIES
OSTEOCYTES - Bone-forming cells.
:
RETICULAR TISSUE - Tissue consisting of a loose network of reticular
fibers & cells; forms the framework of the spleen, lymph nodes, &
bone marrow.
SEROUS MEMBRANE - Membrane composed of simple squamous
epithelium resting on a thin layer of areolar connective tissue; lines
some of the closed body cavities & also covers many of the organs in
those cavities.
SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM - Epithelial tissue consisting of thin, flat
cells.
STEM CELL - Specialized cell that can differentiate into many different
types of cells.
TISSUE - Groups of similar cells that perform a common function
01 TISSUES & HISTOLOGY
HISTOLOGY – the science that deals with the study of tissues.
Relating knowledge of different tissues can brought
understanding of underlying changes in the body such as
growth & development & even disease existence. (VanPutte, Regan,
& Russo, 2016)
PATHOLOGIST- is a physician who examines tissues for
changes that may indicate damage or disease. (Tortora &
Freudenrich, 2011)
The CELLS ORGANIZE INTO 3 PRIMARY GERM LAYERS:
ECTODERM - the outer layer,
MESODERM - the middle layer &
ENDODERM - forming the inner layer.
And while cells continue to divide, they also form distinct
properties through the process called differentiation.
01 TISSUES & HISTOLOGY
01 TISSUES & HISTOLOGY
FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES IN THE BODY:
• EPITHELIAL TISSUE - covers body surfaces, forms
glands, & lines body cavities, hollow organs, & ducts.
• CONNECTIVE TISSUE - protects & supports the body
& its organs, binds organs together, stores energy
reserves as fat, & provides immunity.
• MUSCULAR TISSUE - generates the physical force
needed to make body structures move.
• NERVOUS TISSUE - detects changes inside & outside
the body & generates transmits nerve impulses that
coordinate body activities to help maintain
homeostasis..
01 EPITHELIAL TISSUE
EPITHELIAL TISSUES covers body surfaces, forms glands, & lines body
cavities, hollow organs, & ducts & perform several functions such as:
1. It protects underlying structures. Skin, for instance, is an evident

02
model of how tissues provides protection. Other examples includes oral
cavity & the linings of the digestive tract.
2. It acts as a barrier. It prevents from contamination of harmful
molecules by not allowing infiltration of toxic microorganisms.
3. It permits passage of substances. Diffusion allows exchange of oxygen
03 & carbon dioxide in the lungs providing enough oxygenation in the body.
4. It secretes. All glands are made of epithelial tissue. The endocrine
glands secrete hormones, the mucous glands secrete mucus, & our
intestinal tract contains cells that secrete digestive enzymes in addition
to the pancreas & the liver, which secrete the major portions of digestive
04 enzymes.
5. It absorbs. In the lining of the small intestine, nutrients from our
digested food enter blood capillaries & get carried to the cells of our
05 body. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
 Classification of Epithelial Tissues
EPITHELIAL TISSUES are classified according
to cell shape & to its cell layers:
• SQUAMOUS -Thin & flat cells that allow
diffusion & filtration
• CUBOIDAL - Cube-shaped cells that may have
microvilli at their apical surface for
secretion or absorption
• COLUMNAR - Tall & thin cells that may have
microvilli or cilia at their apical surface
for secretion & absorption
• TRANSITIONAL- Change shape from flat to
cuboidal & back. These cells are found in
organs that can stretch like the urinary
bladder.
According to Cell shape from Tortora &
Freudenrich, (2011)
ACCORDING TO CELL LAYERS:
• SIMPLE EPITHELIUM — has only one layer of cells & its
primary function is to move materials
• PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIUM – has a single layer but
appears to have many due to cells’ nuclei are placed at many
levels
• STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM – has multiple layer of cells &
intended for protection

More often than not, each epithelium is named after the shape
& the layers. The shape & number of layers of epithelial cells
can change if constantly exposed to irritants.
 Simple
Squamous
Epithelium
It contains single-layered flat cells where certain substances are
allowed to cross. Because of this characteristic, processes such as
diffusion, osmosis, secretion & filtration as well as provision of a
level of protection from friction are also possible. Ex. Diffusion is
possible in the linings of an alveolus in the lungs. Moreover,
filtration of mainly water can occur in the kidneys leading to
formation of urine while leaving large molecules such as protein &
blood cells back in the blood vessels. Additionally, protection was
also made through the fluid from the secretions of simple squamous
epithelium because it lubricates the surfaces between the organs
thereby preventing damage from friction when the organs rub
against one another or the body wall. (figure 3.1) (VanPutte, Regan, &
Russo, 2016)
 Simple Squamous Epithelium

