The

SKELETAL
SYSTEM
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
CU4
Trinidad Salcedo, MAN RN
OLFU-QC
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES & OUTCOMES
At the end of the course unit, learners will be able to:

1. Discuss the functions of the skeletal system.

2. Discuss the components of the extracellular matrix, &
explain the function of each.
3. Explain the structural differences between compact bone
& spongy bone.
4. Outline the processes of bone ossification, growth,
remodeling, & repair.
5. Describe the common features of the Axial Skeleton.
6. Identify & describe the bones that make up the
Appendicular Skeleton.
 INTRODUCTION
The HUMAN SKELETON serves as a
framework for the body & consists of
many individual bones & cartilages.
There are also bands of fibrous
connective tissues in intimate
relationship with the parts of the
skeleton. The human skeletal system
consists of all of the bones, cartilages,
tendons & ligaments in the body.
Altogether, the skeleton makes up
about 20 % of a person’s body weight.
An adult’s skeleton contains 206 bones.
 INTRODUCTION

10cm
 INTRODUCTION
Bones of the skull of the newborn are not fused. HC is greater
by 2 cm than of the chest. Craniotabes are normal &
disappear in 6 weeks. Children’s skeletons actually contain
more bones because some of them, including those of the
skull, fuse together as they grow up.

There are also some differences in the male & female

skeleton. The male skeleton is usually longer & has a high
bone mass. The female skeleton has a broader pelvis to
accommodate for pregnancy & child birth. Regardless of age
or sex, the skeletal system can be broken down into two
parts, the axial skeleton & the appendicular skeleton.
 TERMINOLOGIES
APPENDICULAR SKELETON - Bones making up the limbs, pelvis, & shoulder
areas
ARTICULATION - The site of close approximation of two or more bones
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE - Thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the surface of
the epiphysis
AXIAL SKELETON - The skeleton that forms the central supporting axis of the
body
CARPAL BONES - Small bones of the wrist
CONDYLE - Rounded knob; usually fits into a fossa on another bone to form a joint
CREST - A moderately raised ridge
DIAPHYSIS - The central shaft-like portion of a long bone
ENDOSTEUM - Thin epithelial membrane lining the inside of the medullary cavity
EPICONDYLE - A bump superior to a condyle
EPIPHYSEAL PLATE - Layer of cartilage separating the epiphysis from the
diaphysis at each end of a long bone It is the site where bone growth occurs
EPIPHYSIS - The head of each end of a long bone
FALSE PELVIS - Portion of the pelvis that extends between the edges of the iliac
bone
 TERMINOLOGIES
FONTANEL - Un-fused area of an infant’s skull
FOSSA - A furrow or depression
FORAMEN - A round opening in a bone, usually a passageway for
vessels & nerves
HEAD - The prominent, expanded end of a bone
HAVERSIAN CANAL - A central canal in compact bone containing
blood vessels and nerves; surrounded by lamellae
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION - Process in the fetus
whereby fibrous connective tissue evolves into bone
KYPHOSIS - An exaggerated thoracic curvature
LACUNAE - Tiny gaps between rings of lamellae in compact bone
LAMELLAE - Concentric rings of matrix surrounding Haversian
canal in compact bone
MEATUS - A tube-like opening
MEDULLARY CAVITY - The central hollow portion of a long bone
that contains bone marrow
 TERMINOLOGIES
OSSEOUS TISSUE - Bone tissue
OSSIFICATION - The creation of new bone
OSTEOBLAST - Bone-forming cell
OSTEOCLASTS - Bone cells that dissolve old or unhealthy bone
OSTEOCYTE - Mature osteoblast
OSTEON - Basic structural unit of compact bone consisting of a
Haversian canal & surrounding lamellae
PERIOSTEUM - Dense fibrous membrane covering the diaphysis
PROCESS - A projection or raised area
REMODELING - Reshaping or reconstructing part of a bone
RESORPTION - The destruction of old bone; part of the bone
remodeling process
SCOLIOSIS - A lateral curvature of the spine
SINUS - Cavity In The Skull Filled With Air
SPONGY BONE - Also called cancellous bone. It is found in the
ends of long bones and the middle of most other bones.
 TERMINOLOGIES
SULCUS - Groove or elongate
depression
SUTURES - Immovable joints of the
skull
TRABECULA - Latticework of osseous
tissue that makes up the structure of
spongy or cancellous bone
TROCHANTER - A large process that is
found only on the femur
TRUE PELVIS - Portion of the pelvis
that extends between the pelvic
brim
TUBERCLE - A small, rounded process
TUBEROSITY - A rough, raised bump,
usually for muscle attachment
STRUCTURE & SKELETAL TISSUES
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX - contains substances that are
essential for the make-up of our bones since the cartilages,
tendons, ligaments, & even our bones, are connective tissues.
Ex. Collagen, as one of the substances, is a tough & rope-like
protein gives tendons, ligaments & cartilages great amount of
strength like steel bars reinforced in a concrete.

