NSEJS Resonance Biology

IJSO STAGE-I
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BIOLOGY
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VOLUME-1
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Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP)
www.pccp.resonance.ac.in
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Disclaimer
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Every care has been taken by the compilers and publishers to give correct, complete and updated
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information. In case there is any omission, printing mistake or any other error which might have crept in
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Edition 2019
CONTENTS
IJSO STAGE -I
S. NO. TOPICS PAGE NO.
1. Cell Biology 1 - 27
2. Tissue 28 - 57
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3. Nutrition or 58 - 78
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4. Respiration 79 - 91
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5. Transportation 92 - 111
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6. Excretion 112 - 120

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7. Control & Coordination 121 - 141
8. Reproduction 142 - 160
9. Heredity and Evolution 161 - 183
10. Ecology & Adaptation 184 - 209
11. Microorganisms 210 - 225
12. Diversity of Living Organisms 226 – 254

1. CELL BIOLOGY
1. CELL BIOLOGY
A. CELL
• All living forms are composed of microscopic units called as “Cells”. The word cell was
derived from a Greek word “Cellulae” which means small room.
• A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all life forms.
• Study of structure and composition of cell is called as “Cytology”.
• Cell was first observed by “Robert Hooke” in a dead cork slice in the year 1665. He described
about this in his book “Micrographia”.
• First living cell was discovered by A.V. Leeuwenhoek.
• The term protoplasm was coined by Purkinje in 1839.
• Protoplasm was discovered by “Felix Dujardin” and named as sarcode.
• It’s consistency differs under different conditions. t exists in sol-gel states.
• Protoplasm includes cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
• Protoplasm is an aggregate of various chemicals such as water, ions, salts and other organic
molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, nucleic acids, vitamins etc.
(a) Cell theory :
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• In 1839, Schleiden and Schwann studied and concluded that all animals are also composed of
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cells but are different from plant cells.
• Cells are the morphological and physiological units of all living organisms except viruses.
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New cells originate only from the pre-existing cells and continuity is maintained through the
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genetic material.
• The smallest unit of life is the cell, i.e. every organism starts its life as a single cell. All living
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organisms are composed of cells and their products.

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Modern cell theory :

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• In 1855, Rudolf Virchow further expanded the cell theory as “omnis cellula e cellula” i.e. all
cells arise from pre-existing cells, just as an animal arises only from an animal and a plant only
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from a plant.
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• It is also known as cell doctrine or cell principle.

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• All living organisms are made up of cells having cytosol, nucleus, organelles and a covering
membranes.
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• Functions of living organisms are the sum total of the activities of their cells.
• Cell can survive independantly but organelles cannot do so.
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• Any cell arises from pre-existing cell.

• It is unit of structure, function and heredity.
• Life exist in cells.
• Growth of an organism is due to increase in size and number of cells.
(b) Types of Organisms On the basis of Number of Cells :
(i) Unicellular organisms : These are the organisms which are made up of single cell only. This
single cell performs all the vital body functions of an organism. e.g. Amoeba
(ii) Multicellular organisms : These are the organisms which are made up of numerous cells.
These cells then combine to form an organ and group of organs performing different functions
forms an organ system which further forms an organism. e.g. Plants and animals
(c) Types of cells On the basis of type of organization :
(i) Prokaryotic cells : Prokaryotic cells (pro - primitive; karyon - nucleus) are without an
organised nucleus and membrane bound organelles. These are primitive and incomplete
cells.They have less developed nucleus without nuclear membrane and nucleolus. e.g.
Bacteria.
BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-1

1. CELL BIOLOGY
Structure of a prokaryotic cell :
• Like eukaryotic cells, they are different in shape and size but smaller than eukaryotes &
divide rapidly.
• Naked genetic material is called genophore / Nucleoid.
• Genomic DNA is circular & termed as single chromosome.
• Beside genomic DNA, small circular DNA is also present in many bacteria called plasmid
which make them antibiotic resistant & also responsible for bacterial transformation.
• Prokaryotic cell envelope consists of three layers–outer glycocalyx, middle cell wall and
innermost cell membrane.
• If these envelopes are stained by Gram stain then they are called Gram positive bacteria while
other those don’t have are called Gram negative bacteria.
• Glycocalyx, a polysaccharide envelope forms either loose sheath slime layer or thick and
tough structure capsule.
• Plasma membrane extensions like vesicles, tubules and lamellae not only help in cell wall
formation, DNA replication, secretion, increase in surface area but also form some specific
structure for specific function like mesosome for respiration (analogous to mitochondria)
and chromatophore for photosynthesis (analogous to chloroplast).
• Cell wall form some filamentous extensions called flagellum. It consists of filament, hook &
basal body and helps in locomotion.
• Besides flagella, Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the bacteria but do not play a
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role in motility. The pili are elongated tubular structures made of a special protein pilin.The
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fimbriae are small bristle like fibres sprouting out of the cell that provides attachment to
substratum or host tissue.
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Fig.1.1 : Ultrastructure of Prokaryotic cell

(ii) Eukaryotic cells : Eukaryotic cells (eu - true; karyon - nucleus) have an enveloped nucleus
and membrane bound organelles.
• These are well developed cells.They have advanced nucleus with nuclear membrane and
nucleolus. e.g. Plants & animals.
• Organisms are grouped into prokaryotes and eukaryotes based on their cellular organisation.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Feature Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
Cell size Generally small, 1-10 m. Generally large, 5 - 100 m.
Cell wall Non-cellulosic contain peptidoglycan.. Cellulosic (in plants only).
Nucleus Lacks true nucleus; circular DNA lies True nucleus bound by a nuclear
naked in the cytoplasm; nucleolus, membrane, contains linear DNA; nucleolus
nuclear membrane and nucleoplasm and nuclear membrane present;
are not present. nucleoplasm distinct.
Cell organelles Membrane-bound organelles like Membrane-bound organelles present.
Golgi bodies, plastids, mitochondria
and ER are absent.
Ribosomes Smaller and randomly scattered in the Bigger, can be free or attached to the ER
cytoplasm (70S). (80s).
Cell division Divides by simple fission, spindle is Divides by mitosis or meiosis.
not formed, no mitosis and meiosis.
Examples Bacteria and Cyanobacteria (blue- All other organisms.
green algae).
TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
S.N. Plant cells Animal cells
1. Usually larger, with distinct outlines. Usually smaller, with less distinct boundaries.
2. Plant cells usually have a regular shape. Animals cells are usually spherical in shape.
3. The plasma membrane of a plant cell is Cell wall is absent.
surrounded by a rigid cell wall made up of
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cellulose.
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4. Cytoplasm not so dense. Cytoplasm denser and more granular.
5. Plastids are present. Plastids are absent.
6. Vacuoles prominent, one or more. or
Vacuoles, if any, are small and temporary
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concerned with excretion or secretion.
7. Plant cells have many simpler units of Golgi Animal cells have a single highly elaborate Golgi
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complex, called dictyosomes. complex.

8. Centrosome is not present. Centrosome is present.
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Knowledge Booster
(i) Undifferentiated cells : Also called stem cells. They are unspecialised and usually possess
power of division. e.g.- Root and shoot apices, vascular cambium, cork cambium, skin
cells, germinal epithelium, bone marrow, zygote etc.
(ii) Differentiated cells : Also called as Post mitotic cells. They are specialized to perform special
function and cell division is absent.
(iii) Dedifferentiated cells : Actually they are specialized cells but lose their specialization and
induce division. It helps in healing of wounds, regeneration in animals or vegetative
propagation in plants, cell culture experiments.
(d) Cell shape :

• The shape of a cell is related to its functions. Some of the cells (e.g, Amoeba and leucocytes)
exhibit change in their shapes, while others do not exhibit such change and in such cases cell
shape is more or less fixed.
• Cells may be oval, round, plate-like, tubular, cylindrical, branched and so on. The cell shape is
said to be controlled by several factors like function, age, cell wall, external pressure, location,
tension, viscosity, etc.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
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(e) Cell size :

There is a great variation in the size of cells of the living world. The most common type of cells
measure from 10 to 100 .
• Mycoplasma, a bacterium known as PPLO (Pleuropneumonia-like organism) is the smallest
known cell.
• An ostrich egg is the biggest animal cell.
• The nerve cells are the longest in human body, measuring up to 90 cm in length.
• In plant kingdom, Acetabularia (an alga) consists of a single cell which measures about 6 to 10
cm in length.
Structure of an Eukaryotic cell :
• Though various kinds of cells show specific differences, yet they all show some basic
structural plan of a “generalized cell”. A generalized cell consists of three essential parts:
(a) Cell coat (b) Cytoplasm (c) Nucleus
(a) Cell coat :
(i) Cell Wall :
• It was first studied by Robert Hooke in cork cells.
• It is outer most dead covering around plant cell. That is secreted by cytoplasm/(Protoplasm).

1. CELL BIOLOGY
I. Chemical Compostion of cell wall in different organisms
• Bacteria – peptidoglycan or Murein.
• Fungi – Chitin
• Plants – Cellulose , Hemicellulose , Pectin and Protein.
• Animals– Absent
II. Structure of the cell wall :
• The diameter of cell wall varies from 0.1–10 m.
• The cell wall is formed of following layers.
1. Middle Lamella 2. Primary wall 3. Secondary Wall 4. Tertiary wall
1. Middle Lamella : It is thin amorphous cementing layer for joining of two adjacent plant cells. It
is composed of pectin as calcium and magnesium pectate. It is absent on the outer free
surface of cell and plasmodesmata. Retting of fibres and softening of fruits are due to
dissolution of calcium pectate in middle lamella by pectinase enzyme.
2. Primary wall : It is elastic, permeable, thin, single layered outer most wall layer of plant cell.
Its diameter is 0.1–3 m Cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin contents are roughly in equal
amount in primary wall.
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Fig.1.4 : Parts and layers of cell wall

Root hairs, parenchymatous cells and meristematic cells are formed of only primary wall. Its growth
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takes place by interssusception (Addition of materials with in the existing wall).

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3. Secondary wall : It lies inside the primary wall. Its diameter is 3–10 m. Its growth takes place
by Accretion+ interssusecption (deposition of materials over the surface of existing
structure). It consists of at least three layers–S1, S2, S3, This wall is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose & pectin. Number of different materials may be deposited in the secondary cell
wall.
Depositions :
• Lignin : It reduces the water content of the wall matrix and increases its hardness. The
deposition of lignin on the cell wall is called lignification that provides strengthening to the
cell wall.
• Suberin : It is fatty substance that makes the wall impermeable. It reduces the transpiration
rate in plants. It is found in the cork and casparian strips of endodermal cells. The deposition
of suberin is called suberisation.Both lignified and suberinised cells are dead cell.
• Cutin : It lies as a distinct layer on the outside of the epidermal cell wall. It is fatty substance
that reduces the rate or epidermal or surface transpiration. Other substances may also be
deposited in the cell wall such as silica (Eg: grasses), minerals waxes, tannins, resins, gums.
• Function of Cell wall : Cell wall not only gives shape to the cell and protects the cell from
mechanical damage and infection, it also helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides barrier to
undesirable macromolecules. Algae have cell wall, made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and
minerals like calcium carbonate.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
(ii) Cell Membrane :
• Cell membrane is the outer living boundary of the cell. This is also called Plasma membrane
or plasmalemma.
• The term cell membrane was coined by C.Nageli.
I. Structure of Cell Membrane :
• Explained on the basis on the basis of fluid mosaic model by Singer and Nicholson.
• Cell membranes are not visible under optical microscope due to its extreme thinness. It can be
observed in electron microscope. It appears trilaminar or tripartite layer under electron
microscope.
II. Fluid mosaic model : It was proposed by Singer and Nicolson (1972). It is most recognized
model for plasma membrane. they stated that plasmamembrane contains lipid bilayer in which
protein are found on both outer and inner side to form mosaic pattern. Thus they described it
as protein icebergs in sea of lipids.
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1. Lipid : Central viscous gel like, lipid bilayer is quasifluid and composed of phospholipids that
provide fluidity (quasifluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins within the
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overall bilayer). Lipid provide elasticity and stability to the plasma membrane. The fluid nature
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of the membrane is also important from the point of view of functions like cell growth, formation
of intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division etc.
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• Lipid are usually phospholipids (55% of total Lipids) that are amphiatic / amphipathic
containing polar hydrophilic heads and nonpolar hydrophobic tails. Other lipids present in
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cell membranes is cholesterol.Cholesterol provides rigidity and stability to the cell membrane.
2. Protein : Proteins are of two types.
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• External or extrinsic proteins : It is peripheral protein (30% of total protein). It can be easily
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removed Eg: Spectrin in RBC, ATPase.

• Integral or intrinsic proteins : It is about 70% of total protein. These can not be separated
easily. Eg : Cytochrome oxidase, Porin Proteins. They may function as carriers,
permeases, enzymes, receptors. Some large globular intrinsic proteins pass as a helix into
the lipid bilayer from outside to inside to form tunnel proteins or transmembrane proteins.
The latter act as channels for passage of water soluble materials and water.
• Chemically a cell membrane contains proteins (44–76%), Lipids (20–53%), carbohydrates (1–
5%), water (20%). DNA, RNA are absent. In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte
has approximately 52 per cent protein and 40 per cent lipids.
• Proteins are globular in nature including structural, enzymatic, carrier, permease and receptor
proteins.
• NOTE : The plasma membrane is asymmetric due to oligosaccharides which form
glycolipids & glycoprotein alongwith lipids & proteins respectively. Both glycolipids &
glycoproteins form glycocalyx. Oligosaccharide part in glycocalyx acts as recognition centre,
site for attachment and provides antigen specificity to cell membranes, blood grouping,
immune response and matching of tissues in transplantation of organs.
• Lipid molecules show flip flop movement (transverse diffusion or can move from one side to
the other side across the membrane). This type of movement is absent in protein molecules.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
3. Carbohydrates of cell membranes are small unbranched or branched chains of
oligosaccharides. They combine with both lipids and protein molecules on outer surface of
the membrane and form glycolipids and glycoproteins respectively.
II. Functions of plasma membrane :
Membrane transport : Cell membrane is considered as selective permeable membrane.
Passage of substances across biomembranes occur by following methods.
(1) Passive transport : It involves following methods
– Diffusion : Movement of molecules or ions from higher concentration to lower concentration
is called as diffusion.e.g.,CO2 & O2 move across the membrane.
– Osmosis : The movement of solvent or water from lower concentration of solution to higher
concentration of solution through a semipermeable membrane is called as osmosis. Osmosis
can also be called as “diffusion of solvents”.
– Facilitated diffusion : The permease assists a molecule to diffuse through the membrane that it
cannot otherwise penetrate.
(2) Active transport : In this method, movement of substances occur against their concentration
gradient by consuming ATP. It can be done by Na+- K+ exchange pump.
(3) Bulk transport : It take place by two methods.
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• Endocytosis : The inward transport of material by means of carrier vesicles is called
endocytosis. it includes two types.
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Pinocytosis or Potocytosis (Cell drinking) : Intake of fluid substances by plasmalemma in
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the form of vesicles (Pinosome) is called pinocytosis.
• Phagocytosis (Cell eating) : Intake of solid food substances by plasmalemma in the form of
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vesicles (Phagosome) is called phagocytosis.

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• Exocytosis (Cell vomitting or emiocytosis) : It is reverse of endocytosis in which waste

materials are removed from the cell. It involves reverse pinocytosis.
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(b) Cytoplasm :
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• It lies between the nucleus and cell membrane. The term Cytoplasm coined by Strasburger
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(1882).
• Cytoplasm is a site of metabolic processes like biosynthesis of fatty acids, sugars, proteins
etc.
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• It is also a storehouse of raw materials needed for metabolism in both cytoplasm and the
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nucleus.
It consists of two parts :
(i) Cytosol / Hyaloplasm / Ground plasm : Liquid part of cytoplasm except cell organelles
• It can exist in sol and gel state called plasmasol and plasma gel. Plasmagel present towards
periphery called ectoplast and plasma sol is centre is called endoplast.
(ii) Trophoplasm : It involves cell organelles and cell inclusions
Cell organelles :
I. Single Membranous Cell Oganelles:
1. Enodoplasmic Reticulum (E.R.) :
• Garnier firstly observed it as Ergestoplasm.
• It was discovered by Porter and Thompson (1945) and the name Enodoplasmic Reticulum
coined by Porter.
• It is 3-dimensional and interconnected system of membrane-lined channels that run through
the cytoplasm, forms network. It divides the intracellular space into luminal (inside ER) and
extra luminal(Cytoplasm) compartments.
• It is found in plasmodesmata in the form of desmotubules.
• The membrane of endoplasmic reticulum is 50–60 Aº thick.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
Fig.1.6 : Parts of Endoplasmic reticulum

• E.R. is found in three forms
• Cisternae : They are flat interconnected sac-like structures. The diameter of each cisternae is
40–50 nm.
• Vesicles : These are oval or rounded sacs and diameter of each vesicle is 25–500 nm.
• Tubules : They are tube like extensions that connect cisternae and vesicles. Diameter of each
tubule is 50–100 nm.
Types of Endoplasmic reticulum : On the basis of nature of its membranes, endoplasmic
reticulum is of two types.
• RER – Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• SER – Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SER AND SER
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S.NO. RER SER
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1. It bears ribosomes attached Ribosomes absent on the outer surface
to its membranes of membrane.
2. In consists of cistenae and few tubules
3. It takes part in the synthesis of proteins
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It consists of vesicles and tubules.
It performs synthesis of glycogen, lipids
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and enzymes E.g :- Pancreas. Liver, Coblet cells. and steroids. E.g.Interstitial cells,
Adipose tissue, adrenal cortex, Muscles,
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Glycogen storing liver cells.

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4. RER bears ribophorins for the attachment of Ribophorins are absent.

ribosomes.
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5. It may develop from nuclear envelope It may develop from RER.

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Functions :
• ER increases the surface area of the cytoplasm for various metabolic activities of the cell.
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• It gives internal support to the colloidal matrix i.e. cytoplasm.

• It functions as an intracellular transport system for various substances.
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• Materials synthesized can be stored in different parts of ER.

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• Protein synthesis occurs on the surface of rough ER by ribosomes. These proteins are either
used within the cell or exported outside the cell.
• Synthesis of lipids in collaboration with Golgi complex occurs on the surface of the smooth ER.
Smooth ER helps in the synthesis of sex hormones like testosterone in the testis and
estrogens in ovary.
• Many membranous cell organelles are co-ordinated in their functions like ER, GB, Lysosome
and vacuole so they are considered together as endo membranous system.
2. Golgi Complex :
• It was first observed by George but the credit of discovery was given to the Camillo Golgi.
• Golgi complex is also Known as Dictyosome (plant golgi body), Lipochondria (Rich in
lipids), traffic police of cell, Idiosome, Baker’s body, Dalton complex, Golgisome, export
house/middle man of cell. A plant cell has 10–20 dictyosomes.
Structure of Golgi complex :
• The shape and size of Golgi complex depend upon the physiological state of the cells.
Structurally golgi complex is composed of three parts:
• Cisternae : Golgi complex is madeup of stack of generally 4–8 membrane bound saccules or
cisternae. Cisternae show asymmetry and polarity two faces. concave or Distal or maturing
trans face is near cell membrane and cis or convex or Proximal or forming (F) face is towards
RER and nuclear membrane.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
• Tubules : They form a complex network towards the periphery and trans face of the Golgi
apparatus. they interconnect the different cisternae.
Cisternae
Fig : Golgi apparatus

Fig.1.7 : Structure of Golgi apparatus, Golgi apparatus
• Vesicles : They are small sacs that arise from tubules. They are of two types smooth and
coated. Out of them smooth vesicles contain secretory substances hence these are called
secretory vesicles.
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Functions :
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• Secretion : Golgi complex is a centre of reception, finishing, packaging and secreting for a
variety of materials in the cells. After modifications materials are packed in vesicles, the latter
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are budded off from maturing face of golgi body and released out side the cell that is called
Exocytosis or reverse pinocytosis.
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• Formation of new cell wall : Pectic compounds of middle lamella and various
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polysaccharides of the cell wall are secreted by Golgi complex.

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• Glycosidation & Glycosylation : Golgi complex cause glycosidation (addition of

oligosaccharides to phospholipids of membranes) of lipids and glycosylation of protein
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synthesized on RER to form glycolipids and glycoproteins.