Figure 3.1 Simple Squamous Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
Simple Cuboidal
Epithelium

SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM consists of a single layer

of cube-like cell (figure 3.2) that aids in secretion &
absorption. Through this & their greater volume &
organelles, they can enable active transport & facilitated
diffusion.
The areas where you can find: the kidney tubules, glands &
their ducts, & the choroid plexus of the brain.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Figure 3.2 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
Simple Colummnar Tissue

SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIA are made up of

large, single layers of thin cells that allows it to
conduct complex processes such as mucus
secretions. The mucus protects the lining of the
intestine, & the digestive enzymes complete the
process of digesting food.
The columnar cells absorb the digested foods
by active transport, facilitated diffusion, or
simple diffusion. (figure 3.3) (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo,
2016)
 Simple Collumnar
Epithelium

Figure 3.3 Simple Columnar Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
The linings of the larger ducts of any glands, the epididymis
& male urethra have Pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
When ciliated, it facilitates movement of unwanted
substances & help moves secretions like those found in the
upper respiratory tract. As discussed earlier, a
pseudostratified columnar epithelium may look like to have
many layers & this is because of the cells appearing to be at
different levels (figure 3.4). Some cells are lengthy enough
to touch the free surface while other cells falls short in
length giving the false idea that there are more than one
layer. But originally, they were just a group of cells in single
layer that varies in height. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Figure 3.4 Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan &
Russo (2016)
 STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM, whether keratinized or not, its
main function is protection as it forms a thick layer of epithelium
(figure 3.5) made from several layers of cells.
One type of stratified squamous epithelium forms the outer layer of
the skin and is called keratinized squamous epithelium. The dead
cells provide protection against abrasion, & form a barrier that
prevents microorganisms and toxic chemicals from entering the
body, & reduces the loss of water from the body. If cells at the
surface are damaged or rubbed away, they are replaced by cells
formed in the deeper layers. In contrast, stratified squamous
epithelium of the mouth is composed of living cells with a moist
surface. This nonkeratinized (moist) stratified squamous epithelium
also provides protection against abrasion and acts as a mechanical
barrier, preventing microorganisms from entering the body. Water,
however, can move across it more readily than across the skin.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Figure 3.5 Stratified Squamous Epithelium
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
The lining of the ducts of sweat glands, esophageal glands & parts of the
male urethra are made up of Stratified cuboidal epithelium that forms
from layers of cube-like cells intended to assist in secretion, absorption
and protection. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more than one layer of
epithelial cells, but only the surface cells are columnar. The deeper
layers are irregular or cuboidal in shape. Like stratified cuboidal
epithelium, stratified columnar epithelium is relatively rare. It is found in
the mammary gland ducts, the larynx, & a portion of the male urethra.
This epithelium carries out secretion, protection, & some absorption.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
 TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM is a special type of stratified
epithelium that can be greatly stretched.
In the unstretched state, transitional epithelium consists of
five or more layers of cuboidal or columnar cells that often
are dome-shaped at the free surface (figure 3.6).
As transitional epithelium is stretched, the cells change to a
low cuboidal or squamous shape & the number of cell layers
decreases. Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can
expand greatly, such as the urinary bladder. It also protects
underlying structures from the caustic effects of urine.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
Transitional Epithelium