The mineral component, like the concrete itself, gives the

bone compression like weight-bearing strength. Most of the
mineral in bone is in the form of calcium phosphate crystals
called hydroxyapatite. (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
STRUCTURE & SKELETAL TISSUES
PROTEOGLYCANS on the other hand, are large
molecules consisting of polysaccharides attached
to core proteins, similar to the way needles of a pine
tree are attached to the tree’s branches. The
proteoglycans form large aggregates, much as pine
branches combine to form a whole tree.
Proteoglycans can attract & retain large amounts of
water between their polysaccharide “needles.”
(VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
 STRUCTURE & SKELETAL TISSUES
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES: FOUR CATEGORIES OF BONE, based on their
shape, according to VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016)
LONG BONE - are longer than they are wide & have knobby ends where
the articulations form. Long bones are hollow in the middle & more
solid on ends. At each ends also includes a thin layer of hyaline
cartilage called articular cartilage, which further articulates it other
bones to form a joint. Their slightly curved structure gives them
strength. Long bones include those of the arms, legs, fingers, & toes.
It is covered by dense connective tissues on the outside called
periosteum & a thinner inner lining called endosteum.
PARTS OF LONG BONES:
1. Diaphysis - shaft or body
2. Epiphysis – head of each end of a long bone
3. Medullary Cavity – marrow cavity or space that contains yellow
marrow
 STRUCTURE & SKELETAL TISSUES
2. SHORT BONES - are equal in length &
width, making them nearly cube-shaped. Ex.
include most bones of the ankles & the wrists.
3. FLAT BONES - are thin & provide both
protection & surfaces for muscle
attachments. Ex. bones of the skull, sternum,
& ribs are all flat bones.
4. IRREGULAR BONES - have complex
shapes, such as those of the face & vertebral
column.
SESAMOID BONES -small round bone that is
imbedded within a tendon, whose purpose is
to reinforce & decrease stress on that
tendon. (Ex. knee, thumb & big toe)
STRUCTURE & SKELETAL TISSUES
 FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM:
1. Support - It supports & stabilizes surrounding tissues such as
muscles, blood & lymphatic vessels, nerves, fat, & skin.
2. Protection - It protects vital organs of the body such as the brain,
spinal cord; the heart, & lungs, & it protects other soft tissues of the
body.
3. Movement - It assists in body movement by providing attachments
for muscles that pull on the bones that act as levers.
4. Blood cell production - It manufactures blood cells. Red bone
marrow, a connective tissue within bone, produces red blood cells,
white blood cells, & platelets in a process called hemopoiesis.
5. Storage - It is a storage area for mineral salts, especially
phosphorus & calcium, & fats. Moreover, Yellow bone marrow within
bone is composed mostly of adipose cells, which store triglycerides
(fats). In a newborn, all bone marrow is red, but it eventually changes
into yellow marrow with increasing age.
 DEVELOPMENT OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
BONE HISTOLOGY - The periosteum &
endosteum contain osteoblasts, which
function in the formation of bone, as well as
in the repair & remodeling of bone. When
osteoblasts become surrounded by matrix,
they are referred to as osteocytes.
OSTEOCLASTS are also present &
contribute to bone repair & remodeling by
removing existing bone.
Bone is formed in thin sheets of extracellular
matrix called lamellae, with osteocytes
located between the lamellae within spaces
called lacunae.
Cell processes extend from the osteocytes
across the extracellular matrix of the
lamellae within tiny canals called canaliculi.
 DEVELOPMENT OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
2 TYPES OF BONE TISSUE:
Compact or Dense bone & Cancellous or Spongy bone. In both types of tissue, the
osteocytes are the same, but the arrangement of how the blood supply reaches
the bone cells is different as well as with different functions. Compact bone is
dense & strong, whereas cancellous bone has many open spaces (with bone
marrow), a spongy appearance.
1. COMPACT BONE - strong & dense, provides protection & support, & resists the
stresses produced by weight & movement. Found beneath the periosteum of all
bones & makes up the bulk of long bones. It is made of cylindrical units called
osteons. Each osteon consists of concentric lamellae, concentric layers that
surround a central canal, or Haversian canal, containing blood & lymph vessels.