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• Formation of acrosome : Acrosome of sperms is synthesised by Golgi complex during

spermiogenesis.
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• Formation of Lysosome : Vesicles of Golgi complex and ER take part in the synthesis of
primary lysosomes ( GERL system).
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• Vitellogenesis : Golgi complex acts as the centre around which yolk is deposited.
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3. Lysosomes :
• Discovery : Christian de Duve (Lyso = digestive, soma = body)
• These are tiny sac like granules containing enzymes of intracellular digestion.
• They are bounded by a single membrane.
• They occur in animal cells and a few plant cells.
• They do not have a definite shape or size.
• They contain hydrolysing enzymes called acid hydrolases.
Fig.1.8 : Lysosomes

1. CELL BIOLOGY
Functions :
• Their main function is phagy = digestion
• They are kind of waste disposal system.
• They help in digesting foreign materials and worn out cells.
• During disturbances in cellular metabolism i.e. in case of cell damage lysosomes burst and
their enzymes are released into the cytoplasm and they digest their own cell so they are also
called as “Suicidal Bags”.
Knowledge Booster
• Endomembranous System : Eukaryotic cells contain many membranebound organelles each
with a specific structure and function. These are collectively referred to as endomembrane
systems.
• The endomembrane system consists of the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, nuclear envelope, vacuoles and plasma membrane. Peroxisomes, mitochondria,
and chloroplasts do not communicate with the organelles of the endomembrane system and
therefore they are not part of it.Mitochondria and chloroplasts are integral parts of the cell yet
they contain their own DNA. They are enclosed by their own membranes whose function is
independent of that of other membranous organelles. They were infact parasitic bacteria that
later became symbiotic. Perixisomes are not budded off from the endomembrane system.
4. Peroxisomes :
• These structures were first described from liver and kidney cells by Rodhin (1954). In plant
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cells, they were first observed in germinating seeds by Tolbert (1969)The term ‘peroxisome’
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was first used by de Duve and also called as uricosomes.
• Peroxisomes are ovoid or granular structures, limited by a single unit membrane and have a
diameter of 0.5 to 1.0 m. or
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• In green leaves of C3 plants, peroxisomes carry out photorespiration.
• In animal cells they carry out lipid metabolism.
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• They contain important enzymes as oxidases (peroxide producing enzyme), peroxidases and
catalases (which break down toxic peroxides to water and oxygen).
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5. Glyoxysomes : Beavers (1961) was the first person to discover these organelles and were
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described later by R.W. Briedenbach (1967). They are about 0.5 to 1 m in size and are
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surrounded by a single unit membrane. They are found in plant cells, particularly, in
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germinating fatty seeds e.g. Ricinus (castor) and groundnut where fat is being converted
into carbohydrates by a process called glyoxylate cycle.
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II. Double Membranous cell organelles :

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1. Mitochondria :
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• It is a rod shaped structure found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells except mammalian
RBC’s. These are also absent in prokaryotes.
• It is also called as “Power House of the Cell” or the “Storage Battery”.
• It is double membranous structure where outer membrane has specific proteins while inner
membrane is folded inside to form projections called “ Cristae” . ATP synthesizing units are
called Oxysomes or F1 Particles are present on cristae. Space between inner and outer
mitochondrial membranes is called as perimitochondrial space.
• The fluid present in mitochondria is called as matrix. It is site of Kreb Cycle.
Head
(F1 particle) ATPase
Outer chamber
Inner
chamber Stalk
Base
Fo
outer Inner cristae matrix stalked matrix Inner

membrane membrane elementary mitochondrial
particle membrane
(A) Mitochondria (B) Cristae (C) Fo - F1 Complex

Fig.1.9 : Mitochondria

1. CELL BIOLOGY
Functions :
• ts main function is to produce and store the energy in the form of ATP.
• Oxysome contains enzymes for ATP production.
• Matrix contains enzymes for Kreb cycle.
2. Plastids :
• It is a double membranous discoidal structure, found only in plant cells.
• Besides being discoidal or rhombic in plant cells they occur in variable shapes like in algae
they can be ‘U’ shaped , spiral , coiled, ribbon shaped etc.
• Depending upon the type of pigment present in them they are of following three types :
Leucoplast Chromoplast Chloroplast

– Non – Coloured – Green
Pigmented pigments pigment
– white other than chlorophyll
in colour green is found
– Generally Phaeoplast – Brown in them
found in Rhodoplast – Red – Found in
underground aerial parts
parts of plant
– Important which are
for food green in colour
storage.
e.g. Aleuroplast,(stores proteins)
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Elaioplast (stores fats and oils)
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Amyloplast (stores starch)
• Chloroplast have following two parts :

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Fig.1.10 : Internal structure of chloroplast of higher plants.

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Grana : t constitutes the lamellar system. These are found layered on top of each other, these
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stacks are called as Grana. Each granum of the chloroplast is formed by super imposed
closed compartments called Thylakoids.
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Functions :
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• They are the sites of light reaction of photosynthesis as they contain photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll.
• In each thylakoid Quantasomes are present which are called as Photosynthetic units.
• Each quantasome possesses 230 chlorophyll molecules.
Stroma: t is a granular transparent substance also called as matrix. Grana are embedded in
it. Besides grana they also contain lipid droplets, starch grains, ribosomes & double stranded
circular DNA etc.
Function : This is the site of dark reaction of photosynthesis. Also helps in protein synthesis
due to presence of ribosomes.
I. Non-Membranous cell organelles :
1. Ribosomes :
• They were observed by George Palade in animal cells in 1953.
• Ribosomes are found both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes with the exception of mature sperm
and RBCs. Ribosomes are also found mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Structure : All structural and functional proteins (enzymes) coded by the nuclear DNA, are
synthesized upon cytoplasmic ribosomes. The DNA codes of chromosomes are transcripted
into messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules in the nucleus. mRNA molecules diffuse out into the
cytoplasm and each becomes attached to several ribosomes which thus form a group called
polysome or polyribosomes. In this way each mRNA molecule brings about polymerization
of amino acids to form specific protein molecules, with the help of ribosomes in the cytosol.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
Types Of Ribosomes :
• 70S ribosomes are comparatively smaller in size with two subunits (30S + 50S). These are
found in prokaryotic cells as well as in the mitochondria and plastids of eukaryotic cells
(Mitochondrial DNA is now found to be 55S).
• 80S ribosomes have two subunits (40S + 60S). They occur in eukaryotic cells of the plants
and animals.
Fig.1.11 : Ribosomes
Functions
• Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. They provide space and enzymes for the
synthesis of
proteins. Hence, they are known as protein factories.
2. Centrioles (Centrosome) :
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• It is submicroscopic membraneless, cylindrical structure.
• Centrioles are usually found in all the animal cells except Amoeba. Centrioles are absent in
•
higher plants.
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Each centriole is composed of 9 peripheral triplet fibrils of microtubules but in the central part
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these are absent. Thus centriole has 9 + 0 arrangement of tubules.
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Fig.1.12 : Ultrastructure of centrioles in T.S.

• Centriole is surrounded by amorphous structures called massules or perecentriolar satellite.
Massules act as nucleating centre for the growth of microtubules during Aster formation.
Formation of new centriole starts in S-phase.
• Thus new centriole arises from pre-existing centriole in G2– phase without presence of DNA
due to massules.
Functions :
• At the time of cell division, centrioles move to the opposite poles and form asters that organise
into spindle fibres during the process of cell division.
• Centrioles give rise to cilia and flagellae in animal cells.
3. Cilia and Flagella :
• The basic structure of cilia and flagella is similar. Structure of cilia or flagella was given by
Engleman. The diameter of cilia or flagella is 0·15 Structurally flagella is composed of three
parts.
• Basal body- It is attached to cytoplasmic membrane by ring-like structures.
• Hook – It is embedded in cell envelop.
• Filament – It lies external to the cell. It contains flagellin protein.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
A - B Linker
Peripheral
Doublet fibril Flagellar sheath Plasma
Outer side arm
Inner side arm Membrane
Spoke Peripheral
Head Central microtubules
sheath (doublets)
Central Interdoublet
Singlet bridge
Fibril
Central Matrix Central

(a) Radial
Sheath microtuble
spoke
Transition junction (b)
Fig.1.13 : Ultrastructure of flagellum in T.S. & Cilia or flagella (a) Electron micrograph
(b) Diagrammatic representation
4. Microtubules : These are very fine microscopic tube-like structures which may be present
independently or as parts of some organelles such as centrioles, basal bodies, cilia, flagella
etc.
Fuctions of Microtubules :
• The microtubular structures provide strength and
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• They also help in bringing about various movements inside the cell.
5. Cell Inclusions :
Vacuoles :
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• Vacuoles are single-membrane-bound, fluid-filled spaces found in the cytoplasm of plant cells.
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• In animal cells vacuoles are smaller in size and lesser in number compared to plant cells.
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• In some plant cells, only one large prominent vacuole is present.

• The major portion of a mature plant cell is occupied by vacuole.
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• Structure : In plants, the vacuoles are bound by a thin semi-permeable membrane called
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tonoplast. Vacuole contains cell sap which includes water, dissolved mineral salts,
carbohydrates, proteins, etc. The cell sap keeps the cell turgid. The vacuole of a mature plant
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cell is formed by enlargment and fusion of small vacuoles present in the meristematic cells.
These small vacuoles arise from the ER and Golgi apparatus.
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• Functions :
• Plant cell vacuoles store organic compounds.
• Vacuoles also store inorganic ions like K+ and Cl–
• They contain hydrolytic enzymes that help in digestion of stored macromolecules.
• Vacuoles are used to deposit metabolic wastes of plant cells.
• Vacuoles store pigments like anthocyanins responsible for the colour of the flowers.
• In animal cells, contractile vacuoles are often associated with the maintenance of water
balance.
Granules :
• These are also non-living cytoplasmic inclusions. These are small particles, crystals or
droplets.
• Function :
• Starch grains, fat droplets help in the storage of food in cells.
(c) Nucleus :
• The nucleus is the most conspicuous and largest organelle controlling all the vital activities of
eukaryotic cells.The nucleus was first discovered and named by Robert Brown.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
• In a young cell, it occupies a central position. In mature plant cells with the formation of the
vacuole, it is shifted to one side. Usually, a single nucleus is present in each cell
(uninucleated), but some cells may have more than one nucleus (multinucleated). A coenocyte
is a multinucleate cell which can result from multiple nuclear divisions without their
accompanying cytokinesis, in contrast to a syncytium, which results from cellular aggregation
followed by dissolution of the cell membranes inside the mass.In bacteria and blue-green
algae, a true nucleus is absent, but nuclear material is present.
• The nucleus is absent in mature mammalian RBCs and in the sieve tube cells in phloem tissue
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of plants.
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Nucleus consists of following parts :
(i) Nuclear membrane : Nucleus is bounded by two envelopes outer and inner membrane. The
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broad perinuclear space lies between these two membranes.
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• Ribosomes are present on the outer surface of nuclear membrane.
• 10% part of nuclear membrane bears pores that are called nuclear pores formed by the fusion
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of its two membranes.

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• Pores help in exchange of various substances(RNA and proteins) between cytoplasm &
nucleoplasm in both directions.
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(ii) Nucleoplasm (Karyolymph) : It is jelly like fluid, Its pH is 7·4 ± 0·2. It is reservoir of
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nucleosides, enzyme of DNA and RNA synthesis.

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• Its peripheral part is dense jelly like fibrous part that lies below nuclear membrane it is called
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fibrous lamina or nuclear lamina

• Nuclear lamina provides strength to the nuclear membrane. It also performs reformation of
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nuclear membrane during Cell division.

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(iii) Chromatin network : It consists of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid).

• It is stained by Acetocarmine after that two types of regions are formed.
I. Euchromatin : It is light stained, fibrous , uncoiled transcriptionally active DNA.
II. Heterochromatin : It is dark stained tightly coiled, granular, transcriptionally less active.
(iv) Nucleolus : It was discovered by Fontana.
• It is absent in RBC, sperm, Yeast, muscle fibres, young embryo cells and Prokaryotes.
Functions :
• The nucleus is the storehouse of genes. Genes control the production of enzymes without
which there cannot be any metabolic activity.
• It regulates the cell cycle.
• It is related to the transmission of hereditary characters from parent to offspring.
• The nucleolus synthesizes molecules necessary for the production of ribosomes.
(v) Chromosomes :
• They represent physical basis of inheritance.
• In a young cell, it occupies a central position.
I. Size : Size of chromosomes is variable in different organisms, different tissues and at different
stages of the cell cycle.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
II. Composition of Chromosomes :
• Chemically the eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of DNA, Proteins (basic - Histones)
and small amounts of RNA.
III. Number of Chromosomes :
• Each species has a fixed number of chromosomes in it’s cells. In an ordinary human cell 23
pairs of chromosomes are present. So, there are two chromosomes, of each kind. These two
chromosomes of same kind are called as homologous chromosomes.
• A cell which has the complete set of chromosomes with two of each kind is called as diploid
cell. In other words a diploid cell has two sets of chromosomes, thus having two
chromosomes of each type.
• The gametes (or sex cells) of human beings are different from their other body cells because
they contain only half the number of chromosomes. A cell which has half the number of
chromosomes, is called as haploid cell. In other words a haploid cell has only one copy of
each type of chromosomes.
• Human gametes called sperm and egg have only 23 chromosomes which is half the number
of chromosomes than other body cells. So, a gamete is a haploid cell.
• On the basis of position of the centromere, chromosomes are of following types.
1. Metacentric : Centromere is found in middle and at anaphase chromosome is V-shaped.
2. Sub-metacentric : The position of the centromere is subcentral. Anaphasic stage L-shaped.
3. Acrocentric : The position of the centromere is subterminal. Anaphasic stage J-shaped.
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4. Telocentric : Centromere terminal, anaphasic stage is I- shaped.
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Fig.1.15 : Types of chromosomes on the basis of position of centromere

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IV. Properties of Chromosomes : The chromosomes must possess five important properties :
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1. Replication : Synthesis of new DNA molecule which is identical to the parent DNA molecule.
2. Transcription : Synthesis of RNA molecule which is complementary to the DNA molecule.
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3. Change in appearance.
4. Repair : It means correction of damaged parts of DNA.
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5. Mutation : Sudden development of genetic changes.

V. Structure of Chromosomes :
• Chromosomes are the vehicles of heredity which possess DNA and are enclosed inside the
nucleus. They are capable of self reproduction and maintaining morphological and
physiological properties through successive generations.
• Each chromosome consists of two strands which are called as chromatids. The two
chromatids of a chromosome are joined together at a point called as centromere.
Fig.1.16 : A metaphase chromosomes

1. CELL BIOLOGY
C. CELL DIVISION
• Cell division was first observed by Prevost and Dumas (1824) in zygote of frog and also by
Nageli in plant cell (1842).
Knowledge Booster
A typical human cell divide once approximantely
24 Hr. But duration of cell cycle is variable from
one organism to another like yeast divided in
approx 90 minutes.
• Cell Cycle : It is a series of programmed cyclic changes by which the cell duplicates its
contents and divides into two parts.
• It was described by Howard and Pelc (1953).
• It is divided into two phases :
(a) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase :
(b) Short dividing M – phase :
Knowledge Booster
Check point cell cycle check points are control

mechanisum that ensure the fidelity of cell
division.
(i) G1-checkpoint or restriction checkpoint.
(ii) G2 -checkpoint .
(iii) M-check point or mitotic spindle checkpoint
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Division phase
M-check point
G0
G2-check point or
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(3-4 hr)
G2 phase (12 hr)
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G1 phase
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S-phase
(6-8 hr)
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D.N.A.
Synthesis
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G1-check point
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Cell cycle
Fig.1.17 : Cell cycle
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(a) Long non dividing (I – phase) or interphase :

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t is a complex of changes that occurs in a newly formed cell before it is able to divide. It involves
replication of DNA and synthesis of nuclear proteins and duplication of centriole. Synthesis of
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energy rich components also takes place. This occurs in three stages i.e.
(i) G1 (First Gap phase): In this phase the cell increases in size and synthesis of RNA,
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids occur.
Knowledge Booster
G0 stage or Quiscent stage or Resting stage
• Cell neither prepare to divide nor dividing
• Differentiated cell eg.Heart cell, muscle cell
& nerve cell are arrested at G o phase.
(ii) S (Synthesis phase): This is DNA replication, centriole replication phase.

Knowledge Booster
• In S-phase
2C = 4C
2N = 2N
• Where 2C – No. of DNA
2N – No. of chromosome
(iii) G2 (Second Gap phase) : This is the phase of DNA repair and synthesis of RNA and spindle
proteins (tubulin) duplication of cell organelle.
(b) Short dividing M – phase : t is the phase of cell division. It consists of karyokinesis (nuclear
division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division).

1. CELL BIOLOGY
• Cell division is of two types :
(i) Direct (Amitosis) :
• It is also known as Incipient cell division.
• First described by Remak (1841).
• Karyokinesis and cytokinesis takes place simultaneously.
• It is a very simple cell division. It occurs without spindle formation and appearance of
chromosomes, also the nuclear membrane remains intact. Both cell and its nucleus elongate,
constrict in middle and break off into nearly equal halves.
• It occurs in abnormal case. It occurs in prokaryotes (E.g. Bacteria, cyanobacteria etc.) and
eukaryotes (E.g. Amoeba, Yeast, Foetal membrane cells, Endosperm cells of seed, Diseased
cell and Old tissues).
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Fig.1.18 : Stages in Amitosis
(ii)
•
Indirect :
Karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis.
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I. Mitosis :
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• Term mitosis was given by Flemming (1882).

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• It is also called as somatic division as it occurs during formation of body cells.

• It is studied in plants, in meristems and in animals in bone marrow, skin and base of nails.
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• It is an equational division in which a parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells, each
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of them contains the same number and kind of chromosomes as are present in parent cell.
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• It occurs in two steps :

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1. Karyokinesis : Division of nucleus. It is divided in four steps :

• Prophase : Longest phase, In this Chromatin fibres condense to form chromosomes. They
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shorten and become distinct with each having two chromatids attached to centromere.
Centrosomes reach the poles and form spindle fibres.Nucleolus and nuclear membrane
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disappears.
Knowledge Booster
At the end of prophase all cell organelles are
also disappear & all cell organelles are reform at
telophase stage
• Metaphase : Chromosomes attach to spindle fibres that arise from each pole and lie at the
equator, forming a metaphasic plate. Chromosomes are shortest and thickest in this stage.
Knowledge Booster
Centromere is assembly of kinetocore & spindle
fibre attach to kinetochores of chromosome.
Metaphase of mitosis : Chromosome are allign
at equator.
• Anaphase : Shortest phase, In this phase centromere of each chromosome divides to form
two daughter chromosomes.They remain attached to poles through spindle fibres and start
moving towards pole and become shortened.
Knowledge Booster
Metaphase-I of Meiosis : Homologous
chromosome are allign at either side of equator
Metaphase II of meiosis : Chromosome allign
at equator.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
• Telophase : Nucleus is reconstituted, chromosomes uncoil, elongate and form chromatin
fibre. Nucleolus and nuclear envelope reappears forming two daughter nuclei.
2. Cytokinesis : It is referred to the division of cytoplasm. It begins towards the middle of
anaphase and completes with the completion of telophase. By this the complete cytoplasm
including matrix as well as organelles divides equally. In animals it occurs by formation of
cleavage furrow in the middle by constriction in plasma membrane. In plants it occurs by cell
plate formation.
Knowledge Booster
In animal - Cytokinesis is done by the furrow
method & from out side to inside.
In plant - Cytokinesis in done by the cell plate
method & from inside to out side.
Many golgi vesicles, spindle microtubule &
fragments of E.R arrange at equator and form
phragmoplast. They make cell plate.
Cell plate represent the middle lamellae
between the wall of two adjacent cell.
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Fig.1.19 : Various stages of mitosis.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
II. Meiosis :
• Term meiosis was given by Farmer and Moore (1905).
• It occurs only once in the life cycle of organisms during gametes formation.
• It is a double division in which a diploid cell divides twice to form four haploid cells.
• It comprises of two divisions (with short or no interphase between them) :
1. Meiosis – I 2. Meiosis – II
Interkinesis : A small time interval between two stages of meiotic division.
1. Meiosis – I : Also called as reductional division. Diploid state changes to haploid state. It
occurs in four steps.
Prophase – I : It is the longest phase of meiosis. It has following stages :
• Leptotene : Chromatin fibres condense to form chromosomes. In diploid organisms there are
two chromosomes of each type which are called as “homologous chromosomes”.
• Zygotene : Homologous chromosomes join by synapsis and form bivalents which are actually
tetrads. Pairing proceeds in zipper like fashion forming synaptonemal complex.
• Pachytene : There occurs exchange of segments between non sister chromatids of bivalents
and is called as crossing over.
Knowledge Booster
Crossing over is an also enzyme mediate d
process & enzyme that is involve in crossing
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over for breaking - Endonuclease, for joining
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ligase. (Both enzyme endonuclease and ligase
are collectively called Recombinase)
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Diplotene : Synaptonemal complex is dissolved. At some places non sister chromatids of two
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homologous chromosomes remain attached forming, chiasmata.
• Diakinesis : Chiasmata shifts towards ends, and complete separation of homologous
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chromosomes takes place (Terminalization) and nucleolus disappears.