Figure 3.6 Transitional Epithelium

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
 CELL CONNECTION
Most epithelial cells, some muscle & nerve cells are tightly joined into
functional units by points of contact between their plasma
membranes called cell junctions. Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011)
CELL JUNCTIONS PERFORM DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS IN DIFFERENT
TISSUES:
1. Tight junctions fuse cells together tightly to prevent substances
from passing between the cells. It can be found in tissues with simple
epithelia like those that line the stomach, intestines, & urinary
bladder, tight junctions prevent the contents of these organs from
leaking out.
2. Some cell junctions hold cells together so that they don’t separate
while performing their functions.(Ex. Adherens Junctions)
3. Gap junctions form channels that allow ions & molecules to pass
between cells. This permits cells in a tissue to communicate &
enables nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly among cells.
 CELL CONNECTION
FUNCTIONS OF CELL JUNCTIONS:
• Adherens junctions have a dense layer of proteins just inside
the plasma membrane called a plaque that runs along micro
laments to form a belt or strap-like structure called an adhesion
belt. Two adjacent cells are joined by transmembrane
glycoproteins that insert into the corresponding adhesion belts.
This arrangement resists separation even when stretched.
• Desmosomes are like adherens junctions, but the plaque binds
to intermediate laments & does not form a belt. Instead of two
cells adhering along a belt, they adhere at specific spots.
• Hemidesmosomes resemble half of a desmosome. They do not
adhere adjacent cells but rather attach cells to membranes.
 CELL CONNECTION
DESMOSOMES & TIGHT
JUNCTIONS - anchor cells
to one another.
HEMIDESMOSOMES -
anchor cells to the
basement membrane.
GAP JUNCTIONS - allow
adjacent cells to
communicate with each
other. Few cells have all
these different
connections
Figure 3.7 Cell Connection
*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and
Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo
(2016)
 GLANDS
A GLAND is made of glandular epithelial cells that secretes substances
either in the surface or in the bloodstream. These glandular epithelial
cells form both endocrine & exocrine glands.
Some glands contain both endocrine & exocrine glandular epithelium like
the pancreas, ovaries, & testes. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
• ENDOCRINE GLAND – ductless & secrete substance called hormones
directly into the interstitial fluid then to the blood.
Ex. Thyroid gland, Pituitary gland.
• EXOCRINE GLAND – secrete substances through tubes or ducts.
Ex. Sweat glands, Salivary glands, & Mammary glands.
a. Structure based on shape of ducts:
1. Simple – the duct ends directly into the secretory portion
2. Compound–the duct ends into multiple secretory branches
b. Based on secretory units:
1. Tubular – straight
2. Acinar / alveolar – saclike structure
c. Based on secretion types: Merocrine, Apocrine, Holocrine
 Glands

Figure 3.8 Structure of Exocrine Glands

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
 Glands
Merocrine, Apocrine, Holocrine

Figure 3.9 Secretion Types

*taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology
by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CONNECTIVE TISSUES - contains various cells, fibers & other substances.
It protects & supports the body & its organs. No wonder it is one of the
most abundant tissues.
TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS : Tortora & Freudenrich, (2011)
I. Cells
1.1 Fibroblasts - are large flat cells that move & secrete fibers & ground
substance.
1.2 Macrophages - develop from white blood cells & eat bacteria &
cell debris by phagocytosis
1.3 Plasma cells - are small cells that develop from a white blood cell. They
secrete antibodies that attack & neutralize foreign substances.
1.4 Mast cells - are abundant along blood vessels. They produce histamine,
which dilates small blood vessels during inflammation & kill bacteria.
1.5 Adipocytes - They are found below the skin & around organs like hear &
kidneys.
1.6 White blood cells like Neutrophils that migrates to sites of infection &
Eosinophils that migrate to sites of parasitic infection & allergic
responses.
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
1. Collagen – strong, flexible bundles of the protein collagen,
the most abundant protein in the body
2. Elastic fibers – stretchable but strong fibers made of
proteins, elastin and fibrillin. They are found in skin, blood
vessels and lung tissues.
3. Ground substances - is the stuff between cells & fibers. It
is made of water & organic molecules (hyaluronic acid,
chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine). It supports cells & fibers,
binds them together, & provides a medium for exchanging
substances between blood & cells.
Connective tissue cells are named according to their
functions & suffixes are used to denote their function.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE : Connective tissue
performs the following major functions :VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016):

1. Enclosing & separating other tissues. Liver & kidneys are

encapsulated to help them be separated from other tissues &
organs. More so, connective tissues divides structures such as
muscles, nerves as well as blood vessels from one another.
2. Cushioning & insulating. Adipose tissue cushions & protects the
tissues it surrounds & provides an insulating layer beneath the skin
that helps conserve heat.
3. Connecting tissues to one another. Connective tissues binds,
supports & strengthen other tissues. For instance, tendons
attaches muscles to bones while ligaments holds
bones together.
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE : cont.