LACUNAE – are spaces in between the lamellae which contain osteocytes, &
smaller channels called canaliculi that radiate out from the lacunae.
CANALICULI - allow nutrients & wastes to be passed more easily from one
osteocyte to another within the osteon.
 DEVELOPMENT OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
2. SPONGY BONE is lightweight. Spongy bone, also known
as cancellous bone, contains irregular lattices of thin bone
columns called trabeculae.
Trabeculae -form a supportive framework that is firm but not
exceedingly strong. This tissue must be covered by compact
bone or cartilage because it could be damaged easily if
exposed. The spaces between the trabeculae of some bones
are filled with red bone marrow. In such cases, the functions
of the trabeculae are to support & protect the red bone
marrow.
Spongy bone is found mostly in short, flat, & irregular bones.
In long bones, spongy tissue forms the majority of the
epiphyses & is also found around the inner rim of the
diaphysis.
 BONE OSSIFICATION
Bone is formed during ossification & maintained by remodeling.
OSSIFICATION - process of bone formation, occurs in four
situations. Initial formation of bones in the embryo
& fetus. Second, bone growth during infancy, childhood, &
adolescence prior to adulthood.
Third , bone remodeling occurs as old bone tissue is replaced
with new bone tissue throughout life. And lastly, repair of
broken bones such as fractures throughout life.
Bones form initially in the embryo by 2 processes:
1.Intramembranous ossification - bone forms directly from
mesenchyme. Intramembranous ossification occurs in the flat
bones of the skull, mandible, clavicle.
2. Endochondral ossification - bone forms within & replaces
cartilage. Intramembranous ossification is simpler from these
two processes.
BONE OSSIFICATION
 BONE GROWTH
BONE GROWTH - during infancy,
childhood, & adolescence, long bones
grow in both length & thickness.
Growth in length:
• Within the epiphyseal plate (cartilage)
are chondrocytes that divide & form
additional cartilage.
• New chondrocytes form on the
epiphyseal side, while the cartilage on
the diaphyseal side is replaced by bone.
• The thickness of the epiphyseal plate
remains the same, but the bone
lengthens.
• Cartilage growth stops at adulthood, &
bone replaces the remaining cartilage to
form the epiphyseal line.
 BONE GROWTH
Growth in thickness:
• As the bone lengthens, it also
thickens.
• Cells in the perichondrium
differentiate into osteoblasts, which
secrete extracellular matrix that
calcifies.
• Osteoblasts differentiate into
osteocytes as new lamellae are
formed.
• Osteoclasts break down the inner
surface of the medullary cavity but
at a slower rate than the bone forms
on the outer surface. So, the
medullary cavity grows in diameter
as the bone thickens
BONE GROWTH
 BONE REMODELLING
Throughout life, bone is constantly made & destroyed in an
ongoing process called BONE REMODELING.
At various stages of life, osteoblasts & osteoclasts regulate
bone formation & bone destruction. During some stages,
such as childhood, formation exceeds destruction, allowing
for growth of the skeleton. For a short period of time after
ossification processes cease, formation & destruction are
fairly equivalent.
As a person ages, destruction often exceeds formation,
leading to bone loss. Rates of remodeling vary depending on
the location within the body. The remodeling process allows
for mineral homeostasis, as well as repair of damaged bone
tissue.
 BONE REMODELLING
REMODELING IS AFFECTED BY MANY FACTORS:
• Hormones affect bone remodeling. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
stimulates osteoclasts whereas & Calcitonin stimulates formation of
osteoblasts.
• The Human growth hormone (hGH) & Insulin like growth factor
(IGF) stimulates cartilage & bone growth.
• And lastly, sex hormones also influence sex-related differences in
skeletal growth.
• Certain minerals contribute to our osseous tissues & that includes
availability of calcium, magnesium, & phosphorus. This is congruent
to the importance of Vitamins such as Vitamins A, C, & D. but this
doesn’t mean that all depends on the aforementioned factors. This
is because our activity level & diet play a major role on how our
body can synthesize these hormones, vitamins & minerals.
 BONE REPAIR
Bones can reform after being fractured (broken). The classification of
fractures depends on whether the bone is splintered (partial), entirely broken
(complete), or comminuted. If the broken bone protrudes through the skin, it is
an open fracture. If it remains within the skin, it is a closedfracture.