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Knowledge Booster
Prophase is longest phase Anphase is smallest
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phase Pachytene is longest phase of Prophase

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I.
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Metaphase – I : Spindles are formed in bivalents form a double whorl or double metaphase
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plate.
Anaphase – I : Chiasmata disappears, homologous chromosomes separate by disjunction
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forming dyads. They move towards poles and form two groups of haploid chromosomes.
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Telophase – I : Chromosomes elongate, nucleoplasm & nuclear envelope reappears.

2. Meiosis – II : It is also called as equational division and maintains the haploid number of
chromosomes. During interphase (if occurs) no replication of DNA takes place.
Prophase – II : Chromatin fibres shorten and form chromosomes. Nuclear envelope and
nucleolus start disappearing.
Metaphase – II : Chromosomes form single metaphasic plate by arranging themselves on
equator.
Anaphase – II : Centromere divides into two and separates two chromatids of chromosome
into two independent daughter chromosomes or chromatids.
Telophase – II : The four groups of chromosomes organize themselves into 4 haploid nuclei.
Chromatin fibres are formed, nucleolus and nuclear envelope are reappeared.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
Prophase – I
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Fig.1.20 : Various Stages of Meiosis

1. CELL BIOLOGY
• Significance of mitosis : It is essential for growth, repair, maintenance of chromosome
number etc.
• Significance of meiosis : It produces variations, differentiation, and essential for sexual
reproduction. It maintains the chromosome number in each generation of living organisms.
Fig.1.21 : The human life cycle showing the role of two types of cell divisions-mitosis and meiosis
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOTIC & MEIOTIC CELL DIVISION
S.n Mitosis Meiosis
o.
1. It occurs in all somatic cells / vegetative cell (n, 2n, It occurs in reproductive cells / germ cells ( 2n &
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3n) never in n)
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2. In the resultant daughter cells, the number of In resultant daughter cells, the number
chromosomes remains the same (i.e., diploid), of chromosomes reduces to half (i.e., haploid),
hence, called equational division. or
hence, called reductional division.
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3. By mitosis two daughter cells are produced By meiosis four daughter cells are produced.
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4. During mitosis no crossing over takes place During meiosis crossing over takes place.
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5. Daughter cells have identical chromosomes Chromosomes of the daughter cells are
which are also identical to that of parent cell with combined components (genes) of
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(i.e. remains constant) both parents (i.e., genetic variability occurs)

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SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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SECTION (A) : CELL

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A-1 Write a note on cell theory ? Which organism is an exception of cell theory ?
A-2 Differentiate between plant and animal cell with suitable figures.
SECTION (B) : STRUCTURE OF GENERALIZED CELL
B-1 Who gave the fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane ?
B-2 What is osmosis ?
B-3 Which cell organelle is called as the head quarter of cell ?
B-4 What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis ?
B-5 Why plasma membrane is called as selectively permeable membrane ?
B-6 Draw a neat and labelled diagram of nucleus. State it’s main functions.
B-7 Describe the types of endoplasmic reticulum and draw necessary figure. Give it’s main functions
also.
B-8 Which organelle controls osmotic pressure in a cell ?
B-9 State the main functions of lysosomes ?
SECTION (C) : CELL DIVISION
C-1 Name the various phases & sub phases of cell cycle.
C-2 What are the basic differences between mitosis and meiosis ?
C-3 Why is interphase known as prepratory phase ?
C-4 Why prophase I longer as compared to mitotic prophase ?
C-5 Compare the metaphase of mitosis, meiosis I and meiosis II.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : CELL
A-1 The first person to observe a cell under microscope was –
(A) M. Schleiden (B) T. Schwann (C) Robert Hooke (D) A.V. Leeuwenhoek
A-2 Cell theory was formulated by –
(A) Morgan (B) Haldane
(C) Schleiden and Schwann (D) Robert Hooke
A-3 The word cell was coined by –
(A) Robert hooke (B) Weismann (C) Cuvier (D) Darwin
A-4 What is protoplast :
(A) Whole protoplasm of the cell (B) Plant cell without cell wall
(C) Cytoplasm of the cell (D) Cytosol of the cell
A-5 Smallest cells so far known are –
(A) bacteria (B) blue green algae (C) PPLOs (D) human egg
A-6 Which of the following is the longest cell of animal kingdom ?
(A) Bacteria (B) Nerve cell (C) Virus (D) Muscle cell
A-7 Which one of the following is an example of prokaryotic cell ?
(A) Typical plant cell (B) Typical animal cell (C) Bacteria (D) None of these
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A-8 What is cytology ?
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(A) Study of cytoplasm (B) Study of structure and composition of cell
(C) Study of animal cell only (D) Study of plant cell only
A-9 Who coined the term protoplasm ?
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(A) Leeuwenhoek (B) Purkinje (C) Robert hooke (D) Robert Brown
A-10 Cell is -
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(A) functional unit of life (B) structural unit of life

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(C) hereditary unit of life (D) all of the above

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B-1 Nucleus was discovered by

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(A) Robert Brown (B) Robert Hooke (C) A.V. Leeuwenhoek (D) Schwann
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B-2 Plastids that are white in colour (pigment free)

(A) chloroplast (B) lysosome (C) leucoplast (D) chromoplast
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B-3 Mitochondria are concerned with

(A) kreb cycle (B) C4 cycle (C) glycolysis (D) none of the above
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B-4 Which of the following organelle is the site of C3 cycle ?

(A) Ribosomes (B) Lysosomes (C) Plastids (D) Nucleus
B-5 Mitochondria are absent in
(A) prokaryotic cells (B) RBC of mammals (C) eukaryotic cells (D) (A) and (B) Both
B-6 Mitochondria stores energy in the form of
(A) heat energy (B) ATP (C) light energy (D) none of the above
B-7 Which of the following is called as ‘Suicidal bags’ ?
(A) Centrosome (B) Lysosome (C) Microsome (D) Mesosome
B-8 Tonoplast is the membrane surrounding the
(A) cytoplasm (B) vacuole (C) nucleus (D) mitochondria
B-9 Lysosomes are responsible for
(A) protein synthesis (B) digestion of organic molecules
(C) fat synthesis (D) fat emulsification
B-10 What is more abundant in smooth endoplasmic reticulum ?
(A) Cisternae and vesicles (B) Tubules
(C) Tubules and vesicles (D) Cisternae
B-11 Lipid synthesis is performed by
(A) rough ER (B) smooth ER (C) both of above (D) none of the above

1. CELL BIOLOGY
B-12 Main function of lysosomes is
(A) Secretion (B) Respiration
(C) Intracellular digestion (D) Extracellular digestion
B-13 Detoxification of body is done by
(A) mitochondria (B) lysosomes
(C) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (D) rough endoplasmic reticulum
B-14 Golgi apparatus is made of
(A) cisternae (B) vesicles (C) golgian vacuoles (D) all of the above
B-15 The waste disposal system of cell is formed by
(A) lysosomes (B) peroxisome (C) mitochondria (D) glyoxysome
B-16 Cell organelle taking part in photorespiration is
(A) Glyoxysomes (B) Peroxisome (C) Dictyosome (D) E.R.
C-1 Karyokinesis is -
(A) Division of cytoplasm (B) Division of nucleus
(C) Both (A) and (B) (D) None of these
C-2 Which is the shortest phase of mitosis ?
(A) Metaphase (B) Telophase (C) Anaphase (D) Prophase
C-3 Longest phase of prophase I -
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(A) Leptotene (B) Zygotene (C) Pachytene (D) Diplotene
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C-4 Amitosis occur in -
C-5
(A) Prokaryotes (B) Eukaryotes
What comes in quiscent stage of Interphase ?
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(C) Both (D) None of these
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(A) G1 (B) S (C) G2 (D) G0
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C-6 In which stage of mitosis chromosomes are shortest and thickest ?

(A) Prophase (B) Metaphase (C) Anaphase (D) Telophase
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C-7 What is the number of chromosome in s-phase ?

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(A) 2N (B) 4N (C) N (D) 3N

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N = No. of chromosome
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C-8 At which stage all cell organelles disappear and reform in mitosis ?
(A) Telophase and Prophase (B) Prophase and Metaphase
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(C) Prophase and Telophase (D) Telophase and Metaphase

C-9 Which sub phase is known as Bouquet stage ?
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(A) Leptotene (B) Zygotene (C) Pachytene (D) Diplotene

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C-10 Shortest phase of prophase-I is -

(A) Leptotene (B) pachytene (C) Zygotene (D) Diplotene
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Eukaryotic ribosomes are
(A) 30s (B) 50s (C) 80s (D) 70s
2. Striking difference between a plant cell and an animal cell is due to the presence of
(A) mitochondria (B) plasma membrane (C) cell wall (D) ribosome
3. In prokaryotic cell
(A) nucleus is developed
(B) membrane bounded organelles are present
(C) double membrane bounded organelles are absent
(D) none of these
4. A typical plant cell contains
(A) cell wall (B) plastids (C) large vacuole (D) all of the above
5. In which cell centriole is absent ?
(A) Plant cell (B) Animal cell (C) Both of the above (D) None of above

1. CELL BIOLOGY
6. The correct sequence of different phases of mitosis is

(A) Anaphase–––– Metaphase –––– Prophase –––– Telophase –––– Interphase
(B) Interphase–––– Telophase –––– Metaphase –––– Anaphase –––– Prophase
(C) Metaphase –––– Anaphase –––– Telophase –––– Interphase –––– Telophase
(D) Interphase –––– Prophase –––– Metaphase –––– Anaphase –––– Telophase
7. After mitosis, the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells shall be
1 1
(A) of parent cell (B) of parent cell (C)double of parent cell (D) same as parent cell
4 2
8. Mitosis is usually studied in smears or sections of
(A) root tips (B) shoot tips (C) floral buds (D) all of the above
9. Cytoplasmic structures involved in cell division is
(A) mitochondria (B) ribosome (C) lysosome (D) centriole
10. The cell size doubles in a stage of cell cycle called as
(A) M (B) G1 (C) S (D) G2
11. The stage at which DNA/chromosome replicates is
(A) prophase (B) interphase (C) metaphase (D) telophase
12. G1, S and G2 are stages of
(A) interphase (B) prophase (C) metaphase (D) anaphase
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13. In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs by
(A) cell plate (B) invagination (C) furrowing (D) all of these are correct
14. Nuclear envelope reappears at
(A) metaphase (B) anaphase
or
(C) cytokinesis (D) telophase
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15. As compared to mitosis, meiosis has
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(A) exchange of chromatid segments

(B) no telophase
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(C) daughter cells similar to parent cells

(D) duplication of chromosomes occur during anaphase
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16. Pairing of homologous chromosomes is called as

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(A) chiasmata formation (B) synapsis (C) disjunction (D) crossing over
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17. In acrocentric chromosomes, position of centromere is-

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(A) terminal (B) middle (C) subterminal (D) none of these

18. Chromosomes having equal or almost equal arms are called
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(A) metacentric (B) acrocentric (C) polycentric (D) acentric

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19. Chromosomes other than sex chromosomes are called as

(A) allosomes (B) autosomes (C) microsomes (D) none of the above
20. In humans the number of chromosomes in a diploid cell is
(A) 23 (B) 46 (C) 44 (D) 30
IJSO STAGE-I (PREVIOUS YEARS)

1. The signal for mitotic division is generated when the ratio of volume of nucleus to that of cell
becomes -
(IJSO/stage I/2010)
(A) less than a certain value. (B) greater than a certain value.
(C) reaches a certain value. (D) closer to one.
2. When a cell fails to communicate with other cells in multicellular organism, it
(IJSO/stage I/2010)
(A) becomes cancerous (B) enters mitotic phase
(C) chooses to die (D) is eaten up by other cells
3. The process involved in healing of the wound is (IJSO/stage I/2011)
(A) Meiosis I and II (B) mitosis (C) Meiosis I (D) meiosis II

1. CELL BIOLOGY
4. Considering the action of colchicine, it may be considered for the treatment of :
(IJSO/stage I/2012)
(A) Hairfall (B) Anemia (C) Cancer (D) Bacterial infection
Read the following carefully and answer the questions from 5 to 6.

Students treat some onion root tips with colchicine that is responsible arresting cell division at the
metaphase stage (by dissolving spindle fibres) and further prepared a slide of the root tip staining
with acetoorcein (stains chromatin) and observed under high power of compound microscope. He is
well aware of the cell cycle given alongside.
5. Which of the following is not true about his observation ? (IJSO/stage I/2012)
(A) Most cells are in Interphase
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(B) Most cells are in the metaphase
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(C) No cells are in anaphase or telophase
(D) Chromosomes could be observed better than a slide prepared without colchicine treatment.
6. Why did the student choose root tips of onion or
(A) Roots grow fast and considerable length of tips can be used.
(IJSO/stage I/2012)
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(B) Root tips are easy to smear and stain.
(C) Root tips have meristematic tissue.
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(D) Cell division occurs only at the root tips in plants

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7. If Brain is controlling unit of an organism, then at cellular level which cell organelle can be
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comparable to Brain ? (IJSO/stage I/2013)

(A) Chloroplast (B) Ribosome (C) Nucleus (D) Lysosome
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8. Most of the cellular RNA is synthesised and stored respectively in : (IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) cytoplasm and ribosomes. (B) ribosomes and cytoplasm.
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(C) ribosomes and nucleus (D) nucleus and ribosomes

9. The erythrocytes separated from human blood were mixed with certain fluids on a slide and
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observed under the microscope. Which of the following will be the expected result ?
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(IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) With serum the cells clump and coagulate.
(B) With distilled water the cells swell and eventually burst.
(C) With sea water the cells undergo no apparent change.
(D) With tap water cells shrink and appear cremated.
10. In the cells of oil seeds which of the cell organelles have to be more active :(IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) Mitochondria (B) Rough endoplasmic Reticulum
(C) Smooth endoplasmic Reticulum (D) Nucleoli
11. Mitochondrial equivalent in prokaryotic bacterial cell is (IJSO/stage I/2015)
(A) ribosomes (B) thylakoid
(C) cytoplasmic plasma membrane (D) cyanosomes
12. Which of the following option is not true about the viruses ? (IJSO/stage I/2015)
(A) Viruses have either DNA or RNA as their genetic material.
(B) Viruses will not infect bacteria, fungi and algae.
(C) Viruses use host machinery to produce their own proteins.
(D) Viruses are useful in the preparation of vaccines.
13. Gram positive bacteria will have one of the specific characters. Identify it. (IJSO/stage I/2015)
(A) They have more peptidoglycan in their cell walls
(B) They show red colour on gram staining.
(C) Flagella found all over the body.
(D) They will have mesosomes as the extension of cell membrane.

1. CELL BIOLOGY
14. When a red blood cell was placed in an animal cell (RBC) in 3 different solutions, the following
morphological observations were made under a microscope. The above three solutions can be
classified in the order of (IJSO/stage I/2015-16)
(A) isotonic, hypotonic and hypertonic (B) hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic
(C) hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic (D) isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic
15. Thin cuboidal strips are made by slicing a potato. They are all made to be exactly 8 cm long and
2mm wide. Each strip is placed in sugar solutions of different concentration. After soaking it for 5
hours, their lengths are measured again. The following graph show the results of the experiment.
What concentration of sugar solution is isotonic with the contents of the cells of the potato.
(IJSO/stage I/2015-16)
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(A) 0.2 (B) 0.4 or
(C) 0.6 (D) 0.1
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16. Which amongst the following are not plastids : (IJSO/stage I/2017)
(A) Leucoplasts (B) Chromoplasts (C) Amyloplasts (D) Tonoplasts
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17. Health is all about `eating-fasting' balance. When you fast for extended periods, your cells clean out
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and recycle the intracellular garbage. The organelles responsible for this are:
(IJSO/stage I/2017)
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(A) Microfilaments (B) Lysosomes (C) Golgi Apparatus (D) Microtubules

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The intracellular organelle that is responsible for formation of acrosomal vesicle is:
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18 .
(IJSO/stage I/2018)
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(a) endoplasmic reticulum (b) Golgi apparatus

(c) mitochondrion (d) none of the above
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19. A student recorded the data for five types of cells as given below : (IJSO/stage I/2018)
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Character P Q R S T
Cell wall + + - - +
Centrioles - - - + -
Chloroplast - + - - -
Mitochondrion - + - + +
Nucleus - + - + +
Plasma membrane + + - + +
RNA/DNA + + + + +
Vacuoles + + - + +
The five cell types P, Q, R, S and T are:

(A) P- Bacterium, Q- Plant, R- Virus, S- Animal; T- Fungus
(B) P- Bacterium, Q-Plant, R- Virus, S- Fungus, T- Animal
(C) P- Fungus, Q- Plant, R- Bacterium, S- Animal, T- Virus
(D) P- Plant, Q- Bacterium, R- Virus, S- Animal, T- Fungus
20. A bacterium has a generation time of 50 minutes. A culture containing 108 cells per mL is incubated
for 300 minutes. What will be the number of cells after 300 minutes? (IJSO/stage I/2018)
(A) 64 × 103 cells (B) 6.4 × 108 cells (C) 64 × 109 cells (D) 6.4 × 109 cells

1. CELL BIOLOGY
EXERCISE - 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : CELL
A-1 C A-2 C A-3 A A-4 B A-5 C A-6 B A-7 C A-8 B A-9 B A-10 D
B-1 A B-2 C B-3 A B-4 C B-5 D B-6 B B-7 B B-8 B B-9 B B-10 C B-11 B B-12 C B-13 C
B-14 D B-15 A B-16 B
C-1 B C-2 C C-3 C C-4 C C-5 D C-6 B C-7 A C-8 C C-9 A C-10 A
EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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A. C C C D A D D D D B B A A D A B C A B B
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EXERCISE - 3
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 or
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
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A A C B C D C C D B C C B A A B D B B A D
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2. TISSUE
2. TISSUE
“A tissue is defined as a group of cells with similar structure, organized to do a common
function”.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
The term tissue was coined by Bichat.
The study of tissue with the help of microscope is called histology.
Term histology was coind by Meyer.
Importance of tissues :
• Workload of individual cell has decreased.
• Tissues become organized to form organs and organs into organ systems.
• Formation of tissues has brought about division of labour in multicellular organisms.
• Multicellular organisms have higher survival due to improved body organization and higher
efficiency of functions.
Mainly they are of two types :
(a) Meristematic (b) Permanent
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PLANT TISSUE
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Meristematic Permanent
(Cell are totipotent and capable of divisions) or
(Cell are mature & incapable of divisions)
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On the basis of On the basis of
origin Location
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Primary Secondary Apical Intercalary Lateral

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Simple Complex
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Epidermis
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Protective
Cork Xylem Phloem
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Parenchyma Xylem vessels Sieve Tubes

Supporting Collenchyma Tracheids
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Companion cells
Sclerenchyma Xylem parenchyma Phloem parenchyma
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Xylem sclerenchyma
Phloem Sclerenchyma
Knowledge Booster
• Vacuoles are absent in meristematic tissue because meristamatic tissue
are fast growing cell and there is not much to store.
• Meristematic cells are metabolically highly active, so stored food is absent.
Classification on the basis of origin :
(i) Primary meristem :
Derived directly from the meristems of embryo (Promeristem).
They add to primary growth of plants.
(ii) Secondary meristem :
Formed by permanent tissues.
These are having cells derived from permanent tissue.
They usually add to the diameter of plants.
Dedifferentiation
Meristematic Tissue Differentiation Permanent Tissue Secondary Meristem
BIOLOGY_ IJSO VOL.1_PAGE-28

2. TISSUE
Differentiation is the development process in which cells take up

a permanent shape, size and perform a specific function.
Dedifferentiation takes place only in permanent cell. In this
process the specialized cells regain the division power and
become meristematic e.g. cork cambium.
Classification on the basis of location :

(i) Apical meristem : It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots.
• Cell division in this tissue leads to the elongation of stem & root thus it is involved in primary
growth of the plant.
(ii) Intercalary meristem :
• It is the part of apical meristem which is left behind during growth period.
• These are present at the base of leaf & internode region. These lead to the increase in the
length of leaf e.g. In grass stem, bamboo stem, mint stem etc.
(iii) Lateral meristem : It is also called as secondary meristem.
• It occurs along the sides of longitudinal axis of the plant. It gives rise to the vascular tissues
and causes growth in girth of stem & root.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Lateral meristem is of two types vascular
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Apical and intercalary meristem cambium and cork cambium.
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are responsible for primary growth Vascular cambium produces secondary
of plant (growth in length). phloem and secondary xylem.
Lateral meristem is responsible
for secondary growth.
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Cork cambium produces a protective cork
on the outside.
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Fig.2.1 : Types of meristem in a shoot

(b) Permanent tissue :
• The permanent tissues are composed of those cells which have lost their capability to divide.
• They have definite shape, size and thickness.
• The permanent tissue may be dead or living.
• The division and differentiation of the cells of meristematic tissues give rise to permanent
tissues.
• In cell differentiation, developing tissues and organs change from simple to more complex
forms to become specialized for specific functions.