4. Supporting & moving parts of the body. Connective tissues

accommodates locomotion while providing rigid support.
Ex. Surfaces of bones & joints.
5. Storing compounds. Storing energy through fat tissues & cells
provides reserves for the body. Bones in addition, stores minerals
such as calcium & phosphate.
6. Transporting. It transport materials throughout the body.
Ex. Blood, delivers nutrients, enzymes & essential nutrients.
7. Protecting. It protects the body by destroying invading
microorganisms & eliminating cellular debris. Protection from
injury can also be sought from bones.
CLASSIFICATION of CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Like epithelium, connective
tissue is classified according to its cells, extracellular matrix, & appearance
under the microscope. Unlike epithelium, most connective tissue has a rich
supply of blood vessels. 2 major categories of connective tissue are
embryonic & adult connective tissue. By eight weeks of development, most of
the embryonic connective tissue has become specialized to form the types of
connective tissue seen in adults. The outline is presented in the table below.
 SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Another type of a connective tissues are SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUES.

In this connective tissue, specialized cells called chondrocytes, or cartilage
cells makes up a Cartilage. When grouped together, these chondrocytes forms
an island called lacuna. As an overview, cartilages provides greater support for
surrounding structures. Though they are rigid, it goes back easily when
compressed. However, there are no blood vessels within cartilage. Substances
must diffuse through the extracellular matrix into the chondrocytes. This
diffusion is a relatively slow process which means that the cells & nutrients
necessary for tissue repair do not easily reach the damaged area, which is why
cartilage injuries take a long time to heal.
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 SUPPORTING CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Note: To provide more

focus in tissues & its
composition &
structure, bones &
blood will be further
elaborated later.
 MUSCLE TISSUE
MUSCULAR TISSUE is composed of elongated muscle cells called muscle fibers. The
job of muscular tissue is to generate force, which produces motion, maintains
posture, & generates heat. There are 3 types of muscular tissue:
Skeletal Muscles, Cardiac Muscles & Smooth muscles.
 MUSCLE TISSUE
CARDIAC MUSCLE has cylindrical, intermediate-sized cells that make up this tissue are
connected to one another by cell junctions called intercalated discs. These intercalated discs
contains specialized gap junctions helps in coordinating contractions. Cardiac muscle has
striations & contracts involuntarily.
MUSCLE TISSUE
 NERVOUS TISSUE
NERVOUS TISSUE - transmits impulses to coordinate activities
including involuntary controls because these specialized cells
makes up the brain, spinal cord & nerves. Tortora & Freudenrich (2011);

Despite the complexity of nervous system functions, nervous tissue

consists of only 2 types of cells which are: Neurons & Neuroglia.

NEURONS or NERVE CELLS - are responsible for conducting action

potentials.
These ACTION POTENTIALS are electrical signals that assists in cell
communication, making them sensitive to different stimuli. They
convert these stimuli into nerve impulses & conducts to other
neurons, to muscle fibers or even to glands.
.
 NERVOUS TISSUE
1. NERVE CELLS are composed mainly of cell body, dendrites &
axons (Figure 3.10).
CELL BODY - contains the nucleus & is the site of general cell
functions. Dendrites & axons are nerve cell processes.
DENDRITES -receive stimuli leading to electrical changes that
either increase or decrease action potentials in the neuron’s
axon. Action potentials usually originate at the base of an axon
where it joins the cell body & travels to the end of the axon.
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
2. NEUROGLIA - are supporting cells that do not generate or
conduct nerve impulses but have many other important
supportive functions such as nourishment, protection & even
maintenance of temperature for neurons.
 NERVOUS TISSUE

Figure 3.10 Nervous Tissue

*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Components of the integumentary
system include the skin, hair, oil &
sweat glands, nails, & sensory
receptors.