Figure 4.4 Bone Repair

*illustrations and content taken from Seeley’s Anatomy and Physiology by VanPutte, Regan & Russo (2016)
BONE REPAIR
 DIVISION OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Anatomists use several common terms to describe the features
of bones. A hole in a bone is called a foramen. A foramen usually
exists in a bone because some structure, such as a nerve or
blood vessel, passes through the bone at that point.
If the hole is elongated into a tunnel-like passage through the
bone, it is called a canal or a meatus.
A depression in a bone is called a fossa.
A lump on a bone is called a tubercle or a tuberosity, & a
projection from a bone is called a process. Most tubercles &
processes are sites of muscle attachment on the bone.
Increased muscle pull, as occurs when a person lifts weights to
build up muscle mass, can increase the size of some tubercles.
The smooth, rounded end of a bone, where it forms a joint with
another bone, is called a condyle.
The axial skeleton
consists of 80
bones, while the
appendicular
skeleton consists
of 126 bones.

The appendicular
skeleton is colored
turquoise
whereas the other
bones are the axial
skeleton.
 AXIAL SKELETON
THE SKULL
The skull consists of 22 bones & rests on top of
the vertebral column. It has two groups of
bones: 8 cranial bones & 14 facial bones.
1. CRANIAL BONES - protect the brain & form
attachment points for the meninges on the
interior & the muscles that move the head on
the exterior.
2. FACIAL BONES - house the openings to the
airways & the digestive system, protect the
sensory organs & provide attachments for facial
muscles.
 AXIAL SKELETON
THE SKULL
CRANIAL BONES
1. FRONTAL BONE - forms the
forehead, roofs of the eye sockets,
& front part of the cranial floor. The
mucous membrane–lined spaces
(frontal sinuses) deep within it
resonates sound.
2. PARIETAL BONES (2) - form the
sides & roof of the cranium
3.TEMPORAL BONES (2) - form the
lower side of the cranium & part of
the cranial floor.
 AXIAL SKELETON
The temporal bones have several features: They form joints with the
jawbone (mandible) called the temporomandibular joints (TMJ).
• The external auditory meatus is the canal that leads to the middle ear.
• The mastoid process is a point of attachment for some of the muscles
involved in head movement.
The carotid artery passes through a foramen called the carotid
foramen.
• The styloid process serves as a point of attachment for the tongue &
neck muscles.
• The occipital bone forms the back part of the skull & most of the
cranial floor.
The medulla, spinal cord, & vertebral & spinal arteries all pass through
its foramen magnum.
The first cervical vertebra attaches to the occipital bone at two
processes called the occipital condyles.
 AXIAL SKELETON
• The sphenoid bone is in the
middle of the cranial floor & is
where all the other cranial bones
attach, like the keystone joining
two arches to form a doorway. It
contains sphenoidal sinuses,
which drain into the nasal cavity.
The pituitary gland sits in a
depression of the sphenoid bone
called the sella turcica. The optic
nerve passes through its optic
foramen, & the mandibular nerve
passes through its foramen ovale.
 AXIAL SKELETON
• The ethmoid bone forms the
anterior part of the cranial floor, the
medial part of the eye sockets, &
superior portions of the nasal cavity.
It has 3 to 18 ethmoidal sinuses (air
spaces) & mucus-lined conchae that
warm & moisten inhaled air & trap
foreign particles. The crista galli, a
ridge on the superior portion of the
ethmoid bone, serves an attachment
point for the meninges. This is
surrounded by the cribriform plate
through which the nerves associated
with the receptors for smell pass
from the nose into the brain.
AXIAL SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON

Figure 4.6 The Skull

*illustrations and content taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by
Freudenrich & Tortora (2011)
 FACIAL BONES
FACIAL BONES - the face changes & grows from the time you are
born until around age 16. The teeth form & erupt, the cranial bones
grow, & the paranasal sinuses expand.
The facial bones include the following:
• Nasal bones (2) form the bridge of the nose.
MAXILLAE (2) form the upper jawbone & join with all the other facial
bones except the mandible (lower jawbone):
• Each maxilla has a maxillary sinus that empties into the nasal cavity.
• The alveolar process forms the arch that contains the sockets
(alveoli) for the teeth.
• The maxillae form the anterior three-fourths of the roof of the mouth
(hard palate).
• Palatine bones (2) form the posterior portion of the hard palate, part
of the lower eye sockets, & part of the floor and the sides of the nasal
cavity.
 FACIAL BONES
MANDIBLE - the largest, strongest facial bone & the only one that moves:
Each condylar process forms a temporomandibular joint with each temporal
bone. Like the maxillae, the mandible has an alveolar process for the lower
teeth. The mental foramina are holes that allow passage of the mental nerve.
Dentists use the mental foramina as landmarks to inject anesthetics into the
mental nerve.
• Zygomatic bones (2), or cheekbones, form the cheek prominences & part of
the wall of the eye sockets. They form joints with the frontal, maxilla, sphenoid,
& temporal bones.
• Lacrimal bones (2) are the smallest, thinnest bones on the medial eye socket,
house the tear ducts, which tunnel through to the nasal cavity. This is why
nose runs when you cry.
• Inferior nasal conchae (2) project into the nasal cavity to filter air before it
passes toward the trachea & lungs.
VOMER - joins with the maxillae & palatine bones to form the floor of the nasal
cavity. Along with cartilage & the ethmoid bone, single vomer forms the nasal
septum, which divides the nasal cavity into right & left sides.
 FEATURES OF THE SKULL
The skull has unique features, such as
sutures, sinuses, & fontanels (soft spots
at birth & early infancy):
• A suture is a special type of immovable
joint that joins most of the skull bones.
4 MAJOR SUTURES IN THE SKULL:
• The coronal suture unites the frontal
bone & two parietal bones.
• The sagittal suture attaches the two
parietal bones.
• The lambdoid suture joins the parietal
bones to the occipital bone.
• The squamous sutures seal the parietal
bones to the temporal bones.
 FEATURES OF THE SKILL
• Paranasal sinuses are found in the sphenoid, frontal, ethmoid,
& maxillary bones. They produce mucus, lighten the weight of
the skull, & serve as echo chambers, which produce the unique
sounds of your voice.
• Fontanels are mesenchyme-filled spaces between the cranial
bones of infants at birth. These soft spots compress as the
baby passes through the birth canal. For a short time after
birth, the fontanels also provide room for the brain to grow.
Within the first two years of life, they are replaced by bone via
intramembranous ossification. As the fontanels close, the
bones of the skull fuse to form the sutures.
NEWBORN PHYSIOLOGIC VARIATIONS