2. TISSUE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MERISTEMATIC AND PERMANENT TISSUES

S.NO. MERISTEMATIC TISSUE PERMANENT TISSUE
Cells are small and may be rounded, oval, Cells are large and of different shapes
1.
rectangular or polygonal. according to the type of tissue.
2. Cells are thin-walled. Cells are thin or thick-walled.
3. Cells are rich in cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is present as a layer along the cell wall.
4. A prominent nucleus is present. Nucleus is relatively small in size.
5. Vacuoles are small; may even be absent. Usually a large central vacuole is present.
6. Intercellular spaces are absent. Intercellular spaces are often present.
Cells are undifferentiated and give rise to
7. Cells are differentiated.
different permanent tissues.
8. Power of cell division is present. Lack the power of cell division.
9. Always living. May be living or dead.
Types of Permanent tissue : The permanent tissues are classified into two types on the
basis of cell wall composition –
(i) Simple Permanent Tissue : These tissues are made up of same type of cells which are
similar structurally and functionally.
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They include two types of tissue :
(I) Protective Tissues : These tissues are primarily protective in function. They consist of :
(1)
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Epidermis : Epidermis forms one cell thick outermost layer of various body organs of plants
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such as leaves, flowers, stems and roots.
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• Epidermis is covered outside by cuticle.

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• Cuticle is a water proof layer of waxy substance called as cutin which is secreted by the
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epidermal cells.
• Cuticle is very thick in xerophytes.
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• Cells of epidermis of leaves are not continuous at some places due to the presence of small
pores called as stomata.
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• Each stomata is guarded by a pair of bean shaped cells called as guard cells.
• These are the only epidermal cells which possess chloroplasts, the rest being colourless.
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Fig.2.2 : Stomata
Functions :
• The main function of epidermis is to protect the plant from desiccation and infection.
• Cuticle of epidermis cuts the rate of transpiration and evaporation of water and prevents
wilting.
• Stomata in epidermis allow gaseous exchange to occur during photosynthesis and respiration.
• Stomata also helps in transpiration.
(2) Cork or phellem : In older roots and stems, tissues at the periphery become cork cells or
phellem cells.
• Cork is made up of dead cells with thick walls and do not have any intercellular spaces.
• The cell walls in cork deposit waxy substance called as suberin.
• The cells of cork become impermeable to water and gases due to the deposition of suberin.
• The cork cells are without any protoplasm but are filled with resins or tannins.

2. TISSUE
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Fig.2.3 : T.S. of cork piece showing cork cells
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Functions & Uses :
•
•
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Cork is protective in function. Cork cells prevent desiccation, infection and mechanical injury.
Imperviousness, lightness, toughness, compressibility and elasticity make the cork
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commercially valuable.
• Cork is used for insulation, as shock absorber in linoleum.
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• Cork is used in the making of a variety of sport goods such as cricket balls, table tennis,
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shuttle-cocks, wooden paddles etc.

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(II) Supporting tissue : These are supportive in function and of three types :
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Fig.2.4 : Supporting tissue`

2. TISSUE
(1) Parenchyma :
• It is a living and basic packing tissue which consists of relatively unspecialised cells.
• Cells of this tissue have thin cell wall which is made up of cellulose.
• Cells of this tissue have cytoplasm with small nucleus and large vacuole.
• They are usually loosely packed because intercellular spaces are present between cells.
Function : This tissue provides support to the plant and help in storage of food.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Parenchyma is the first evolved
permanent tissue which is present
in all soft parts of plant (therefore
called as universal tissue).
MODIFICATION OF PARENCHYMA
a) Prosenchyma : Parenchyma which stores food is called as prosenchyma.

b) Chlorenchyma : It is a parenchyma which stores abundant quantity of
chloroplast. It helps in synthesis of food.
c) Aerenchyma : It is a type of parenchyma which is made up
of rounded cells which surrounds the large air cavities. It is found i n a q u a t i c
plants or hydrophytes. It provides buoyancy to aquatic plants to help them to
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float
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d) Idioblast : Parenchyma involved in excretory substance storage are called
as idioblast. They help in storing materials like resin,tannin,gums or oils.
(2) or
Collenchyma : Cells of this tissue are living, elongated or vary in structure. Cells of this tissue
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are irregularly thickened at the corners due to the deposition of pectin. It is present below the
epidermis of leaf stalk and leaf margin. Intercellular spaces are very little or absent between
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cells of this tissue.

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Functions : It provides mechanical support (tensile strength) and elasticity. It allows easy
bending in various parts of plant (leaf and stem) without breaking. It provides flexibility to plant.
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KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
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Collenchyma are usually absent in

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all the woody parts, roots, stem

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and leaves of monocots and roots

of dicot plant while present in
herbaceous stem and leaves of
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dicot plant.
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(3) Sclerenchyma : Sclerenchyma cells are dead, narrow and long cells and they are devoid of
protoplasm. The walls of cells of sclerenchyma are greatly thickened with deposition of
lignin.Such cell walls are called lignified. The cells of sclerenchyma are closely packed without
intercellular spaces. They are found in stems (around the vascular bundle), roots, veins of
leaves, hard coverings of seed and nuts.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Lignin is a complex polymer which acts as a
cement and hardens cell wall. Lignin makes
the cell wall impermeable so important
substances are unable to pass through it .
As a result, cells that are heavily lignified do
not have living content (protoplasm).
Functions : It is the main mechanical tissue which provides mechanical support. It makes the
plant hard and stiff. Sclerenchymatous cells are of two types in structure :
• Fibres • Sclereids
Sclerenchyma fibres : They constitute the major mechanical tissue of the plants. Commercial
fibres obtained from plants (e.g. Jute, flax, hemp, husk of coconut) usually are
sclerenchymatous fibres.
Ropes, mats that we commonly use in our everyday life for various purposes are obtained from
sclerenchyma cells. Linen and hemp are prepared from the fibres obtained from sclerenchyma.
Linen & hemp are used in preparation of textiles.

2. TISSUE
Sclereids (grit or stone cells) : They are highly thickened and irregularly shaped dead cells.
Sclereids provide strength to seed covering and are present in drup fruit (Mango, coconut,
walnut).
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OF PARENCHYMA, COLLENCHYMA AND SCLERENCHYMA
S.NO. PARENCHYMA COLLENCHYMA SCLERENCHYMA
1. It consists of living cells. It cons is ts of living cells . It consis ts of dead cells .
Intercellular spaces may or may
2. Intercellular spaces are present. Intercellular spaces are absent.
not be present.
3. Cell wall is thin without Cell wall is thick as it has Cell wall is thick as it has
having secondary deposition. pectin deposition. lignin depos ition.
4. Cells contain cytoplasm. Cells contain cytoplas m. Cells are devoid of cytoplas m.
They have both vital as well as
They have vital functions like
5. m echanical function, providing It is chiefly a mechanical tis sue.
synthesis and storage of food.
support and elas ticity to plant body.
(ii) Complex Permanent Tissue : t consists of more than one type of cells which work together
as a unit. t helps in transportation of organic materials, water & minerals. t is also known as
conducting or vascular tissue. Xylem & phloem together form vascular bundles.
(I) Xylem : Also known as wood and is a vascular and mechanical tissue. Thick walled cells are
found in the form of tubular passages.
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Fig : 2.5 Xylem elements

2. TISSUE
Xylem consists of four types of cells called as elements
(1) Tracheids : They are elongated angular dead cells (primitive elements) mainly involved in
conduction of water & minerals in gymnosperms.
(2) Vessels : They are advance elements (Generally found in angiosperms). Vessels are
cylindrical tube like structures placed one above the other end to end which form a continuous
channel for efficient conduction of water.
(3) Xylem parenchyma : They are small & thick walled parenchymatous cells subjected for
storage of starch (food).
(4) Xylem sclerenchyma: They are non living fibres with thick walls & narrow cavities provide
mechanical support. Except xylem parenchyma all other xylem elements are dead.
Hadrome: Tracheids & vessels are collectively called hadrome, as main conducting elements
in xylem.
Function of Xylem :
• The main function of xylem is the upward movement of water and dissolved minerals (ascent
of sap) from the roots to different parts of shoots.
• Tracheids, vessels and xylem sclerenchyma provide mechanical strength to the plant body.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
The annual rings present in the trunk of a
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tree are xylem rings. By counting the
number of annual rings we can determine
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the age of a tree.
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(II) Phloem : Phloem is a living conducting or vascular tissue.
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Fig. 2.6 : Phloem

2. TISSUE
Phloem consists of four types of elements :
1. Sieve tubes : Sieve tubes are slender tube like structures made up of elongated, thin walled
cells placed end to end. The end walls of sieve tube cells are perforated by numerous pores
are called as sieve plates. Nucleus of sieve cell degenerates at maturity, however, cytoplasm
persists.
2. Companion cells : Companion cells have dense cytoplasm and prominent nuclei.Sieve cells
& companion cells are so called sister cells because they originate from single mother cell.
Knowledge Booster
Although the sieve tubes are devoid of nuclei, but still they remain living.
This is because of the fact that the sieve tubes are dependent on the
adjoining companion cells which develop from the same meristematic
cell. The two cells together form a functional unit.
3. Phloem sclerenchyma : They give mechanical support to sieve tubes
4. Phloem parenchyma : They store food & help in radial conduction of food.
Leptome : Main part of phloem involved in conduction of food, which is sieve tube.
• In phloem except phloem sclerenchyma all elements are living.
Function of Phloem :
• Phloem helps in the transportation of organic food (photosynthesized by the leaves) to all the
parts of a plant.
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• Phloem parenchyma also help in the storage of food.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN XYLEM & PHLOEM
S.NO. XYLEM
Xylem parenchyma is only living remaining
or PHLOEM
Phloem sclerenchyma only dead
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1.
cells are dead. remaining all cells are living.
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2. It carries minerals, salts & water. An organic solution of sugars is translocated.

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3. The movement is only upward. The movement can be upward or downward.

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Tissue
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Meristemetic Permanent
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(capacity to divided)
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Based on origin Based on position Based on function

Promeristem (primardial) Protoderm
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(opex of shoot and root)

Ground-Fundamental tissue
Primary meristem Procambium-Pri.vascular tissue
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(Below shoot and root) Apical meristem Intercalary Lateral meristem

–increase in length meristem –Lateral side
Secondary meristem –At the base of stem & root
(it fromed root cambium, of internode –Increases in
cork cambium & inter grasses or girth of stem &
fasiculor combium) at the node. root e.g.Interfasicular
eg.mint Intra fasicular
–Increases cork cambium
length of the
Permanent plant
Simple tissue Complex

1. Parenchyma
–Living
–Storage of food
–Aerenchyma Xylem = Hadrome
–Chlorenchyma –Tracheids
eg.Palisade, Spongy –Cell wall lignified
tissue –Wide cavity
–Intercellular space Phloem = Bast = Leptom (BPL)
Tracheae (vessels)
2.Collenchyma –cell wall lignifed
–Living –one above the other
–No intercellular –Transverse wall
space –dissolved Seive tube Companian Phloem fibres Phloem
–Cellulose, pectin –absent in Pterido and Gymno element cell –provide parenchyma
–Mechanical –At maturity nucleus disapear –Sieve tube –attached to the mechanical support –absent in monocot
support to organ Xylem (wood) Fibres arrangement lateral side of sieve –Used for making and in some dicot
3.Sclerenchyma –Provide mechanical support one above the other tube ropes and rough –store food
–Dead Xylem (wood) parenchyma –Nucleus disappear –Absent in pterido cloth material
–store food at maturity & Gymno –Help in transport
–Help in conducting of H2 O of food
Fibres Stone (scleroids)

–Mechanical strength –Cell lignified In hard part of plant
–lignified lignified e.g.endocarp of walnut, coconut

2. TISSUE
(c) Anatomy of Root, Stem And Leaf :
Tissue System
EPIDERMAL GROUND VASCULAR

Outermost covering. Include all the tissues except Includes xylem and Phloem.
Consists of epidermal and vascular T.S. Vascular tissues are of 2 types.
Epidermal cells. Made of Parenchyma,
Stomata collenchyma & sclerenchyma.
Epidermal appendages
Trichomes
Hair
Epidermis – Single layered, continous,
made up of elongated cells. Radial Conjoint
Waxy thick layer of cuticle present on
epidermis (except roots). Phloem
Root nairs — Unicellular elongations of Closed Open
epidermla cells. Phloem
Trichomes – Multicellular hair present Cambium
on stem. Xylem
Xylem
(iv) Secondary Growth

• The increase in width (girth) of plant due to cambium.
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• 2 lateral meristems responsible for secondary growth.
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I. Vascular cambium – Secondary growth in stele.
II. Cork cambium Secondary growth in extra stellar part.
I. Vascular Cambium :
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• Present between xylem and phloem as single layer in young stem but later forms complete
ring.
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1. Formation of Cambial ring :

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• Cells of medullary adjoining interfascicular cambium (between xylem and phloem) become
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active and divide to form intrafascicular cambium. This forms a continous ring.
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WOOD
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Activity of Cambium
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SPRING WOOD AUTUMN WOOD
Cambium More active Cambium less active

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More number of xylem elements. Few xylem elements

Light colour, Low density Dark colour, High density.
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• Annual Rings : These two rings appear in concentric manner called annual rings. Used to
estimate age of tree.
II. Cork cambium :
• As the girth of stem increases, another meristematic tissue called cork cambium develop in
cortex region known as phellogen.
• Phellogen is multilayered made up of narrow, thin walled cells and divides on both sides and
form new cells.
• Outer cells differentiate into Cork or Phellem.
• Cork impermeable to water due to suberin deposition.
• Inner cells form secondary cortex or phelloderm. (Parenchymatous)
PHELLOGEN + PHELLEM + PHELLODERM PERIDERM
• Bark : All tissues exterior to vascular cambium, including secondary phloem.
• Lenticles : At some places, phellogen/cork cambium forms closely packed parenchymatous
cells which become dead and form opening in epidermis called Lenticles.
• Help in gaseous exchange.

2. TISSUE
B. ANIMAL TISSUE
• Based upon the structure and functions, simple tissues in multicellular animals are categorized
into four types. These are :
(a) Epithelial Tissue (b) Connective Tissue
(c) Muscular Tissue (d) Nervous Tissue
• Outline classification of Animal tissue :
Animal Tissue
(a) Epithelial (b) Connective (c) Muscular (d) Nervous

Tissue Tissue Tissue Tissue
(i) Squamous
Epithelium
(ii) Columnar
Epithelium (A) Striated (B) Non (C) Cardiac
(iii) Cuboidal Muscles Striated Muscles
Muscles
Epithelium
(iv) Ciliated
Epithelium
(A) Connective (B) Skeletal (C) Vascular

Tissue Proper Tissue Tissue
(1) Areolar tissue (1) Cartilage (1) Blood
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(2) White fibrous (2) Bone (2) Lymph
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Tissue
(3) Yellow fibrous
Tissue
(4) Adipose Tissue
(5) Reticular tissue
or
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(a) Epithelial Tissue :
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[Epi means above & thelial means to growing layer)

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• Always grows on some other types of tissues.

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• Cells of epithelium are set very close to each other and the tissue rests on a noncellular
s
basement membrane.
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• Consists of single layer of cells.

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• There is no direct blood supply to this tissue.

• It is non-nervous in nature.
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Function : The epithelial tissue performs a number of functions some of them are :
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• It is primarily protective in function and covers all the organs from outside e.g. epidermis of
skin and forms the linings of hollow organs.
• It prevents the underlying cells from drying, injury and chemical effects. Epidermis of skin also
protects the body from infections.
Types: Epithelial tissues are classified as :
(i) Simple Epithelium :
• Simple epithelium is formed of a single layer of cells.
• The adjacent cells are held together by means of desmosome, resting on the basement
membrane.
• Simple epithelium occurs mainly on secretory and absorptive surfaces.
• It helps in nutrition, excretion, and secretion, but not for protecting the underlying tissue.
I. Squamous epithelium :
• It consists of a layer of thin, flat, scale-like cells with prominent nuclei.
• The cells have irregular boundaries that fit closely into those of neighbouring cells.
• It forms the inner lining of lung alveoli and blood vessels (endothelium).
• It is also known as pavement or tessellated epithelium.

2. TISSUE
II. Cuboidal epithelium :
• It has cells which are polygonal in outline, but appear cuboidal in vertical section.
• It lines small salivary and pancreatic ducts and thyroid vesicles.
• The cells participate in secretion, excretion, and absorption.
• The cells of cubical epithelium in absorptive surfaces often bear microvilli on their free ends.
This gives a brush-like appearance to their free border. They are, therefore, called brush-
bordered cubical epithelial cells, e. g., in the proximal tubules of kidneys.
• Microvilli greatly increase the area of the free surface of the cell and thereby enhance
absorption.
III. Columnar epithelium :
• It is characterized by the presence of tall cells that are shaped like polygonal columns.
• The nucleus is usually located at the base of the cell.
• Columnar epithelium covers the inner surface of intestine, stomach, and gall bladder. It also
occurs in gastric and intestinal glands.
• Its function is secretion or absorption.
• The intestinal mucosa is lined by brush-bordered columnar epithelium which is highly
absorptive.
IV. Ciliated epithelium :
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• Ciliated epithelium consists of columnar or cubical cells bearing cilia on their free surfaces.
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• The function of the cilia is to move particles, free cells or mucus in a specific direction over the
epithelial surface.
• or
Ciliated columnar epithelium lines the inner surfaces of some hollow organs such as Fallopian
sF
tubes, bronchioles and small bronchi.
• Ciliated columnar epithelium lining the Ventricles of brain and spinal canal is called as
ie
ependymal tissue.
· • Stereo cilia are found in some parts of the male reproductive tracts such as the epididymis and
er
vas deferens.
ts
KNOWLEDGE
The function of cilia and microvilli BOOSTER
present on surface of epithelial tissue is :
s
Cilia : Cilia show rhythmic beating movements in the respiratory tract. Thus
te
this beating of cilia help to keep unwanted particle from entering the lungs.
The microvilli are finger like projection on the epithelial cells of intestine
:@
where they help in increasing the surface area for absorption.

in
V. Pseudo stratified epithelium :

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• Pseudo stratified epithelium covers the inner linings of trachea and large bronchi.
• Although made up of a single layer of columnar cells, it appears two-layered, because some
cells are shorter than the others and have their nuclei at different levels.
• The shorter cells lack cilia and secrete mucus which traps particles on the epithelial surface,
whereas the longer cells are ciliated.
• Ciliary movements propel the mucus and the particles toward larynx.
• Pseudo stratified non-ciliated columnar epithelium tissue is found in the urethra of male and
parotid, salivary gland.
Skin is called as organ because it is made up of different tissues

which collectively perform a specialized function (protection). The
KNO
two main layers of WLED-GE
skin (1)BOepidermis
OSTER (epithelial tissue) (2) dermis
(connective tissue)
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Pseudostratified epithelium means a tissue which
looks stratified but it is not, because its cells are
arranged with their nuclei at different level.