SKIN, OR CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE-

provides covering of the external
surfaces of the body.
As it’s largest organ, skin covers an
area of about 2 square meters (22
square feet) & weighs 4.5–5 kg (10–11
lb), about 16% of total body weight.
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
THREE LAYERS OF THE SKIN:

1. EPIDERMIS - the outermost layer

of skin, provides a waterproof
barrier & creates our skin tone.
2. DERMIS - beneath the epidermis,
contains tough connective tissue,
hair follicles, & sweat glands.
3. HYPODERMIS -DEEPER
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE - is
made of fat &connective tissue
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM:
1. Protection. The skin serves as the primary defense against offending
microorganisms. It provides a barrier against ultraviolet light & helps
maintain fluid inside the body, thus preventing dehydration.
2. Sensation. Receptors in the skin makes it possible for human
organism to perceive pain, pressure as well as other sensation like
temperature changes.
3. Vitamin D production. The body needs Vitamin D to help synthesize
calcium absorption, made possible by the skin’s sufficient exposure to
early sunlight.
4. Temperature regulation. The amount of blood flow beneath the skin’s
surface & the activity of sweat glands in the skin both help regulate
body temperature.
5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products are lost through the skin
& in gland secretions.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The SKIN is a multilayered organ that consists of 2 main parts:
Epidermis & Dermis
• EPIDERMIS - made from keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, is
the superficial, thinner portion of the skin that prevents water loss &
resists abrasion.
Keratinization - process where cells undergo changes in shape &
chemical composition to replace worn out cells.
The EPIDERMIS - (thin skin) is composed of keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium. It contains 4 principal types of cells:
Keratinocytes , melanocytes, Langerhans cells, & Merkel cells (figure
3.12). Several distinct layers of keratinocytes in various stages of
development form the bulk of the epidermis.
• DERMIS - is the deeper, thicker & dense connective tissue portion &
responsible for most of the skin’s structural strength. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo,
2016)
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
5 LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS - from the deepest to the most superficial.
1. Stratum Basale (Stratum Germinatum) - is the deepest layer that
consists of either columnar or cuboidal cells aligned in single row.
Some cells in this layer are stem cells undergoing cell division to
continually produce keratinocytes. They undergo mitotic divisions
about every 19 days. One daughter cell becomes a new stratum basale
cell & can divide again. The other daughter cell is pushed toward the
surface, a journey that takes about 40–56 days. As cells move to the
surface, changes in the cells produce intermediate strata.
2. Stratum spinosum - 8 to 10 layers of many-sided keratinocytes that is
closely together. This layer provides strength & flexibility to the skin.
Cells in the more superficial portions of this layer are beginning to
flatten.
3. Stratum granulosum - 3 to 5 layers of flattened keratinocytes that are
undergoing apoptosis. A distinctive feature of cells in this layer is the
presence of the protein keratin & membrane-enclosed lamellar
granules.
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
4. Stratum lucidum - 4–6 layers of flattened clear, dead keratinocytes
that contain large amounts of keratin. This layer is found only in the
areas of the body (thick skin) where exposure to friction is greatest (for
example, fingertips, palms, soles).
5. Stratum corneum - 25 to 30 layers of flattened dead cells from the
deeper strata. The interior of the cells contains mostly keratin that aids
in its natural strength. Its multiple layers of dead squamous cells filled
with keratin help to protect deeper layers from injury and microbial
invasion. The stratum corneum cells are also coated & surrounded by
lipids, which help prevent fluid loss through the skin. When the skin is
subjected to friction, the number of layers in the stratum corneum
greatly increases, producing a thickened area called a callus. Over a
bony prominence, the stratum corneum can thicken to form a cone-
shaped structure called a corn.
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
DERMIS - is composed of dense collagenous connective tissue
containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, & macrophages. Nerves,
hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, & lymphatic vessels
extend into the dermis (figure 3.11).
Structural strength of the dermis solely relies on its collagen &
elastic fiber contents making them durable to body movement.
However, collagen fibers runs through different directions
making the skin to have tension lines or cleavage lines. This is
also the reason why surgeons needs extra care where to do
their incisions. Another common concern is the presence of
stretch marks. If the skin is overstretched, it produces a
damage in the dermis & become stretch marks.
Figure 3.13 Cleavage Lines
*Photo and content taken from Seeley’s
Anatomy and Physiology byVanPutte,
Regan & Russo (2016
 INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
PARTITION can also be seen in the dermis. The uppermost portion of
the dermis is called DERMAL PAPILLAE. It has a lot of blood vessels
that keeps an avenue for providing nutrients, thermoregulation &
elimination of wastes. Moreover, they are aligned in parallels giving way
for the presence of fingerprints and footprints.
These nipple-shaped structures project into the undersurface of the
epidermis & can contains blood capillaries, nerve endings for sensory
receptors, Corpuscles of touch or Meissner corpuscle & free nerve
endings that helps with sensations of warmth, coolness, pain, tickling, &
itching.
The deeper part of the dermis, also known as the reticular region, which
is attached to the subcutaneous layer, contains bundles of collagen &
some coarse elastic fibers interspersed with adipose cells, hair follicles,
nerves, oil glands, & sweat glands. (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
 SKIN COLOR
SKIN COLOR is caused by pigments such as melanin, hemoglobin &
carotene. In the skin, melanin plays responsible for its pale yellow to
reddish brown to black shade. As evident, melanin is quite abundant in
moles & freckles & in certain areas of the body like the nipples
& areola. The lips, palms & soles, have contrary low amounts of
melanin. Additionally, melanin also protects the body from harmful
effects of ultraviolet rays from the sun.
Figure 3.13 Cleavage Lines *Photo & content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology byVanPutte,
Regan & Russo (2016)