FONTANEL CHARACTERISTIC CLOSUR

S E
ANTERIOR Soft, flat, diamond Between
shaped, 12 – 18
3 to 4 cm wide by 2 – months
3 cm long of age
POSTERIOR Triangular, 0.5 to 1 Between
cm wide birth &
Located between 2 to 3
occipital months
and parietal bone of age
 FEATURES OF THE SKILL
• The hyoid bone is located in
the neck, between the
mandible & larynx. It is
suspended from the styloid
process of each temporal
bone by ligaments & muscle.
It supports the tongue,
stabilizes the airways, &
provides attachment points
for tongue, neck, &
pharyngeal muscles.
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
VERTEBRAL COLUMN -(spine, spinal column, or backbone) protects the spinal
cord, supports the head & neck, permits movement, & provides attachment
points for the back muscles, ribs, & pelvis. The vertebral column consists of 26
bones called vertebrae.
VERTEBRAE HAVE THE FOLLOWING GENERAL STRUCTURES:
• Vertebral body is the thick, disc-shaped anterior portion that bears weight.
• Vertebral arch extends posteriorly from the body; consists of two short, thick
processes called pedicles that project backward & join with two at parts
called laminae.
• Vertebral foramen is an opening through which the spinal cord passes.
SEVEN PROCESSES ARISE FROM THE VERTEBRAL ARCH:
• Spinous process (1) projects from the laminae; it serves as attachment point
for muscles.
• Transverse processes (2) are lateral extensions that serve as attachment
points for muscles.
• Superior articular processes (2) attach to vertebra above.
• Inferior articular processes (2) attach to vertebra below.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The exact shape & structure of the vertebrae vary
with the region where they are located:
• Cervical vertebrae (7) are in the neck region.
Each cervical vertebra has three openings
(foramina): a larger, central opening (vertebral
foramen) for the spinal cord, & two transverse
foramina, passages for blood vessels and nerves.
• Thoracic vertebrae (12) are posterior to the
chest cavity and serve as
attachments for the ribs.
• Lumbar vertebrae (5) form the lower back.
• The sacrum consists of 5 fused vertebrae and
forms the posterior wall of the pelvis. Blood
vessels and nerves pass through the openings.
• The coccyx, sometimes referred to as the
tailbone, consists of 4 fused vertebrae.
 VERTEBRAL CURVES
VERTEBRAL COLUMN HAS FOUR CURVED REGIONS: cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, & sacral. The curves develop from a single, concave
curve in the fetus. When the infant begins holding its head erect (at
approximately three months of age), the cervical curve develops. The
lumbar curve develops later, when the child starts sitting up, standing,
& walking. Sometimes, abnormal curvatures develop in the spine due
to uneven growth or weakening of the bones &/or musculature
associated with the spine.
Scoliosis—A lateral curvature that causes the spine to “lean” to one
side more than the other. This condition is seen more commonly in
females than in males.
Kyphosis—An exaggeration of the thoracic curve that forms a
“humpback” appearance.
Lordosis—An exaggeration of the lumbar curve that causes a “sway
back.”
VERTEBRAL CURVES