2. TISSUE
(ii) Compound Epithelium :
• It consists of more than one layer of cells.
• Only the cells of the deepest layer rest on the basement membrane.
• Being multilayered, compound epithelia have little role in secretion or absorption. But they
provide protection to underlying tissues against mechanical, chemical, thermal and osmotic
stresses.
• Compound epithelia may be stratified or transitional.
I. Stratified epithelium :
• Stratified epithelium has many layers of epithelial cells.
• The deepest layer is formed by cuboidal cells.
• But the morphology of the superficial layers varies in the different kinds of stratified epithelia.
• In stratified cuboidal epithelium, the superficial cells are cuboidal.
• It lines the inner surfaces of larger salivary and pancreatic ducts.
• Stratified non-keratinized squamous covers moist surfaces such as those of buccal cavity,
pharynx, and oesophagus.
• It has several superficial layers of living squamous cells and deeper layers of interlinked
polygonal cells.
• Heavy deposits of the insoluble protein keratin in the dead superficial cells make the
epithelium impervious to water and highly resistant to mechanical abrasions.
• In contrast, non-keratinized stratified epithelium cannot prevent water loss and can afford only
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moderate protection against abrasions.
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II. Transitional epithelium :
•
•
or
Transitional epithelium is much thinner and more stretchable than stratified epithelium.
It has a single layer of cuboidal cells at the base, two to three middle layers of large polygonal
sF
or pear-shaped cells and a superficial layer of large, broad, rectangular, or oval cells.
• It lines the inner surface of the urinary bladder and ureters.
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• It allows considerable expansion of these organs to accommodate urine because stretching

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considerably flattens and broadens the cells of superficial and middle layers.
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III. Glandular epithelium :

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• The cells of glandular epithelium are generally columnar or cuboidal.

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• The glandular epithelium can be classified into two types : unicellular, consisting of isolated
glandular cells (e. g., goblet cell of alimentary canal), and multicellular (e. g., salivary glands),
:@
consisting of cluster of cells.

(iii) Specialized junctions between epithelial cells to provide mechanical support to tissues,
in
plasma membrane of the adjacent epithelial cells is modified to form structures called as
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intercellular junctions.
I. Tight junctions (zonula occludens) They help to prevent substances from leaking across the
tissue.Plasma membranes in the apical parts become tightly packed together or are even
fused.
II. Interdigitations These are interfitting, finger-like processes of the cell membranes of the
adjacent cells.They make contact with one another.
III. Gap junctions They facilitate the cells to communicate with each other by connecting the
cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid transfer of ions, small rnolecules, and sometilnes big
molecules also.
IV. Intermediate junctions (zonula adherens) These usually ccur just below tight Junctions. The
intercellular space at these places contains a clear, low electron density fluid. There is a dense
plaque like structure on the cytoplasmic side of each plasma membrane from which fine
microfilaments of actin (protein) extend into the cytoplasm. There are no intercellular filaments
between the adjacent cell membranes. There is an adhesive material at this point. They
probably serve anchoring functions.
V. Desmosomes (macula adherens) They perform cementing to keep the neighboring cells
together.These are like zonula adherens but are thicker and stronger and are disc-like
junctions. They have intercellular protein. The plaque-like structures (protein plates) are much
thicker.The microfilaments which extend on microfilaments are called tonofibrils.
Desmosomes serve anchoring functions.

2. TISSUE
(b) Connective Tissue :
• The cells of the connective tissue are widely spaced and embedded in an intercellular matrix.
• The nature of matrix decides the function of tissue.
• White & yellow fibres are present in the matrix.
• Their basic function is to provide support to different organs & keeping them in place.
(i) Connective tissue proper : t is the most abundant type of connective tissue.
• It is further divided into following types :
I. Areolar tissue : t is the most widely distributed connective tissue in the body.
• This tissue fills spaces inside organs & is found between the skin & muscles, around blood
vessels, nerves & in the bone marrow.
Inelastic white fibres

Two types of fibres
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Elastic yellow fibres
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Fig. 2.7 Areolar tissue
Function :
• It helps to hold various tissues together in any organ. or
sF
• It helps to repair body tissues after injury
• Mast cells in this tissue are concerned with allergy.
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• It binds skin with underlying tissues.

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II. Adipose tissue : These are oval & round cells, filled with fat globules.
• The cells are called as adipocytes.
ts
Function :
s
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• It acts as insulator and prevents loss of heat from the body.

• It helps in the storage of food in the form of fats.
:@
• It forms cushion like shock-absorbing structures below vital organs such as heart, kidney, eye
balls etc.
in
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
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Fine White Fibres
Fat Globule
Blood Vessel
Yellow Fibre
Adipose cell
Fig. 2.8 : Adipose Tissue
III. White fibrous connective tissue : They are very little matrix containing abundant white fibres
forming layers.
• Bundles of this tissue are called as tendons, which attaches muscles to the bones.
Fig.2.9 : White Fibrous Connective Tissue

2. TISSUE
IV. Yellow fibrous connective tissue : They are very elastic due to the presence of a network of
yellow fibres in it’s matrix called as ligament which attaches bone to bone.
Knowledge Booster
Excessive pulling or overstretching of
ligaments produces sprain.
Fig.2.10 : Yellow Fibrous Connective Tissue
e
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TENDON AND LIGAMENT
S.NO. TENDON LIGAMENT
1. It is made up of
white fibrous tissue.
or
It is made up
of yellow elastic
sF
tissue.
2. Fibroblasts lie in Fibroblasts lie
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almost continuous rows. scattered.

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3. Tendon connects Ligament connects

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a skeletal muscle a bone to a another

to a bone. bone.
s
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4. It is tough and inelastic. It is strong but elastic.

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V. Reticular tissue : The cells in this tissue are star-shaped and form a network-like structure.
Reticular fibres are made of Reticulin protein. It is found in the spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils
etc.
in
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• Function : It forms lymphoid tissues in the body.

(ii) Fluid or vascular tissue : It is two types
I. Blood II. Lymph
I. Blood
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
• Matrix of blood is called plasma, having wandering or floating cells, called corpuscles.
• Its cells are quite distinct from other connective tissue cells both in structure and functions.
• The extracellular material in blood is a fluid devoid of fibers.
• Fluids outside the cells are generally called extracelIular fluids (ECF).
• Blood is heavier than water.
• The extracellular material in blood is a straw-coloured, slightly alkaline (PH = 7. 4), aqueous
fluid called plasma.
• Constituents,having characteristic forms, float in the plasma. They are collectively called the
formed elements of blood.
• Blood circulates within blood vessels in higher animals. But other ECFs such as cerebrospinal
fluid, interstitial fluid, lymph, and aqueous humour occur outside blood vessels.

2. TISSUE
Blood composition :
BLOOD
(I) PLASMA (II) CORPUSCLES

(Form 55% part of blood) (Form 45% part of blood)
90%–91% water RBC
WBC
The remaining 10% of
plasma is made up of Platelets
proteins, salts,
hormones and other
materials meant for
transportation of
digested food, gases,
excretory products etc.
1. Plasma :
• Plasma contains three major classes of plasma proteins, viz., serum albumin, serum globulins,
and fibrinogen.
• Plasma proteins serve as a source of proteins for tissue cells.
• Tissue cells may utilize plasma proteins for forming their cellular proteins.
• Additionally, albumin and globulins retain water in blood plasma by their osmotic effects.
e
• A fall in plasma proteins leads to the movement of excessive volumes of water from blood to
fre
tissues. That is why hands and feet get swollen with accumulated fluid (oedema) in persons
suffering from dietary deficiency of proteins.
• or
Albumins and globulins also transport many sub- with them. As thyroxine and Fe3+ in
sF
combination one class of globulins, called immunoglobulins, acts as antibodies.
• Plasma proteins also maintain the blood pH by neutralizing strong acids and bases. Thus, they
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act as acid-base buffers.

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· • It is a slightly alkaline, non-living intercellular substance which constitutes about 60% part of
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the blood.
• It is a pale yellow but transparent and clear fluid.
s
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Composition of Plasma : Plasma forms 55-60% by the blood volume.

:@
• Water alone forms about 90% to 92% of the plasma. Solids form about 8% of the plasma.
in
• Mineral salts : These are chlorides, bicarbonates, sulphates, and phosphates of sodium,
potassium, calcium, iron, and magnesium. All salts constitute about 0. 9% of plasma. Buffer of
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the blood is sodium bicarbonate.

• Nutrients : These include glucose, fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol, fats, amino acids,
nucleosides, etc. Mineral salts have been mentioned above.
• Plasma proteins: They constitute about 7-8% of plasma. These mainly include albumin 4.
4%, globulin 1. 5-2%, prothrombin and fibrinogen both 0. 3%.
• Defence proteins: Immunoglobulins which act as antibodies and some other substances,
such as lysosome and properdin (a large protein) are always found in the plasma. They
destroy bacteria, viruses and toxic substances that may enter into the blood from outside.
• Excretory substances: These include ammonia, urea, uric acid, creatinine, etc.
• Dissolved gases: The water of blood plasma contains oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
in dissolved form.
• Anticoagulant: Blood plasma contains a conjugated Polysaccharide, heparin, which prevents
the coagulation of blood inside blood vessels.
• Hormones: These are secreted and released in blood by endocrine glands.
• Vitamins and enzymes: Different kinds of vitamins and enzymes are present in the blood
plasma.

2. TISSUE
2. Blood corpuscles :
Erythrocytes :
• Erythrocytes (red blood corpuscles or RBCs) are the most numerous of the formed elements
of blood.
• Their most important characteristic feature is the presence of hemoglobin (Hb), the red oxygen
carrying pigment.
• The number of RBCs averages 5 million and 4. 5 millions in adult man and adult woman,
respectively.
• The total count would be low in anaemia and after profuse bleeding.
• On the contrary, the abnormal rise in the total count of RBC is called polycythemia.
• Anemia is caused due to the deficiency of folic acid, vitamin B12, and hemoglobin.
• In mammals they are non-nucleated, biconcave, and circular.
• Only camel and llama possess oval red blood corpuscles.
• Old and damaged erythrocytes are phagocytised and destroyed by macrophages.
• The pigment part (porphyrin) of hemoglobin is then catabolized to the yellow pigment bilirubin
which is excreted in the bile.
· • The pale yellow colour of plasma is largely due to bilirubin.
• RBCs of mammals are circular, biconcave, non- nucleated, except those of camel, which has
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nucleated and oval RBCs.
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• Smallest RBCs are found in musk deer.
• Largest RBCs are found in Amphiuma.
• Graveyard of RBC is spleen.
or
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• Life span of RBCs in mammals is 120 days, in frog 100 days, and in rabbit 80 days.
• Count of RBCs
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In embryo-8. 5 · million/mm3
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ln man-5-5. 5 million/mm3
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ln woman-4. 5 million/mm3
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• Daily destruction of RBCs -1%

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• Rouleaux : In resting and slow flowing blood, RBCs aggregate to form rouleaux ( RBCs are
:@
piled up on top or each other).

• Bone marrow: It is the main site for the formation of RBC. The volume of bone marrow at the
in
time of birth is 70 mL. In adult, the volume of bone marrow is 4000 mL.
• Structure of RBC - Biconcave, non-nucleated, and bounded by Donnan's membrane (plasma
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membrane of RBC). Hemoglobin is filled in RBC which is a respiratory pigment.

• Structure of hemoglobin - Each molecule of hemoglobin contains four molecules of heme
and one molecule of globin. These are attached by coordinate bonds. Heme is protoporphyrin
compound and has four pyrrole groups joined together to form ring structure. In Hb, Fe is
present in (Fe++) ferrous form. Heme is 5%, and Globin is 95%. Globin is made of four
polypeptide chains.
Leukocytes :
• Leukocytes (white blood corpuscles or WBC) are devoid of hemoglobin and are consequently
colorless.
• Leukocytes are nucleated blood cells.
• They are of two major classes : granulocytes (with cytoplasmic granules) and agranulocytes
(without granules).
• Granulocytes are of three types, viz., neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils, each with lobed
nucleus.
• Agranulocytes are of two types, viz., lymphocytes and monocytes.
• Neutrophils and monocytes protect the body against microbes by phagocytizing them.
Lymphocytes secrete antibodies in the blood to destroy microbes and their toxins.

2. TISSUE
• The number of leukocytes per microliter of blood is called the total count of WBC. It is 6000-
8000/mm3 of blood normally.
• It may rise abnormally in acute infections (e. g., Pneumonia), inflammations (e. g.,
appendicitis), and malignancies (eg., leukemia).
• In some conditions such as folic acid deficiency, the total count falls abnormally (leukopenia).
• The total count of WBCs is also of diagnostic value in many diseases.
Character Lymphocytes Monocytes Eosinophils Basophils Neutrophils
(Acidophils)
Number/ 20–25% 6–8% 2–3% 0.5–1% 60–65%
percentage
Granules in Absent Absent Coarse Coarse Fine
cytoplasm
Staining of Basophilic Basophilic Eosinophilic Basophilic Neutrophilic
cytoplasm
Nucleus Rounded Bean- Bilobed S-shaped Multilobed
shaped/kidney three-
shaped lobed
Site of Lymph nodes Bone marrow Bone marrow Bone Bone marrow
formation spleen,thymus marrow
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thymus tonsils,
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peyer's
Life span Few days or even 10–20 h in the 4–8 in blood & 4–5 4–8 in 4–8 h in blood
years blood & in tissue,
months or even
or
days in tissue blood &
4–5 days
& 4–5 days in
tissue
sF
years in tissue
Function Antibody Phagocytic Important role in Secretion Phagocytic
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formation immunity anti-allergic of heparin,

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reactions & parasitic histamine,

infection &
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serotonin
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Blood platelets :
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• Also called thrombocytes, blood platelets are non-nucleated, round, or oval, biconvex disc-like
:@
bodies.
• They are 2-3 um in diameter and their number normally varies from 0.15 to 0. 35 million/mm3
in
or 150,000-350,000 platelets/mm3.
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• They bud off from the cytoplasm of very large megakaryocytes of the bone marrow.
• Their normal life span is about a week.
• When a blood vessel is injured, platelets get clumped at the injured spot and release certain
chemicals called platelet factors. These promote blood coagulation.
• Thrombocytopenia is decrease in the platelet count and purpura is a group of bleeding
diseases due to thrombocytopenia.
Function of Blood :
• Transportation of digested food.
• Transportation of oxygen to body cells.
• Transportation of carbon dioxide from body cells to lungs.
• Transportation of excretory substances to kidneys for elimination.
• Transportation of hormones.
• WBC help in fighting against diseases.
• Platelets help in clotting of blood.

2. TISSUE
Fig. 2.11 : Types of blood cells

II. Lymph :
• It is colourless or light yellow-coloured fluid that bathes all the body organs and is filled in
spaces between them.
• It is blood without the RBC’s and blood proteins.
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• Lymph is made up of plasma and lymphocytes.
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Functions : It acts as a “middle man” for the exchange of various materials between the blood
and various body tissues. or
sF
S.No. Character Blood Lymph
1. Type of tissue Red vascular tissue. White vascular tissue.
2. Occurrence In blood vessels. In lymph vessels and around the body tissues.
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3. Composition Formed of plasma, erythrocytes, Formed of plasma and only leucocytes.

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leucocytes and platelets. Erythrocytes and blood platelets are absent.

4. Haemoglobin Present in RBC's Absent.
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5. Nature of Plasma With more proteins, calcium and Less.

s
phosphorus.
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6. Function Transportation of materials, Acts as middle man between blood and body
defence, blood clotting etc. cells.
:@
(iii) Skeletal tissue :

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• It is hard connective tissue that forms supportive frame work of the body. It is of two types :
Skeletal Tissue
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Bone Cartilage
I. Bone : Matrix of bone is very hard because of salts such as calcium phosphate, CaCO3
(60-70%) etc. and a protein ossein.
Covering of the bone is called as Periosteum. Bone is the
hardest tissue of our body but the hardest substance in our
body is enamel, found as covering on teeth.

2. TISSUE
Fig.2.12 : A part of Decalcified Bone in T.S. and L.S.

• The long bones are usually hollow containing a cavity called bone marrow cavity.
• It is full of bone marrow.
• In the solid matrix are present longitudinal canals called haversian canals.
• The matrix is present in the form of layers called lamellae.
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• These lamellae are present in the form of crecentric rings around the marrow cavity and
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around the canals.
• In these lamellae are present ring shaped fluid filled spaces called lacunae.
• or
The lacunae contain bone forming cells called, osteocytes.
sF
Osteoclast - Bone resorbing cell.
Osteoblast - Immature bone cell.
Osteocyte - Mature bone cell
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Volkmann Canal - Canal which run

Perpendicular to haversian canal.
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II. Cartilage : This tissue is elastic and strong but softer than bone.
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Fig.2.13 : T.S. of Hyaline Cartilage

• Elasticity is due to the presence of chondrin (protein). Cells are called as chondrocyte, which
are widely spaced and matrix is reinforced by fibres.
• It forms the embryonic skeleton of vertebrates and the adult skeleton of sharks and rays.
• It also occurs in the human body in the ears, tip of the nose and surrounding ends of joints
such as knees.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Covering of Cartilage - Perichondrium
Chondioblast - Immature cartilage cells.
Chondrocyte - Mature cartilage cells.

2. TISSUE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CARTILAGE & BONE
S.NO. CHARACTER CARTILAGE BONE
1. Chemistry Formed of organic matter, called Formed of both organic matter (ossein protein)
chondrin protein. and inorganic matter (calcium phosphate).
2. Nature of cells Chondroblasts present in group of Irregular cells osteocytes that occur singly in
2 or 4. lacunae.
3. Nature of lacunae With no canaliculi. With canaliculi.
4. Canals With no canals. With Haversian canal and Volkmann's canal.
5. Arrangement
of matrix Not arranged in rings. In rings called lamellae.
6. Cavity Solid internally. With marrow cavity.
7. Growth Unidirectional. Bidirectional.
(c) Muscular tissue :

• It is responsible for movement of body organs and location of body.
• Cells of muscle tissue can shorten forcefully and again return to the relaxed state. This
specialized property is called contractility.
• It is based on the organized arrangement of some protein filaments in the cytoplasm of a
muscle cell.
• The cell shortens or relaxes according to the relative positions of different intracellular
filaments.
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• Whenever adequately stimulated, muscle cells respond by contracting. This property of the
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muscle tissue is responsible for various movements in an animal.
• Muscle cells are usually called muscle fibres because they are thin and elongated.
• or
In higher animals, some muscles remain associated with the skeleton, but many others fonn
walls of visceral organs, blood vessels, and heart.
sF
• Muscle tissue may be classified into striated, non-striated, and cardiac muscles, according to
their structure, location, and functions.
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Types : It is of three types :

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(i) Striated muscles (ii) Non Straited muscles (iii) Cardiac muscles
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in
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Fig. 2.14 : Striated, Non-Striated, Cardiac muscles

2. TISSUE
Character Skeletal muscles Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle

Cell appearance Long cylindrical fibre with Branched cylindrical Spindle-shaped fibre with
and features. many peripherally located usually with one centrally one centrally positioned
nuclei, located nucleus ; nucleus; no striations.
striated,unbranched. striated, intercalated
discs join neighbouring
fibres.
Location Attached primarily to Heart Walls of hollow viscera,
bones. blood vessels, iris, and ciliary
body of eye, arrector pili of
hair follicles.
Connective tissue Epimysium, perimysium, Endomysium Endomysium

components and endomysium
Organization of Yes Yes No

contractile
proteins into
sarcomeres
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Sarcoplasmic Yes Yes Scanty
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reticulum
Speed of Fast Moderate slow
contraction or
sF
Nervous control Voluntary (somatic nervous Involuntary (autonomic Involuntary (autonomic
system) nervous system) nervous system)
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Contraction Acetylcholine released by Acetylcholine, nor- Acetylcholine, nor-

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regulated by somatic motor neurons epinephrine released by epinephrine released by

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autonomic motor autonomic motor neurons ;

neurons ; several several hormones, local
s
hormones chemical changes (pH, O2

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level, CO2 level) ; stretching

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Considerable compared with

Capacity for Limited None other muscle tissues but
in
regeneration limited.
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Functioning of Striated muscles/Skeletal muscles :

• Such muscles are attached to bones by tendons.
• A voluntary muscle is composed of long bundles of striated muscle fibres.
• Each fibre is a long, unbranched, cylindrical cell. It shows transverse striations in the form of
regular alternate This gives cross-striated appearance to the entire muscle fibre also. A-band
has both actin and myosin filaments. The portion of A band, where actin filaments are absent
is called H zone. Z line or Krauze's membrane is a dark membrane which bisects I band or
isotropic band.
• Muscle is rich in proteins. Most of these proteins occur as two types of filaments arranged
longitudinally in myofibrils.
• The thick filaments are made up of the protein myosin. Myosin filaments are located inside A
bands.
• Thin filaments are more numerous. They are composed of the protein actin. From a fine,
dense, dark Z band at the centre of each I band, actin filaments extend through I band and
encroach between myosin filaments up to a considerable distance into a band each segment
of a myofibril from one Z band to next function as a contractile unit and is called sarcomere.