How melanin is being produced? In the stratum basale of the epidermis

& mucous membranes all over the body, melanin are being formed by
cells called melanocytes. Because the number of melanocytes is about
the same in all people, differences in skin color are due mainly to the
amount & shade of pigment that the melanocytes produce & transfer to
keratinocytes.
 SKIN COLOR
CAROTENE - another pigment, produces a yellowish hue brought
about by increase intake of carotene-rich foods such as squash
& carrots. These vegetables are actually sources of Vitamin A
that found to be lipid-soluble that accumulates in the adipocytes
& subcutaneous tissues. Decreasing consumption in this case
can eliminate the problem.
Consequently, certain conditions alters the skin color & can be
attributed to other causes for instance, pregnant mothers do
have increased melanin production causing darkening of areas
like nipples, the genitalia & even more.
PALENESS & REDNESS - like blushing can be credited to the
amount of blood flowing through the skin.
CYANOSIS - is due to a drop of oxygen saturation in the blood,
producing a bluish discoloration of the skin.
 SKIN COLOR
DIFFERRENT SKIN COLOR VARIATIONS:
DARK-SKINNED INDIVIDUALS - have large amounts of melanin in the epidermis.
The more melanin that is present, the darker the skin.
LIGHT-SKINNED INDIVIDUALS - have little melanin in the epidermis. Thus, the
epidermis appears translucent, & skin color ranges from pink to red, depending on
the oxygen content of the blood moving through capillaries in the dermis. The red
color is due to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells.
ALBINISM - is an inherited trait that causes individuals to not produce melanin.
People affected by albinism are called albinos. Because most albinos do not have
melanin in their hair, eyes, & skin, they need to take extra precautions when
exposed to the sun.
MELANOCYTES may not be evenly scattered throughout the skin, causing uneven
melanin distribution. Examples.
FRECKLES - occurs due to melanin accumulation in patches.
MOLE or NEVUS - a round pigmentation brought about by overgrowth of
melanocytes.
VITILOGO - the skin has portions that has complete or partial absence of
melanocytes, irregular white spots are evident.
 Deep to the dermis, but not part of the skin, is
the SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER - layer consists of
areolar connective tissue & adipose tissue.
Fibers that extend from the dermis anchor the
skin to the subcutaneous layer, which, in turn,
attaches to underlying tissues & organs.
SUBCUTANEOUS The SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER - serves as a
storage depot for fat & contains large blood
TISSUE
vessels that supply the skin. Clinically,
subcutaneous tissues are being measured to
calculate for an individual’s risks for lifestyle
diseases such as diabetes. The arms are
examples of areas where subcutaneous
thickness is being evaluated.
And individuals who have differing conditions
like pregnancy & pathologic conditions cannot
be accounted for this kind estimation.
 ACCESSORY SKIN STRUCTURES