Figure 4.7 The Vertebral Curves

*illustrations and content taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011)
 THORAX & PECTORAL GIRDLE
MANUBRIUM articulates with the collarbone, or clavicle, & the first rib.
• The body articulates with part of the second rib & ribs 3 through 10.
XIPHOID PROCESS is made of cartilage that ossifies by age 40. No ribs
attach to this pointed structure, which rescuers use to locate the
proper hand position for CPR.
STERNUM attaches directly to the first through seventh pairs of ribs by
a form of hyaline cartilage called costal cartilage. The remaining pairs
of ribs either attach indirectly to the sternum (pairs 8–12) or do not
attach at all (pairs 11–12). Ribs are named based on how they attach to
the sternum; rib pairs 1 through 7 are called true ribs, rib pairs 8
through 12 are called false ribs, & rib pairs 11 & 12 are referred to as
floating ribs.
The bones of the thorax protect the heart & lungs & provide
attachment points for muscles, especially those involved in breathing.
THORAX & PECTORAL GIRDLE
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
PECTORAL GIRDLE - The next set of
bones in the upper body is the shoulder
girdles or pectoral girdles, which attach
the upper limbs to the axial skeleton.
The clavicle, or collarbone, attaches to
the manubrium of the sternum & the
scapula, or shoulder blade.
The coracoid process of the scapula
serves as a point of attachment for
muscles & its glenoid cavity forms the
shoulder joint with the head of the
humerus (upper arm bone).
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
UPPER LIMBS - Attached to the scapula is the humerus, the longest
bone in the upper body.
HUMERUS -has a rounded head that fits into the glenoid cavity of
the scapula. The distal end of the humerus attaches to the two
bones of the forearm, the ulna & radius.
ULNA - is medial to the radius.
RADIUS- is proximal end rounded & articulates with the humerus, to
allow approximately 180° of forearm rotation. Distal to the ulna &
radius are the bones of the wrist, the carpals (8 bones), which are
arranged in two rows of 4 bones each. The distal row attaches to
the bones of the palm of the hand (metacarpals), whose distal
heads form the knuckles. Finally, the metacarpals attach to the
bones of the fingers, the phalanges. There are 2 phalanges in the
thumb & 3 in each finger.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
PELVIC GIRDLE
The pelvic girdle consists of the two hip bones. The hip bones, also
called the coxal bones or os coxa, attach to the sacrum of the
vertebral column posteriorly and with each other anteriorly to form
the pubic symphysis. Each coxal bone is composed of an ilium, an
ischium, & a pubis that have fused to form a single unit. Centrally, on
each coxal bone is the acetabulum, the “socket” for the hip joint that
articulates with the femur from the leg.
The bowl-shaped pelvis is formed by the coxal bones, sacrum, &
coccyx. The pelvic brim forms the boundary between the upper pelvis
(false pelvis) & the lower pelvis (true pelvis).
The false pelvis is part of the abdomen & contains the urinary bladder
& the uterus.
The true pelvis surrounds the pelvic cavity. Blood vessels & nerves to
the legs pas through openings in the lower pelvis called the obturator
foramina.
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
PELVIC GIRDLE -cont
There are a number of structural differences between the
male & female pelvis. This is predominantly because the
female must pass the baby through the pelvis during
childbirth.
• The angle formed inferior to the pubic bones at the pubic
symphysis (pubic arch) is wider in women (> 90°) than in
men (< 90°).
• The pelvic inlet—the superior opening into the bony
pelvis—is heart-shaped in males &
oval in females.
• The sacrum is wider & more posteriorly placed in the
female than in the male.
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
LOWER LIMBS
Like the upper limb, the lower limb is composed of a single
bone proximally with increasing numbers of bones as one
moves distally. Attached to each coxal bone is a femur (thigh
bone), the longest single bone in the body. Like the humerus,
the femur has a rounded, proximal head where it fits into the
acetabulum of the pelvis. The femur bends medially &
attaches distally to the patella (knee cap) & the tibia.
The tibia is the large medial bone of the shin and bears most
of the weight. It attaches proximally with the femur & fibula
and distally with the fibula & the talus of the ankle. The
patellar ligament, which holds the patella in place, attaches to
the tibia at the tibial tuberosity.
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
LOWER LIMBS –cont.
The lateral bone of the shin is called the fibula. The proximal end of
the fibula articulates with the tibia & its rounded distal end & forms a
joint with the talus of the ankle.

The ankle bones, or tarsals, consist of 7 bones. Two of these bones,

the talus & the calcaneus, are on the posterior part of the foot.
The talus is part of the ankle joint, while the calcaneus forms the
heel of the foot. The rest of the tarsals are anterior to these & attach
to the metatarsals.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Figure 4.11 The Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

*illustrations and content taken from Visualizing Anatomy and Physiology by Freudenrich & Tortora (2011)
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The metatarsals (5) are like the metacarpals of the hand.
Attached to the metatarsals are the phalanges (toes), which
have a structure similar to the phalanges in the hand.
The calcaneus forms the posterior portion of the foot.
The foot has two raised bends, or arches, in it
The longitudinal arch spreads from anterior to posterior, while
the transverse arch goes from side to side.
The arches are flexible & springy. They absorb shocks,
distribute body weight over the foot, &provide leverage while
walking.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 References: Modules & web
Rizzo, D. C. (2016). Fundamentals of THANKS!
Anatomy and Physiology (Fourth ed.).
Boston,
Massachusetts: Cengage Learning.
Thompson, G. S. (2015). Understanding
Anatomy & Physiology: A Visual, Auditory,
Interactive
Approach,2nd Edition. Philadelphia: F. A.
Davis Company.
Tortora, G. J., & Freudenrich, C. C. (2011).
Visualizing Anatomy & Physiology. John
Wiley &
Sons, Inc. .
VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A.
(2016). Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy &
Physiology. New
York, New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Web, visible body -for some pics