2. TISSUE
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or
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Fig. 2.15 : Mechanism of muscular movement, Striated muscles

2. TISSUE
• Thick filaments : The thick filament of approximately 12 nm (nanometer) in diameter is made
up of several hundred molecules of a protein called myosin. Each myosin molecule has two
components, a tail (two polypeptides intertwined) and a double globular head. The tail is
formed of heavy meromyosin (H-MM), while the head is formed of light meromyosin (L-MM).
Myosin head has contractile property as well as ATPase like action ; it can form a cross-bridge
with the active site present on the actin.
• Thin filaments : Thin filaments of approximately 8 nm in diameter are primarily composed of
actin, a low molecular weight filamentous protein. Actin occurs in two forms, the monomeric
globular G-actin and the polymeric fibr ous F-actin. Each G-actin has an active site that can
bind to the head of a myosin molecule.
• The thin filament has a spiral groove along its length that is occupied by another protein called
tropomyosin.
• When a muscle fibre is relaxed, tropomyosin blocks the active sites of actin and prevents
myosin from binding to it.
• Each tropomyosin molecule, in turn, has smaller proteins called troponin bound to it at regular
intervals. Troponin is a calcium-binding protein.
Mechanism of Muscle contraction :
• When a nerve impulse (nerve action potential) reaches the synaptic end bulbs. It triggers the
exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. In this process, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the plasma
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membrane and liberate ACH, which diffuses into the synaptic cleft between the motor neuron
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and motor end plate.
• When ACH binds to its receptor, a channel that passes small cations, which triggers a muscle
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action potential that travels along the muscle cell plasma membrane and initiates the events
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leading to muscle contraction.
• Hanson and Huxley proposed that skeletal muscle shortens during contraction because thin
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filaments slide over thick filament. Their model is known as the sliding filament mechanism of
muscle contraction.
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Sliding Filament Mechanism :

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Fig. 2.16 : Mechanism of Muscle Contraction

2. TISSUE
• During muscle contraction, myosin heads pull on the thin filaments, causing them to slide
inward toward the H zone at the centre of the sarcomere.
• An increase in Ca2+ concentration in the sarcoplasm starts filament sliding, while a decrease
turns off the sliding process.
• This is because the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) membrane contains Ca2+ active transport
pumps that move Ca2+ from the sarcoplasm into the SR.
• As we have seen, muscle contraction requires Ca ions and energy in the form of ATP. The
sequence of events during sliding of the filaments is as follows
1. While the muscle is relaxed, ATP attaches to ATP-binding sites on the myosin cross bridges
(heads).A portion of each myosin head acts as an ATPase, an enzyme that splits ATP into
ADP+P (phosphate group) through a hydrolysis reaction. This reaction transfers energy from
ATP to the myosin head, even before contraction begins. The myosin cross bridges are thus in
an activated (energized) state.
2. When the sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+, its level rises in the sarcoplasm. Rise in Ca2+
binds with troponin and change its configuration that moves away tropomyosin from its
blocking position.
3. The activated myosin heads spontaneously bind to the myosin-binding sites on actin.
4. The shape change that occurs as myosin heads bind to actin produces the power stroke of
contraction.During the power stroke, the myosin heads swivel toward the centre of the
sarcomere, like the oars of a boat during rowing. This action draws the thin filaments past the
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thick filaments toward the H zone. As the myosin heads swivel, they release ADP.
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5. Once the power stroke is complete, ATP again combines with the ATP-binding sites on the
myosin heads.As ATP binds, the myosin head detaches from actin.
6. or
Again, the myosin ATPase splits ATP, transferring its energy to the myosin ATPase which
splits head and hence the myosin ATP returns to its original upright position.
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7. The myosin head is then ready to combine with another myosin-binding site further along the
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thin filament.
8. Steps (3) through (7) repeat over and over as long as ATP is available and the Ca2 + level
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near the thin filament remains high.

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9. The myosin heads keep rotating back and forth with each power stroke, pulling the thin
filaments toward H zone.
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10. The myofibrils thus contract and the whole muscle fibre shortens.
11. During a maximal muscle contraction, the distance between Z discs can decrease to half the
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resting length.
12. H line and M line disappear, I band almost disappears, A band remains constant, but the
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power stroke does not always result in shortening of the muscle fibres and the whole muscle.
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13. Contraction without shortening is called an isometric contraction, for example, in trying to lift
a very heavy object.
Fig. : 2.17 : Stages in cross bridge formation, rotation of Head and breaking of cross bridge

2. TISSUE
• Rigor mortis - After death body becomes rigid because muscles remain in permanently
contracted state due to deficiency of ATP. This state is known as rigor mortis.
• ATP is immediate source of energy for muscle contraction. As long as adequate amount of
ATP are present muscles contract repeatedly for a long time. This ATP comes from three
sources
a. Creatine phosphate b. anaerobic respiration c. aerobic respiration.
• Red and white muscles- Birds and mammals have two kinds of striated muscle fibres in the
skeletal muscles: red or slow muscle fibres and white or fast muscle fibres.
• Differences between Red and white muscles
S.No. Red muscle fibres/Type I/ aerobic muscle fibres White muscle fibres/ anaerobic muscle fibres
1. They are thinner. They are much thicker.
2. These muscle fibres are dark red due to the These muscle fibres are pale or whitish in
presence of red hemoprotein called myoglobin. color as they have less myoglobin.
Myoglobin binds and stores oxygen as oxymyoglobin
in the red fibers. Oxymyoglobin releases oxygen for
utilization during muscle contraction.
3. The amount of sarcoplasmic reticulum is low. The amount of sarcoplasmic reticulum is high.
4. Red muscle fibres are rich in mitochondria. They White muscle fibres are poorer in mitochondria
mainly carry oxidative pathway, i.e,, depend on aerobic and mainly carry glycolytic pathway, i.e., depend on
process of energy. anaerobic process of energy.
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5. They carry out considerable aerobic oxidation so these They depend mainly on anaerobic oxidation
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muscle fibres can contract for a longer period without (glycolysis) for energy production and so these
fatique. contraction accumulate lactic acid in considerable
or
amount during strenuous work and soon get
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fatigued.
6.
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These muscle fibres have slow rate of contraction, These muscle fibres have fast rate of contraction,
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hence are meant to perform sustained work. hence are specialized for strenuous work.
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(d) Nervous tissue :

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The nervous tissue, contains densely packed cells called nerve cells or neurons, is present in the
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brain, spinal cord and nerves.The neurons are specialised for conduction of nerve impulses. Each
neuron has following 2 parts.
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(i) Cyton or cell body : Contains a central nucleus and cytoplasm with characteristic deeply
stained particles called Nissle’s granules (i.e. clumps of ribosomes)
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(ii) Cell Processes :

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(1) Dendrites : These may be one to many, generally short and branched cytoplasmic processes.
They receive impulse from receptor or other neuron and bring it to cyton.
(2) Axon : It is single generally long process which conducts impulse away from cyton to other
neuron.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Nerve cells are the longest cells which
may be upto one metre in length. Axon of one neuron is very closely placed to the
Axon has uniform thickness but it has terminal dendrons of another neuron to carry impulses
thin branches called telodendria.Terminal end from one to another neuron in the form of
buttons or synaptic knobs occur at the end of electrochemical waves.This close proximity is
telodendria. called as synapse
Types : Nerve fibres are of two types :

NEURON
Myelinated (covered Non Myelinated (not covered

with myelin sheath) with myelin sheath)
composition of Myelin sheath Non Myelinated neuron grey
lipid + protein in colour.
Myelinated neuron – white in colour
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Myelin sheath is not a continous layer,the gap between myelin
sheath is called as NODE OF RANVIER.

2. TISSUE
Functions :
• They control all the body activities
• They co-ordinate between various body parts during any body function.
Spinal cord & brain are made up of nervous tissue.
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Fig. : 2.18 : Structure of a neuron
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Marked Questions can be used as Revision Questions.

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SECTION (A) : PLANT TISSUE

A-1 Which meristemetic tissue causes elongation of stem and root in primary growth of a plant ?
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A-2 What is the role of lateral meristem in plant ?

A-3 What is tissue ? Explain meristematic plant tissue.
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A-4 Which type of tissue contain sieve tubes and companion cell ?
A-5 What is the role of phloem in plants ?
A-6 Which tissue is responsible for transport of water in plants ?
A-7 Name the different elements of xylem and phloem.
A-8 n hydrophytes xylem is less developed, Why ?
A-9 Mention the role of parenchyma, collenchyma & sclerenchyma.
A-10 Differentiate leptome and hadrome.
SECTION (B) : ANIMAL TISSUE
B-1 Which types of epithelial tissue involve in absorption, excretion and secretion.
B-2 How many type connective tissue present in human body ?
B-3 What are the functions of blood ?
B-4 Write down the difference between bones and cartilage ?
B-5 Write down the example of the following.
(i) Areolar tissue (ii) Adipose tissue
(iii) Yellow fibre connective tissue (iv) Write fibre connective tissue.
B-6 Give a flow chart of types of blood cells.
B-7 Write down the difference between striated and non-striated muscle.
B-8 Draw a well labelled diagram of nerve.

2. TISSUE
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 A group of cells having a common origin & performing similar function is called –
(A) tissue (B) organ (C) organ system (D) cell aggregate
A-2 Meristems are cells that –
(A) store food (B) help in excretion
(C) provide support (D) divide continuously to produce new cells
A-3 Plant length is increased by the activity of –
(A) apical meristem (B) lateral meristem (C) cambium (D) all of the above
A-4 In plants, cell division is restricted upto –
(A) meristematic cells (B) permanent cells (C) xylem (D) phloem
A-5 In grasses the length of internodes increases by the activity of –
(A) apical meristem (B) intercalary meristem
(C) lateral meristem (D) secondary meristem
A-6 Special feature of dividing cells is –
(A) large lacuna (B) thick cell walls
(C) dense cytoplasm devoid of lacuna (D) large intercellular spaces
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A-7 Totipotency is present in –
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(A) meristem (B) cambium (C) phloem (D) cork
A-8 Which of the following is a feature of meristematic tissues ?
(A) Thin cell wall
(B) Compact tissue
or
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(C) Large no. of cell organelles are present in the cells of tissues.
(D) All of the above
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A-9 Which of the following plant tissues is formed by permanent tissue ?

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(A) Primary tissue (B) Secondary tissue (C) Both of above (D) None of above
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A-10 Which of the following plant tissues causes growth in girth of stem and root ?
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(A) Apical meristem (B) Intercalary meristem

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(C) Lateral meristem (D) None of the above

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A-11 A permanent plant tissue consisting of thin walled living cells is –

(A) parenchyma (B) collenchyma (C) sclerenchyma (D) xylem
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A-12 A permanent plant tissue made up of living cells having thickening at the corners is –
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(A) sclerenchyma (B) collenchyma (C) parenchyma (D) phloem

A-13 The main function of sclerenchyma is to help in the –
(A) conduction of food (B) synthesis of food (C) exchange of gases (D) mechanical support
A-14 The wall of cork cells are thickened by the deposition of –
(A) cutin (B) suberin (C) lignin (D) pectin
A-15 A protective noncellular layer found on the outside of plant organ is
(A) Epidermis (B) Cuticle (C) Vascular tissue layer (D) Hypodermis
A-16 The outer wall of epidermis in stems and leaves has a waxy covering made up of –
(A) lignin (B) suberin (C) pectin (D) cutin
A-17 Collenchyma differs from sclerenchyma in –
(A) retaining cytoplasm at maturity (B) having thick walls
(C) having a wide lumen (D) being meristematic
A-18. Lignified elongated dead cells are –
(A) parenchyma (B) collenchyma (C) sclerenchyma (D) none of these
A-19 Which of the following plant tissue lacks protoplasm at maturity ?
(A) Sclerenchyma (B) Collenchyma (C) Parenchyma (D) Epidermis
A-20 In plants phloem tissues perform the function of –
(A) conduction of water (B) conduction of food (C) photosynthesis (D) mechanical support

2. TISSUE
SECTION (B) : ANIMAL TISSSUE
B-1 The entire body surface and cavities inside the body are lined by
(A) muscle tissue (B) epithelial tissue (C) connective tissue (D) nervous tissue
B-2 Columnar epithelium is present in
(A) kidney tubules (B) small intestine (C) skin (D) thyroid vesicles
B-3 Which one of the following is a fluid connective tissue ?
(A) Areolar tissue (B) Cartilage (C) Blood (D) Ligaments
B-4 The tissue that attaches muscles to the bones is –
(A) cartilage (B) tendon (C) ligament (D) blood
B-5 The tissue that joins one bone to the other is –
(A) ligament (B) tendon (C) blood (D) cartilage
B-6 Areolar tissue is a –
(A) nervous tissue (B) muscular tissue (C) connective tissue (D) epithelial tissue
B-7 Which of these cells are called as “soldiers of the body”
(A) RBC (B) WBC (C) Platelets (D) None of these
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B-8 Fluid part of blood after removal of corpuscles is –
(A) plasma (B) lymph (C) serum (D) vaccine
B-9 Yellow muscle fibers are also called as –
or
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(A) bone (B) muscle (C) ligament (D) none of these
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B-10 Blood platelets are also called as

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(A) leucocytes (B) erythrocytes (C) thrombocytes (D) None of these

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B-11 Contraction and relaxation are unique features of –

(A) epithelial tissue (B) connective tissue (C) muscle tissue (D) nervous tissue
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B-12 The tissue which is under the control of animal’s will is –

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(A) cardiac muscle (B) striated muscle (C) non-striated muscle (D) cartilage
B-13 The muscle which work throughout life without undergoing fatigue is
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(A) striated muscle (B) non-striated muscle (C) cardiac muscle (D) all of the above
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B-14 Which of the following is a voluntary muscle ?

(A) Striated muscle (B) Unstriated muscle (C) Cardiac muscle (D) (A) and (B) Both
B-15 Wall of urinary bladder consists of –
(A) striated muscles (B) unstriated muscles (C) both of above (D) none of these
B-16 Intercalated discs are present in –
(A) striated muscles (B) unstriated muscle
(C) cardiac muscles (D) all of the above
B-17 nvoluntary tissue forms wall of which of the following organ ?

(A) Intestine (B) Stomach (C) Bronchi (D) All of the above
B-18 Movements in body are brought about by
(A) muscular tissues (B) epithelial tissues (C) bones (D) tendons & ligaments
B-19 The functional unit of nervous tissue is called as –
(A) cyton (B) synapse (C) neuron (D) axon
B-20 Which type of tissue forms spinal cord and brain ?
(A) Muscular tissue (B) Nervous tissue (C) Epithelial tissue (D) Connective tissue

2. TISSUE
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Cartilage is formed by
(A) Osteoblasts (B) Fibroblasts (C) Chondroclast (D) Chondroblasts
2. The membrane that covers cartilage is known as
(A) Periostium (B) Perichondrium (C) Perineurium (D) Pericardium
3. External ear (pinna) is a flexible structure composed of
(A) Bone (B) Cartilage (C) Tendon (D) Ligament
4. Sprain is caused due to the excessive stretching of
(A) Muscle (B) Ligament (C) Tendon (D) Nerve
5. Formation of cartilage is known as
(A) Diapedesis (B) Chondrogenesis (C) Haemopoiesis (D) Ossification
6. Osteon is found in the
(A) Femur of a frog (B) Femur of a bird
(C) Femur of a reptile (D) Femur of a man and a rabbit
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7. Bone forming cells are known as
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(A) Chondroclasts (B) Osteoblasts (C) Chondroblasts (D) Osteoclasts
8. Haversian canals are found in
(A) Bone marrow (B) Hyaline cartilage or
(C) Bone matrix (D) Calcified cartilage
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9. The tendons are formed of
(A) White fibrous tissue (connective) (B) Yellow fibrous tissue (connective)
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(C) Areolar tissue (D) Adipose tissue

10. Which of the following makes heart wall more thick ?
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(A) Pericardium (B) Epicardium (C) Myocardium (D) Endocardium

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11. Striped muscles have

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(A) One nucleus (B) Many nuclei (C) Two nuclei (D) No nuclei
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12. Which one of the following is not essentially a part of nervous system?
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(A) Cyton (B) Axon (C) Myelinated (D) Intermedin

13. Schwann cell surrounds a/an
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(A) Axon (B) Cyton (C) Dendrite (D) Dendron

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14. External identification of monocot and dicot leaves is done on the basis of
(A) size. (B) shape. (C) phyllotaxy. (D) venation.
15. Cambium is a
(A) root meristem. (B) apical meristem. (C) lateral meristem. (D) intercalary meristem.
16. Sieve tube is a
(A) living functional element with a nucleus. (B) dead functional element with a nucleus.
(C) living functional element without a nucleus (D) living non-functional element without a nucleus.
17. Cork is formed from the meristematic tissue known as
(A) phellogen. (B) cambium. (C) phloem (D) periderm.
18. Root hair are -
(A) Unicellular (B) Multicellular (C) Acellular (D) Mixed type
19. Intercalary meristem is located in -
(A) petiole and internode(B) stem tip (C) root (D) bud
20. The permanent tissue having localized thickening of cellulose is -
(A) Parenchyma (B) Collenchyma (C) Sclerenchyma (D) Xylem.
21. During vascularisation in plants, differentiation of procambium is followed by the
(A) development of secondary xylem and secondary phloem.
(B) development of xylem and phloem.
(C) development of protoxylem and metaxylem.
(D) development of primary phloem and then primary xylem.

2. TISSUE

1. Lateral meristem includes : (IJSO STAGE-1/2008-09)
(A) fascicular cambium and cork cambium (B) phellogen and protoderm
(C) procambium and interfascicular cambium (D) dermatogen and ground meristem
2. During contraction of muscle fiber : (IJSO STAGE-1/2008-09)
(A) I bands get reduced in length (B) A bands retain the length
(C) I bands retain the length (D) A bands get reduced in length
EXERCISE - 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 A A-2 D A-3 A A-4 A A-5 B A-6 C A-7 A A-8 D A-9 B A-10 C A-11 A A-12 B A-13 D
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A-14 B A-15 B A-16 D A-17 A A-18 C A-19 A A-20 A
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SECTION (B) : ANIMAL TISSSUE
B-1 B B-2 B B-3 C B-4 B B-5 A B-6 C B-7 B B-8 A
B-14 A B-15 B B-16 C B-17 D B-18 A B-19 C B-20 B
or
B-9 C B-10 C B-11 C B-12 B B-13 C
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EXERCISE - 2
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
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A. D B B B B D B C A C B D A D C
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Q. 16 17 18 19 20 21
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A. C A A A B B
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EXERCISE - 3
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Q. 1 2 3
A. A C A

3. NUTRITION
3. NUTRITION
INTRODUCTION
“Nutrition” is a process of intake as well as utilization of nutrients by an organism. t also includes
breakdown of nutrients into smaller molecules and their absorption. Food provides us nutrition and
energy. t contains different types of nutrients in varying amounts according to the need of our body.
• Nutrients : These are the substances required by our body for its growth, repair, work and
maintenance. Different types of nutrients are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals
etc. Our daily energy need may vary according to our occupation, age, sex and under some
specific conditions.
A. MODES OF NUTRITION
There are several modes of nutrition on the basis of which organisms are classified as follows :
Nutrition
Autotrophic Heterotrophic
They are able They are not able
to synthesise their to synthesise their
own food. own food.
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(a) Autotrophic : (Auto = self, trophic = food)
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It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms prepare their own food. Inorganic molecules like CO2 and
or
H2O are converted into organic molecules like carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll. e.g. Green plants. Autotrophs are further categorized as :
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(i) Photoautotrophs : Those which utilize sunlight for preparing their food e.g. green plants.
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(ii) Chemoautotrophs : Those which utilize chemical energy for preparing their food. e.g. Purple
sulphur bacteria.
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(b) Heterotrophic : (Hetero = different ; trophic = food)

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It is a mode of nutrition in which organisms derive their food from some other animals or plants.
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They cannot prepare their own food e.g. Human being, animals.
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• On the Basis of Mode of Feeding Heterotrophs are Categorised as :

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(i) Holozoic : It is a mode of nutrition in which ingestion,digestion,absoption & assimilation takes

place inside the body. e.g. Amoeba , Human etc.
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(ii) Saprotrophic : They absorb organic matter from dead and decaying organisms with the help
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of their enzymes. e.g., Bacteria , Fungi etc.