HAIR, GLANDS, & NAILS - are

accessory structures of the
ACCESSORY integumentary system that
SKIN develop from the epidermis of the
STRUCTURES embryo.
Each of these accessory
structures performs important
functions in the body.
Ex. Hair & nails protect the body
& sweat glands help regulate body
temperature.
 HAIR
HAIR - protects the skin & other structures of the body.
HAIRS or PILI - are found abundant in almost every part of the body
except for the palms & soles, lips, nipples & parts of the genitalia. The
thickness & pattern of distribution of hair is largely determined by
genetic & hormonal influences.
Aside being crowning glory for women, hair was also found beneficial for
many reasons. Ex. Hair on the head guards the scalp from injury & the
sun’s rays, eyebrows & eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign particles
& hair in the nostrils filters insects & foreign particles to protect the
tissues of the respiratory system.
Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which rests on the hair papilla (figure
3.12). Blood vessels within the papilla supply the hair bulb with the
nourishment needed to produce the hair. Hair is produced in cycles.
 HAIR
During the growth stage, it is formed by epithelial cells within
the hair bulb. These cells, like the cells of the stratum basale in
the skin, divide & undergo keratinization. The hair grows
longer as these cells are added to the base of the hair within
the hair bulb. Thus, the hair root & shaft consist of columns of
dead keratinized epithelial cells.
During the resting stage, growth stops & the hair is held in the
hair follicle.
When the next growth stage begins, a new hair is formed & the
old hair falls out. The duration of each stage depends on the
individual hair. Hair color is determined by varying amounts &
types of melanin.
 HAIR
Each hair is a thread of fused, dead, keratinized epidermal cells that consists of a
shaft, root, hair follicle and hair root plexuses (figure 3.14).
HAIR SHAFT - is the superficial portion that projects above the surface of the skin.
HAIR ROOT - is the portion below the surface that penetrates into then dermis &
sometimes into the subcutaneous layer. A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds
a softer center, the medulla.
CORTEX - is covered by the cuticle, a single layer of overlapping cells that holds
the hair in the hair follicle.
HAIR FOLLICLE - surrounds the root & is composed of epidermal cells.
HAIR ROOT PLEXUSES - are nerve endings that surround each hair follicle. They
are sensitive to touch & are stimulated if a hair shaft is moved.
Associated with each hair are sebaceous glands & arrector pili.
ARRECTOR PILI (bundle of smooth muscle cells )– raise or extends from the upper
dermis to the side of the hair follicle. In its normal position, hair emerges at an
angle to the surface of the skin. Under stress, such as cold or fright, nerves
stimulate the arrector pili muscles to contract, which pulls the hair shafts
perpendicular to the skin surface.
HAIR
 GLANDS
GLANDS - produce secretions that perform a variety of functions.
There are 2 major glands located in the skin & they are
sebaceous& sweat glands.
1.SEBACEOUS GLANDS - lies in the dermis & open into hair
follicles or directly onto the skin. It secretes sebum as an oily
substance that contains lipids & cellular debris. Rich in lipids,
they help to soften the skin, prevents water loss & lubricates skin
& hair. However, when sebaceous glands of the face become
enlarged because of accumulated sebum, blackheads develop.
Bacteria metabolize the sebum & form pimples or boils.
2.SWEAT GLANDS OR SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS -The skin of an
adult individual contains 3 to 4 million of these as it appears to be
the most numerous of the skin glands. During active movements,
the body loses about 500ml of insensible perspiration that
doesn’t make the skin feel damp.
 GLANDS
TWO TYPES OF SWEAT GLANDS: Eccrine & Apocrine.

1. ECCRINE GLANDS - produces a transparent, watery fluid

called sweat that contains small amount of potassium,
ammonia, lactic acid, uric acid & other wastes. It is widespread
through the body but abundant in the palms, soles, forehead &
upper torso.

2. APOCRINE GLAND - is limited to the axillary & pubic regions

& produces a thicker sweat often released during emotional
stress. They are compared to scent glands as they respond to
stress & sexual stimulation. It secretes a non-strong odor
unless it accumulates on the skin. When this occurs, bacteria
begins to degrade substances in the sweat, resulting to body
odor.
GLANDS
 NAILS
NAILS - are plates of tightly packed, hard, dead,
keratinized cells of the epidermis. Functionally, nails
help us grasp & manipulate small objects, provide
protection to the ends of the fingers & toes & allow us to
scratch various parts of the body. Each nail consists of
several parts such as nail body, nail root, & nail matrix.
NAIL BODY - is the externally visible portion of the nails
whereas its nail root is covered & extends to the nail
matrix.
CUTICLE or EPONYCHIUM- is stratum corneum that
extends onto the nail body. The nail also attaches to the
underlying nail bed, which is located distal to the nail
matrix.
 NAILS
NAIL MATRIX & BED - are epithelial tissue with a stratum basale
that gives rise to the cells that form the nail. The nail matrix is
thicker than the nail bed & produces most of the nail. A small part of
the nail matrix, the lunula,
LUNULA - can be seen through the nail body as a whitish, crescent-
shaped area at the base of the nail. It is white because the nail is
too thick in this region for any blood vessels to show through
Cell production within the nail matrix causes the nail to grow. Unlike
hair, nails grow continuously & do not have a resting stage. Dividing
cells within the nail matrix become keratinized as the nail grows
outward. The average growth of fingernails is about 1 mm (0.04
inch) per week.
Various portions of nails have different colors. The nail body is pink
because the blood vessels of the underlying skin partially show
through. The free edge is white because it extends past the tip of
the finger or toe & there is no underlying tissue.
Physiology of the Integumentary System
The skin performs essential functions for health & well-being:
1.SENSATION - The skin is one of our connections to the outside
world. Its specialized nerve receptors sense pressure, pain,
changes in temperature & things we touch. These receptors
include mechanoreceptors, Meissner corpuscles, Pacinian
corpuscles, thermoreceptors & pain receptors called
nociceptors. Although hair does not have a nerve supply, sensory
receptors around the hair follicle can detect the movement of a
hair
2.TEMPERATURE - Our skin helps regulate your body temperature
in many ways. Because the skin’s surface area is so large (2 m2,
or 22 ft2), our body is able to radiate to the outside air vast
amounts of heat that your body has produced.
 Physiology of the Integumentary System
2. TEMPERATURE cont. -
• The eccrine glands produce sweat to help eliminate heat via
evaporation. The skin acts as a large reservoir of blood (8%–10% total
blood ). When you are hot, increased blood flow to the skin delivers more
heat to be radiated away & contributes to higher sweat production. When
you are cold, reduced blood flow to the skin conserves body heat &
reduces sweat production. When you are cold, arrector pili contract to
raise the angle of body hairs & cause goose bumps. The raised body hair
reduces air microcirculation immediately above the skin’s surface. The
reduced air circulation helps impede the loss of body heat via the skin.
• The skin forms a protective barrier for the internal organs.
Keratin -protects the body from heat, abrasion, chemicals, & microbes.
Keratinocytes -resist invasion by microbes.
Langerhans cells alert the immune system to the invaders.
Furthermore, the skin can usually repair itself following minor injuries,
such as cuts & tears.
Physiology of the Integumentary System
3. PROTECTION - As the largest organ in the body, the
integumentary system performs many protective
functions. Being the body’s primary defense, the SKIN
protects the body against invasion of pathogenic
microorganisms as well as extensive water loss. The
skin, with its squamous epithelium decreases chances
of having abrasions brought about by friction & trauma
whereas protection from harmful effects of ultraviolet
light were afforded by the presence of melanin in the
skin.
HAIR provides protection in several ways. The hair on
the head acts as a heat insulator, eyebrows
keep sweat out of the eyes, eyelashes protect the eyes
from foreign objects, & hair in the nose
& ears prevents the entry of dust & other materials. The
NAILS protect the ends of the fingers & toes from
damage & can be used in defense.
 Physiology of the Integumentary System
4. VITAMIN D PRODUCTION
A thirty-minute exposure to sunlight in a two-day
frequency in a week can provide the body with
adequate Vitamin D. Vitamin D plays an
important role in calcium homeostasis in the
body.
Vitamin D is converted to an active form by
reactions in the liver & kidney.
Adequate levels of vitamin D are necessary
because active vitamin D stimulates the small
intestine to absorb calcium & phosphate, the
substances necessary for normal bone growth &
normal muscle function.
 Physiology of the Integumentary System
5. ABSORPTION & EXCRETION
Though minor, the integumentary system
also contributes in excretion as well as
absorption.
Small amounts of salt, ammonia & urea are
being excreted through the sweat glands.

And essentially, this system contributes to

absorption of substances such as
medication like in the case of transdermal
patches & intradermal implants.
REFERENCES: from Module & pics from web
Rizzo, D. C. (2016). Fundamentals of
Anatomy and Physiology (Fourth ed.).
Boston,
Massachusetts: Cengage Learning.
Thompson, G. S. (2015). Understanding
Anatomy & Physiology: A Visual, Auditory,
Interactive
Approach,2nd Edition. Philadelphia: F. A.
Davis Company.
Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011).
Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John
Wiley &
Sons, Inc. .
VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2016).
Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology.
New
York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

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