(iii) Parasitic : They derive/absorb their nutrition from other living plants or animals. e.g.
Plasmodium, Round worm etc.
B. NUTRITION IN PLANTS (PHOTOSYNTHESIS)

Plants are photoautotrophic in nature. They prepare their own food hence they are called as
producers.They contain a green pigment called chlorophyll which entrap solar energy which is then
converted into chemical energy which is utilized in preparation of food and the process is called as
“Photosynthesis”.
(a) Definition :
The synthesis of organic compounds like glucose from simple inorganic molecules like CO2 & H2O
by the cells of green plants having chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight is called as
photosynthesis.
(b) Equation of photosynthesis :
Sunlight
6 CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Chlorophyll

3. NUTRITION
(c) Historical aspects of Photosynthesis :
(i) Stephen Hales (1727)-Recognised the importance of air (CO2) and light for photosynthesis
(nourishment) in plants. He is considered as discoverer of photosynthesis and"Father of plant
physiology".
(ii) J. Priestley (1770)-He carried out very interesting experiment on Bell jar, Rat, Pudina &
Candle. He came to conclude that plants purify air (burning of candles) and gaseous exchange
occurs during photosynthesis. Discover of oxygen.
(iii) Jan Ingenhousz (1779)-He explained the importance of light and green colour and also
suggested the 02 releases in the presence of light by green parts.
(iv) Englemann (1888)-Described action spectrum of photosynthesis with the help of
Spirogyra/cladophora and aerobic bacteria experiment.
Action spectrum- Graphical representation of effectiveness of different wavelengths on the
rate of photosynthesis.
(v) C.B. Van Niel- He compared the photosynthesis of bacteria and green plants and concluded
that oxygen comes from water in photosynthesis.
6CO2 + 12H2S C6H12O6 + 12S + 6H2O
(vi) Hill Reaction-Experiment on isolated chloroplast (Stelaria plant) study of light reaction, which
is called as Hill Reaction. 02 gas liberated from photolysis of H2O, only in the presence of
suitable e-acceptor.
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(d) Reqirements of photosynthesis :
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(i) Carbondioxide : Terrestrial plants obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through the
or
small openings present on leaves called as stomata. ‘Stomata’ are the small pores present on
the surface of leaves.
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• They help in exchange of gases and transpiration. Stomatal opening is guarded by the
presence of guard cells (kidney shaped). Aquatic plants obtain CO2 dissolved in water
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through their general body surface so they perform more photosynthesis than terrestrial plants.
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• Plants utilize carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and release it during respiration and both
processes occur simultaneously. The intensity of light at which amount of CO2 used during
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photosynthesis becomes equal to the amount of CO2 released during respiration by plants is
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called as Compensation point.

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• Compensation point occurs at low light intensity that is during early morning and during
evening hours.
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(ii) Water : Plants roots absorb water from the soil by the process of osmosis (endosmosis). This
water is transported to leaves by a special type of tissue called as xylem.
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(iii) Light - Out of the total radiations emitted by Sun only 50% reach the surface of Earth known
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as Incident Solar Radiation (ISR) and remaining are reflected back by various layers of
atmosphere. This ISR consists of radiations of different wavelengths. The radiations of
wavelengths between 400 nm - 700nm (Visible region) are known as Photosynthetically Active
Radiation (PAR).
(iv) Pigments - There are three kinds of photosynthetic pigments
(I) Chlorophylls (water insoluble) (II) Carotenoids (water insoluble)
(III) Phycobilins (water soluble)
(I) Chlorophyll : Each chlorophyll molecule is made of porphyrin head and a phytol tail (a long
chain alcohol). Synthesis of chlorophyll takes place in the presence of light.
• Types of chlorophyll-
1. Chlorophyll a - C55H72O5N4Mg 2. Chlorophyll-b C55H70O6N4Mg
3. Chlorophyll-c 4. Chlorophyll-d
5. Bacteriochlorophyll C55H74O6N4Mg
• Chlorophyll-a is universally present in all green plants.
• Chlorophyll-b is widely distributed in green algae and higher plants. Chlorophyll-b is derived
from Chlorophyll-a and 25% of the chlorophyll in plants is chlorophyll b. In place of
Chlorophyll-b, in brown and red algae, Chlorophyll-c and Chlorophyll-d are found respectively.
• Bacteriochlorophyll is present in photosynthetic bacteria.

3. NUTRITION
(II) Carotenoids :
• Most of the carotenoids are yellow or orange in colour.
• There are two major groups
1. Carotenes 2. Xanthophylls
(III) Phycobilins :
• These are present in blue-green algae and red algae. Their main function is absorption of light
during photosynthesis.
• These are of two types
1. Phycoerythrin (red pigment) 2. Phycocyanin (blue pigment)
(e) Photosystems :
• A photosystem consists of two components
(i) Reaction centre - made up of a single molecule of chlorophyll a. It participates in electron
transfer.
(ii) Light harvesting complex - made up of all the pigment molecules except one molecule of
chlorophyll. They participates in energy transfer. They are also known as antenna molecules.
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or
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Fig.3.1 : Conversion of light into electrical energy. Accessory pigment molecules absorb light and
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funnel it to the reaction centre for conversion to electrical energy and charge separation.
(iii) Quantum requirement - number of photons required to produce 1 molecule of oxygen is
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called quantum requirement.

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(iv) Quantum yield - defined as the amount of oxygen produced per photon of light.
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• Emerson & Arnold worked on Chlorella and gave the concept of two photosystem or two
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pigment systems.
• When they gave only monochromatic light, longer than 680 nm wavelength, then quantum
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yield is suddenly dropped down, this event is called as red drop.

• When Emerson give light shorter and greater than 680 nm then photosynthetic activity
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increased, this is called Emerson effect or enhancement effect.

• Red drop and enhancement effect concluded that there are two different photo systems
present in plants which work in a coordinated manner.
• Types of photosystem:
PS I : It constitute pigments, like chl-b, chl-a carotenoids and p700
PS-II : It consist chl-a, chl-b, phycobillins & P680.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PS-I AND PS-II.
PS-I PS-II
(a) Its reaction centre of PS-I is P700 The reaction centre of PS-II is P680
(b) PS-I can go for cyclic It perform non-cyclic
photophophorylation independentally photophosphorylation with PS-I
(c) Pigment of PSI are located in non Pigments of PS-II are found in
appressed part of grana and stroma lamellar appressed portion of grana lamellae
(f) Site of Photosynthesis :

• Site of photosynthesis is different in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• In prokaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in lamellar chromatophores.
• In eukaryotes : Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplast
• Chloroplast : Contain green pigment, called as chlorophyll.
• Chloroplast was discovered by Schimper.

3. NUTRITION
• Number of chloroplasts is variable in different species of plants.
• In lower plants like algae they are 1 or 2 in number.
• In higher plants their number varies from 40 – 100 or more per palisade cell.
• Chloroplast also have variable shapes, for example in algae cup shaped, ribbon shaped etc.
While it is discoidal in higher plants.
• Structure of chloroplast :
Fig.3.2 : Internal structure of chloroplast

• Chloroplasts are green plastid which help in synthesis of organic food.
• They are distributed uniformly in the cytoplasm of plast cell. They are well developed in all the
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green plants.
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• In green cell of higher plants the size of discoid chloroplast ranges from 4-10 µm in length and
2-4 µm in breadth.
• or
Chloroplast is covered by a double membranous structure called chloroplast envelop. The
space separating the two membranous about 100-200Å thick.
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• Stroma : Protein aqueous matrix in the chloroplast is the matrix or stroma. It is colloidal and
contain many enzymes, DNA, RNA & 70s ribosome. It is site for dark reaction.
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• Grana : Lameller like structure found in stack of 2-100 thylakoids laid in piles one on top of
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another. The main function of thylakoids is to perform the light reaction.

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(g) Steps of photosynthesis :

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Photosynthesis is a two step process.

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(i) Light reaction (ii) Dark reaction

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(i) LIGHT REACTION

• This phase of photosynthesis directly depends on sunlight. This phase involves following steps
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I. Photolysis of H2O and release of O2 II. Formation of NADPH2

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III. Photophosphorylation- takes place by 2 methods.

1. Cyclic photophosphorylation :
Stroma 2H+
e e e
Fe S/FRS Fd Cyt b6 PQ
P700 Cyt f
e
PC
3H+
H+
H+ H+
+
H
H+ H
+ +
H H
+
H+
H
+ PMF
LUMEN CF0 CF1
THYLAKOID MEMBRANE
Fig.3.3 : Cyclic - Photophosphorylation

3. NUTRITION
2. Non - Cyclic photophosphorylation :

NADP-Reductase
H+ NADP + NADPH + H+
2H+
–
e
e
–
e– Fd
PQ
e–
Pheophytin Cyt f Fe S/FRS
e–
e–
PC e
–
P680 P700
3H+
e +
H+ H+ H
4 H2O O2 + + +
H+
H H H
H+ H+ H+ H+
LUMEN
CF0 CF1
THYLAKOID MEMBRANE
e
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NON-CYCLIC - PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
Fig.3.4 : Non-Cyclic-Photophosphorylation
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CYCLIC AND NON CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
or
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CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION NON–CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
(1) Only PS–I involved in cyclic process. (1) Both PS–II & PS–I works in non–cyclic process.
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(2) The e– expelled from reaction center is not

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(2) The e– expelled from chl–700 is cycled cycled back. Its loss is compensated by e– from
back. H2O.
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(3) Phosphorylation at two place. (3) Phosphorylation at one site.

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(4) Photolysis of water and evolution of O2 (4) Photolysis of water and evolution of O2 takes
does not take place. place.
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(5) NADP+ is not reduced. (5) NADP+ is reduced to NADPH.

(6) Activated by 700 NM light. (6) Activated by 680 NM
in
Products of light reaction :

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12NADPH2, 18ATP & O2

(ii) Dark reaction :
• This phase does not directly depends on light but it depends on the products of light reaction.
• This phase involves CO2 fixation and formation of glucose.
• It is also called as thermochemical reaction or C3 Cycle.
• It was discovered by Melvin calvin and Benson therefore it is also called as Calvin Benson
cycle.
• Site : Stroma of chloroplast.
• Raw materials : They require CO2 , NADPH2, ATP and enzymes.
• Products - Glucose
• It involves three basic steps :
I. Carboxylation : In this step CO2 is assimilated by acceptors like RUBP ( in C3 Plants) , PEP (
in C4 Plants) with the help of enzymes i.e. RuBisCO (Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase
oxygenase) & PEPCo (Phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase) respectively.RuBisCO is also
known as Carboxydimutase.
II. Reduction of glucose : In this phase captured CO2 is assimilated into glucose.

3. NUTRITION
III. Regeneration of RuBP :
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or
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Fig.3.5 : C3 Cycle/ Calvin Cycle

II. C4 Cycle/ Hatch & Slack Pathway :
in
• C4-plants found in tropical habitats and adapted themselves to cope up with low CO2
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concentration, high temperature, low water availability and intense light.

• Kortschak and Hartt first observed that 4C, OAA (Oxaloacetic Acid) is formed during dark
reaction in sugarcane leaves.
• Hatch & Slack studied in detail and proposed pathway for dark reactions in sugarcane & maize
leaves.C4 cycle occurs in 1500 species of 19 families of angiosperm, but most of the plants
are monocots, (Sugarcane, Maize, Sorghum).
• Kranz (Wreath) anatomy-Present in leaves of C4 plants. Green bundle sheath cells (BS cells)
present around the vascular bundles.
• Mesophyll chloroplast are small and granular.
• Rubisco present in BS cells, while PEPCase in mesophyll cells.
• In the C4-Plant, C3-cycle occurs in bundle sheath cells, while C4 cycle occurs in mesophylls.
• Photosynthetically C4 plants are more efficient as there is no photorespiration, because at the
site of Rubisco (BS cells) no O2 is released & mesophyll cells pumps more CO2 for C3 cycle.
• Primary CO2 acceptor in C4 is PEP (Phosphoenol Pyruvate) (3C-compound). First
carboxylation in C4 - cycle occurs by PEPcase in mesophyll cytoplsam, while second
carboxylation or final CO2 fixation by C3 cycle occurs in bundle sheath cells.
• 12 NADPH2 and 30 ATP needed for production of 1 glucose in C4 plants.

3. NUTRITION
MESOPHYLL CELLS BUNDLE SHEATH CELLS C 6 ,C12 ,O6
sugarcane
oxaloacetate aspartate C4 ,C 5,C 6,C7
(4C)
NADPH2
C4-Cycle RuBp
PEP NADP
ip+AMP pyruvate
phosphate dikinase (3C) Rubisco
Pyruvic acid Malic acid Malic Acid
ATP CO2 PGA
NADPH2 NADP
–Granal chloroplast. –Agranal chloroplast.

–Syn. of NADPH2&ATP, evolutions of O2. –Absence of Z-scheme or PS-II, no evolution
–Absence of Calvin cycle & Enzyme Rubisco. of O2.
–NADPH2, from mesophyll chloroplast,
C3cycle occur.
Significance of C4-Plants :
(a) More efficient plants in picking up CO2 ever in low concentration because of high affinity of
PEP.
(b) They can tolerate excess of saline conditions.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN C3 & C4 PLANTS :
e
S.NO. C3 Plants C4 Plants
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Kranz
1. anatomy absent Present
Initial CO2
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2. acceptor : RuBP PEP
First stable
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3. compound 3PGA OAA

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Carboxylating In mesophyll PEPCO

4. enzyme RuBisCO In bundle sheath RuBisCO
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Optimum
5. 30-40°C
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temperature 15-25ºC
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CAM-plants / Crassulacean acid metabolism / Dark CO2 fixation / Dark Acidification

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• CAM-process occurs in members of Crassulaceae family. Succulent xerophytic plants. Eg.

Kalanchoe, Bryophyllum, Peepal (Ficus), Opuntia, Crassula, Agave, pineapple, Welwitschia
in
(Gymnosperm) etc.Primary acceptor of CO2 is PEP (Phosphoenol pyruvate) and oxaloacetic

acid is the first product of carboxylation reaction.
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• In CAM plants stomata are of scotoactive type, so initial CO2 fixation is found in night but light
reacbons operates at day time. Final CO2 fixation (C3 cycle) occurs in day time. PEPcase
induces carboxylation reaction in night.
• PEP carboxylase & Rubisco present in mesophyll cells. (No Kranz-anatomy)
• In CAM plants 30 ATP and 12 NADPH2 are required as assimilatory power for 1 glucose
synthesis.
• CAM plants exhibits adaptation for water conservation.

3. NUTRITION
C3–pathway C4–pathway CAM- pathway
(1) Ist stable compounds 3–C (1) First formed compound is
(1) Ist stable compound is 4C O.A.A.
PGA O.A.A.
(2) 18 ATP & 12 NADPH2 (2) 30 ATP & 12 NADPH2 used for 1 (2) 30 ATP and 12 NADPH2 used
used for 1glucose formation glucose formation for Production of 1 glucose
(3) Kranz anatomy absent (3) Kranz anatomy present (3) Kranz anatomy absent
(4) Presence of
(4) Absence of photorespiration (4) photorespiration may present
photorespiration
(5) One type of carboxylase (5) Two type of carboxylase enzyme (5) Two type of carboxylase
enzyme, Rubisco only Rubisco & PEPcase enzyme Rubisco & PEPcase
(6) Primary CO2 acceptor - PEP & (6) Primary CO2 acceptor is PEP
(6) CO2 acceptor - RUBP
RUBP is secondary acceptor & RUBP is secondary acceptor
(7) Exhibits high CO2 (7) Low CO2 compensation point (8-10 (7) High CO2 compensation point
compensation point (40–100 PPM) (40–100 PPM)
PPM)
C2 Cycle/Photorespiration :
• The light dependent uptake of O2 & release of CO2 in C3 photosynthetic cell is called
photorespiration.
• Photorespiration operates during day time in C3-plants & Rubisco acts as oxygenase at higher
concentration of O2 and low CO2 concentration in the C3-green cells.
• Photorespiration is not linked with ATP generation (in place ATP are consumed) as ordinary
dark
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respiration. It is a wasteful process linked with C3 cycle
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• It occurs in chloroplast, peroxisomes & mitochondria.
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Bacterial Photosynthesis - It is a special kind of photosynthesis which takes place in certain
bacteria. In this process also solar energy is utilised for the synthesis of carbohydrates and
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H2S is the hydrogen donor instead of water as in normal photosynthesis. So O2 is not liberated
in bacterial photosynthesis.
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(h) Factors affecting photosynthesis :

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Photosynthesis is regulated by many factors.

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(i) Light- Light is the most important factor for photosynthesis because it is used as a source of
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energy.Normally, plants utilize sunlight, but marine algae also use moon light.
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I. Quantity of Light- photosynthesis occurs in the visible part of spectrum. Photosynthesis is

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maximum in polychromatic light or white light. In case of monochromatic light maximum in red
followed by blue.
in
II. Intensity of Light : The light intensity at which rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of
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respiration (as in the morning and in the evening) is called compensation point.Destruction of
chlorophyll due to high light intensity is called solarisation.
III. Duration : Rate of photosynthesis is more in intermittent light as compared to continous light.
(ii) CO2- The normal concentration of C02 in atmosphere is 360 ppm. By increasing CO2
concentration 15-20 times, the rate of photosynthesis increases, but after that it decreases. C4
plants show saturation at about 360 ppm. C3 plants show saturation at about 450 ppm.
C4 plants (High light)
C3 plants (High light)
0 10 50 100 200 300 360 400 450 500

S.P. S.P.
CO2 in ppm (S.P. = Saturation point)
Fig : 3.7 Effect of change in CO2 concentration on photosynthesis

3. NUTRITION
(iii) Temperature - For C3 plants, the optimum temperature range is 25-30 C and for C4 plants it
is 30-40 C and above it, denaturation of enzymes begins, and hence, the rate of
photosynthesis decreases.
(iv) H2O - As less than 1% of the total water absorbed by the plant is utilized in photosynthesis, so
water rarely acts as a limiting factor. In water-deficient conditions, photosynthesis is found to
be decreased. Chemiosmotic Hypothesis Proposed by Peter Mitchell. During ETC of
photosynthesis concentration of H+ gradually increases in thylakoid lumen. During cyclic
photphosphrylation PQ leads to shifting of H+ from stroma to thylakoid lumen. On the other
hand during non cyclic photophoshorylation there are three causes of difference in H+ ion
concentration.
• Photolysis of H2O produces H+
• PQ shifting of H+ ion from stroma to lumen.
• NADP redutase mediated utilisation of H+ from stroma.
• This differential H+ ion concentration leads to development of proton gradient. Both proton
gradient and electrical potential collectively called proton motive force (PMF)
• PMF do not allow stay of H+ ions in lumen so H+ start to move towards stroma through CF0
particle selectively. The passage of 3H+ ions leads to activation of ATP synthase and it forms
ATP from ADP and Pi.
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fre
or
sF
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s ts
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in
Fig. 3.8 : ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis

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C. NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Animals are heterotrophic in nature.They are directly or indirectly dependent on plants to obtain
their food
• The mode of nutrition may be parasitic or saprotrophic but usually animals are holozoic.
• All the basic steps of holozoic nutrition are same in unicellular to multicellular organism.
• Holozoic nutrition in animals consists of following 5-steps
• Ingestion : The process of intake of food.
• Digestion : It is the breakdown of large and complex molecules into simpler, smaller and
soluble forms.
• Absorption : Taking up of the digested food through intestinal wall to blood or body fluid.
• Assimilation : In this process absorbed food is taken by body cells.
• Egestion : The process by which undigested matter is expelled out.
(i) Nutrition in Amoeba :
• It is a unicellular organism living in water.
• Mode of nutrition is holozoic.
• The process of obtaining food is by phagocytosis (cell eating)
• Steps involved in nutrition in amoeba are :

3. NUTRITION
I. Ingestion : Since it is unicellular so a single cell is responsible for carrying out all the vital
activities. Food is ingested with the help of pseudopodia. Animal engulfs the food particle
lying near it by forming pseudopodia around it and forming a food vacuole which is
considered as its temporary stomach.
II. Digestion : The enzymes from surrounding cytoplasm enter the food vacuole and break down
the food into smaller & soluble forms. It is intracellular in Amoeba.
III. Absorption : The digested food is now absorbed by cytoplasm by simple diffusion.
IV. Assimilation : The food absorbed in amoeba is used to obtain energy from respiration, for its
growth and reproduction.
V. Egestion : Undigested food is thrown out of the cell.
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fre
or
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Fig.3.9 : Nutrition in amoeba
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(ii) Nutrition in Human Beings :

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• Humans are holozoic and follow same 5- steps of nutrition.

• Humans have highly evolved and complicated digestive system consisting of an alimentary
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canal and different types of digestive glands.

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I. Alimentary canal : Long, hollow, tubular structure consisting of various organs for digestion.
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Alimentary canal consists of following organs :

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1. Mouth : It is a small slit through which food is ingested.

2. Buccal cavity : Mouth opens into a chamber called as buccal cavity. It has following
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components:
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• Soft palate: Posterior muscular extension of hard palate is called soft palate.
• Tongue: At the floor of this cavity thick muscular structure is present called tongue. It helps in
chewing, swallowing, tasting and speaking. Tongue has various types of taste papilla.
• Teeth : Jaws present in buccal cavity are provided with four different types of teeth
(Heterodont) :
Incisors : For cutting
Canines : For tearing
Premolars : For grinding
Molars : For grinding
• Dental formula of humans : In human beings two set of teeth appear during their life time
(Diphyodont) –
• Milk teeth : These are temporary , arise at 6 – 11 month age, 20 in number
Half upper jaw 2 0 2
Half low er jaw
= i 2 , c 1 , pm , m
1 0 2
• Permanent teeth : In adults
Half upper jaw 2 3
Half low er jaw
= i = c 1 = pm 2 = m
2 1 2 3
3. Oesophagus : Also called as food pipe . It leads the food from mouth to stomach.
Oesophagus has highly muscular walls, no digestion occurs here.
4. Stomach : It is a ‘J’ shaped bag present on left side of abdomen. It contains several branched
and tubular glands present on the inner surface of its wall, which secrete gastric juice.

3. NUTRITION
5. Small Intestine : It is a coiled and narrow tube having 3 regions : duodenum, jejunum, ileum.
• On the inner wall of small intestine numerous finger like projections are found which are called
as villi, they increase the surface area of absorption.
• Duodenum is proximal part of small intestine, receives secretion from liver and pancreas.
6. Large intestine : Small intestine opens into large intestine from where the undigested food
material is passed to anus through rectum. It is divided into three parts : Caecum, Colon and
Rectum.
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or
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Fig.3.10 : Digestive System of Human

Histology of alimentary canal
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II.
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Fig. 3.11 : T.S. of Alimentary Canal

• The wall of alimentary canal from oesophagus to rectum possesses four layers namely serosa,
muscularis, sub-mucosa and mucosa.
• Serosa is the outermost layer and is made up of a thin mesothelium (epithelium of visceral
organs) with some connective tissues.
• Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles usually arranged into an inner circular and an outer
longitudinal layer.
• An oblique muscle layer may be present in some regions. The sub-mucosal layer is formed of
loose connective tissues containing nerves, blood and lymph vessels.
• In duodenum, glands are also present in sub-mucosa. The innermost layer lining the lumen of
the alimentary canal is the mucosa.
• This layer forms irregular folds (rugae) in the stomach and small finger-like foldings called villi
in the small intestine.
• The cells lining the villi produce numerous microscopic projections called microvilli giving a
brush border appearance. These modifications increase the surface area enormously.

3. NUTRITION
• Villi are supplied with a network of capillaries and a large lymph vessel called the lacteal.
• Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus that help in lubrication.
• Mucosa also forms glands in the stomach (gastric glands) and crypts in between the bases of
villi in the intestine (crypts of Lieberkuhn). All the four layers show modifications in different
parts of the alimentary canal.
III. Digestive glands : They secrete enzymes / hormones which help in digestion. The digestive
glands include:
1. Salivary glands : It produces saliva. They help in chemical digestion. They secrete an
enzyme called salivary amylase or ptyalin. It helps in digestion of starch.
• Parotid glands : largest glands present just below the external ear. In this glands, virus
causes mumps disease. (Parotid duct/Stenson’s duct)
• Submaxillary glands / Submandibular glands : These lie beneath the jaw-angles.
(Wharton’s duct)
• Sublingual glands : Smallest glands which lie beneath the tongue and open at the floor of
buccal cavity.(Duct of Rivinus)
2. Gastric glands : Present in stomach. They secrete hydrochloric acid, protein digesting
enzymes and mucus. Present in the mucosa of the stomach.
These are of 3 types :
•
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Cardiac glands : secrete an alkaline mucus.
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• Pyloric glands : secrete an alkaline mucus.
• Fundic glands : each gland has 5 types of cells.
•
•
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Peptic/Zymogen cells - secrete pepsinogen, prorennin
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Oxyntic cells - secrete HCI
• Goblet cells - secrete mucus
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• Argentaffin cells - produces serotonin somatostatin and histamine

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• G-cells - secrete and store the hormone gastrin.

3. Liver : It consists of a large right lobe, a small left lobe and two small lobes called quadrate
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lobe and caudate lobe behind the main lobes. On the right lobe lies gall bladder, which,
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temporarily stores bile juice, secreted by the liver. It is the largest gland, secretes bile into the
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small intestine. Bile juice contains no enzyme but possesses bile salts and bile pigments
(bilirubin-yellow and biliverdin-green). Bile is alkaline in nature and helps in digestion of fats,
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it also helps in absorption of fats.

• Functions of liver :
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• Formation of glucose from excess organic acids.

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• Storage of vitamins : A, D, E, B. Synthesis of vitamin A from carotene.

• Secretions of blood anticoagulant named heparin.
• Synthesis of blood or plasma proteins, fibrinogen and prothrombin
• Secretion of bile, detoxification of harmful chemicals.
• Elimination of pathogens and foreign particles through phagocytic cells called Kupffer’s cells.
4. Pancreas : It lies parallel and below the stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice into small
intestine. Pancreatic juice contains trypsin and pancreatic amylase. Besides these two
enzymes pancreas secretes two hormones also i.e. insulin and glucagon, so it has both
exocrine as well as endocrine functions. Both bile and pancreatic juice are released into the
duodenum by a common duct.
5. Intestinal glands : They secrete intestinal juice and mucus.
IV. Process of Nutrition : This system involves following process :
1. Ingestion : Intake of food is done through mouth, food is then chewed and masticated and
sent to oesophagus through pharynx by swallowing.
2. Digestion : Saliva secreted in buccal cavity starts digestion of starch into maltose. This
partially digested food is then passed to stomach by oesophagus through peristaltic
movements. Food is churned in stomach for about three hours and broken down into smaller
pieces. Due to presence of hydrochloric acid, medium of stomach becomes acidic. In acidic
medium protein digestive enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins into peptones. Gastric lipase is
also secreted here which partially break down lipids.

3. NUTRITION
• Secretion of gastric juice is stimulated by the sight , smell or thought of food.
• Now the partially digested food moves to small intestine i.e. in the duodenum. Duodenum
receives the secretion from liver and pancreas through a common duct which contains bile
and pancreatic juice, and alkaline in nature. So the digestion and emulsification of fats occurs
at this place.
• Here in the duodenum fats are emulsified by bile, remaining proteins are digested by trypsin
and starch by pancreatic amylase.
• Note : Duodenal wall secretes bicarbonate ions which make the medium alkaline.
• This partially digested food now enters into the jejunum where intestinal juice i.e. “Succus
entericus” is secreted. At this place digestion is completed.
Carbohydrates Glucose
Proteins Amino acids
Fats Fatty acids and glycerol
3. Absorption : Almost no absorption takes place in mouth and oesophagus. Water, alcohol,
simple salts, and glucose are absorbed in the stomach.
• In the small intestine, absorption of all digested materials takes place by active, passive, and
facilitated transport.
• Glucose, sodium, and amino acids are absorbed actively. The absorption of glucose or amino
acids involves carrier mediated transport which binds glucose/amino acid at one site and Na +
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at other site. Therefore, the movement of glucose/amino acid is coupled to the concentration
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gradient of Na+. Na moves along concentration gradient while glucose/amino acids are
moving against concentration gradient. The rate of absorption of galactose is highest.
•
•
Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
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The products of fat digestion, monoglycerides, fatty acids, and glycerol are first incorporated
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into water- soluble droplets called micelles (a combination of fatty acids, monoacylglycerols,
and bile salts) ; reconstructed to triglycerides in the absorptive cells and released into lymph in
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the form of protein-coated water-soluble fat droplets called chylomicrons.

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• In the large intestine, only water is absorbed. Absorption of vitamin B12 (cobalamine) in man
requires a glycoprotein, called intrinsic factor (IF) secreted by the parietal cells of the stomach.
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Failure to absorb cobalamine causes pernicious anaemia associated with a failure of RBC
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maturation and neurological abnormalities.

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• Note : Walls of small intestine have tiny finger like projections called villi, they increase the
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surface area for absorption.

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Villi
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Lacteal
Capillaries
Artery
Crypts
Vein
Fig.3.12 : A Section of small intestine showing mucosa showing crypts of leiberkuhn
Mouth Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine
Certain drugs Absorption of Principal organ for Absorption of

coming in contact water, simple absorption of nutrients. water, some
with the mucosa of sugars, and T h e d i g e s ti on i s minerals and
mouth and lower alcohol etc. completed here and drugs takes place.
side of the tongue the final products of
are absorbed into the di gesti on suc h as
blood capillaries glucose, fructose, fatty
lining them. acids, glycerol and
a min o acid s a re
absorbed through the
mucosa into the blood
stream and lymph.

3. NUTRITION
4. Assimilation : The absorbed food materials are transported by blood and lymph.
• Lymph is finally transferred to the blood circulation.
• The blood transports absorbed food materials to different body cells where food materials
become integral component of the living protoplasm and are used for energy, growth and
repair. This is called assimilation of food.
• Amino acids are not stored but are taken up by the cells in connection with the synthesis of
proteins.
• Proteins are used for growth, repair, etc. Excess amino acids can be converted into glucose
and then to fat and are thus stored. This is an irreversible reaction. Amino acids can also be
converted to glucose and used as fuel for the cell. During their conversion to glucose, the
amino acids are deaminated (removal of amino groups-NH2).
• The liver is the chief site for deamination, i.e., a process by which the amino group is removed
from amino acids resulting in the production of ammonia.
• Ammonia is soon converted into urea, which is filtered from the blood in the kidney.
• The excess of monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, and galactose) are usually stored in the
liver and muscle cells in the form of glycogen (glycogenesis).
• Whenever, there is a deficiency of glucose in the blood, glycogen is converted into glucose
(glycogenolysis).
• Muscle glycogen is utilized during muscle contraction.
• Glucose is utilized in the production of energy for various body activities.
• A considerable amount of glucose is converted into fat and stored as such.
• The fat is stored in the fat deposits of the body, such as subcutaneous layers, mesenteries, etc.
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• The stored fat is a readily available source of fuel for the cells.
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• Fat has important insulating properties in connection with the conservation of heat and
maintenance of body temperature.
•
•
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Fat also plays a protective role as filling or packing material, between and around the organs.
In the liver, phospholipids are formed which are returned to the blood, to be used by all the
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cells.
• In liver cells fats, are converted into amino acids and carbohydrates.
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• Vitamins, salts, and water are also useful for various metabolic processes.
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5. Egestion : The undigested food along with water (about 75%) and excess of digestive
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enzymes is then collected in large intestine where water is absorbed and remaining waste is
expelled out or egested through anus. Colon absorbs water and transports excess of ions as
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Ca+2 ,Mg+2 etc. from blood to large intestine. The faeces are formed of 75% water, 25% solid
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matter which contains roughage 30%, fats 20%, inorganic matter 15%, proteins 2% and
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bacteria 3% .Brown colour of faeces is due to stercobilins.

V. Disorders of digestive system :
in
• The inflammation of the intestinal tract is the most common ailment due to bacterial or viral
infections.The infections are also caused by the parasites of the intestine like tapeworm,
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roundworm, threadworm,hookworm, pin worm, etc.

1. Jaundice: The liver is affected, skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposit of bile pigments.
2. Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. This reflex action is
controlled by the vomit centre in the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes vomiting.
3. Diarrhoea: The abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of the faecal
discharge is known as diarrhoea. It reduces the absorption of food.
4. Constipation: In constipation, the faeces are retained within the rectum as the bowel
movements occur irregularly.
5. Indigestion: In this condition, the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of fullness.
The causes of indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food poisoning, over
eating, and spicy food.
6. Mumps : It is the viral infection in parotid gland.
7. Hernia: It is protrusion of the intestine into inguinal canal and may extend into scrotal sac.

3. NUTRITION
TABLE : DIGESTIVE GLANDS, THEIR SECRETIONS & ACTION
Name of Site of
Secretion Enzyme Substrates Products
Gland action
Salivary Saliva Salivary Buccal Starch Maltos e,

gland amylase cavity Isomaltose.
(a) Peps in Stom ach Protein Peptones

(Pepsinogen
inactive )
Gastric
Gas tric
glands (b) Rennin Stom ach Casein Paracasein
Juice
(Prorennin
inactive)
(c) Hydrochloric acid Stom ach Peps inogen Pepsin
(a) Pancretic Small Starch, Maltos e,
Amylase intestine Glycogen Isomaltose
Pancreatic (b) Tryps in Small Proteins Peptides

Pancreas Juice (Tryps inogen intestine
inactive)
(c) Chymotryps in Small Casein Paracasein
(Chymotryps inogen intestine (m ilk)
inactive)
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(a) Enterokinase Small Tryps inogen Trypsin
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(Hormone) intestine (inactive) (active)
(b) Aminopeptidase Small Peptides Smaller
intestine or peptides
Am ino acids.
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(c) Dipeptidases Small Dipeptides Am ino
intestine acids.
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Intestinal
(d) Isomaltas e Small Isomaltos e 2 Glucos e
gland Intes tinal
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intestine
(Crypts of Juice
(e) Maltase Small Maltose 2 Glucos e
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Lieberkuhn)
intestine
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(f) Sucrase Small Sucrose Glucos e,

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intestine Fructose
(g) Lactase Small Lactose Glucos e,
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intestine Galactos e
(h) Lipase Small Triglycerides Monoglycerides,
in
intestine Fatty acids.

Bile No enzymes Duodenum Fats Fat droplets
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Liver (Bile salts +

pigm ents)
TABLE : VITAMINS NECESSARY FOR NORMAL CELL FUNCTIONING
S.No. Deficiency Disease Deficient Nutrient S.No. Deficiency Disease Deficient Nutrient
Vitamin A Megaloblastic Folic acid
1 Xerophthalmia 10
(Retinol) anaemia and Vitamin B12
Vitamin A Pernicious Vitamin B12
2 Night-blindness 11
(Retinol) anaemia (Cyanocobalamine)
Vitamin D Vitamin - C
3 Rickets (in children) 12 Scurvy
(Calciferol) (Ascorbic Acid)
Vitamin D
4 Osteomalacia (adults) 13 Osteomalacia Calcium
(Calciferol)
Vitamin E
5 Sterility 14 Anaemia Iron
(Tocopherol)
Vitamin K
6 Bleeding disease 15 Goitre Iodine
(Phylloquinone)
Vitamin B1 Excess of
7 Beri beri 16 Fluorosis
(Thiamine) fluorine
Vitamin B2
8 Cheilosis 17 Kwashiorkor Proteins
(Riboflavin)
Vitamin B3 Proteins and
9 Pellagra 18 Marasmus
(Niacin) food calories

3. NUTRITION
SECTION (A) : MODES OF NUTRITION
A-1 Name the different modes of nutrition and classify them with one example of each ?
A-2 How do autotrophs obtain CO 2 and H 2O to make their food ?
SECTION (B) : NUTRITION IN PLANTS

B-1 Describe the structure and role of chloroplast along with a well labelled diagram ?
B-2 Describe the mechanism of photosynthesis by flow chart?
B-3 What is the role of PS 1 in non cyclic reaction ?
B-4 Explain how water and temperature influence the rate of photosynthesis ?
SECTION (C) : NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

C-1 Name the different steps involved in digestion process.
C-2 Name the different parts of large intestine.
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C-3 Where does the absorption of food takes place ?
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C-4 Draw a well labelled diagram of human alimentary canal. Mention the functions of liver in digestion.
C-5
C-6
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Explain various digestive glands present in man along with their secretions & functions.
What is meant by assimilation of food? Name the digestive glands of human.
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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A-1 Purple sulphur bacteria exhibits which of these modes of nutrition -

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(A) Photoautotrophs (B) Chemoautotrophs (C) Heterotrophs (D) None of these

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A-2 Those organisms which can feed on dead and decay material are known as -
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(A) Detritivores (B) Fruigivores (C) Herbivore (D) None of these

A-3 Amoeba shows....mode of nutrition-
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(A) Saprophytic (B) Holozoic (C) Symbiotic (D) None of these

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A-4 Which of the following plant is a parasite ?

(A) Cuscuta (B) Mushroom (C) Giloe (D) Fern
A-5 Which two plant species obtain nutrition as symbionts in Lichens ?
(A) Rhizobium and Drocera (B) Fungi and Rose plant
(C) Algae and Virus (D) Algae and Fungi
A-6 Insectivorous plants grow only on such soils which are deficient in :
(A) Calcium (B) Nitrogen (C) Magnesium (D) Phosphorus
B-1 The raw materials for photosynthesis are
(A) CO2 & O2 (B) sunlight,O2 & CO2 (C) water and chlorophyll (D) CO2 and water
B-2 Most of the photosynthesis (80%) which takes place on this earth is carried out by
(A) green plants on land (B) algae present in fresh water
(C) algae found in ocean (D) algae present in ocean and fresh water sources
B-3 Which of the following requires no enzyme ?
(A) Light reaction (B) Photolysis of water (C) Dark reaction (D) Carboxylation

3. NUTRITION
B-4 Plants are green in colour because
(A) they absorb green light only (B) they reflect green light
(C) they absorb green light but reflect all other lights (D) none of the above are correct
B-5 Full name of NADP is
(A) Nicotinamide dinucleotide phosphate (B) Nicotine adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(C) Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (D) None of the above
B-6 Wavelength of visible light which is required for photosynthesis ?
(A) 200 – 400 nm (B) 390 – 780 nm (C) 700 – 900 nm (D) 100 – 200 nm
B-7 The presence of starch in leaves can be tested with
(A) iodine solution (B) copper sulphate solution
(C) lime water (D) benedict’s solution
B-8 Chemical reaction takes place during dark reaction of photosynthesis is
(A) photolysis (B) hydrolysis
(C) carbon dioxide is bonded with RUBP (D) nitrogen fixation
B-9 Dark reaction and light reaction of photosynthesis takes place in
(A) stroma and grana of chloroplast respectively (B) grana and stroma of chloroplast respectively
(C) grana only (D) stroma only
B-10 CO2 acceptor during dark reaction of C3 photosynthesis is -
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(A) RUBP (B) PEP (C) NADPH (D) ATP
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B-11 The energy change in photosynthesis is from :
(A) Light energy to electrical energy
(C) Light energy to chemical energy
or
(B) Light energy to molecular energy
(D) Light energy to activation energy
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B-12 Which of the following equation sums up photosynthetic reaction most accurately :
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(A) CO + H2O CH2O + O2 (B) 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

(C) 6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O (D) None of these
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B-13 Chemosynthetic bacteria obtain energy from :

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(A) Sun (B) Infra-red rays

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(C) Organic substances (D) Inorganic chemicals mainly

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B-14 The visible part of electromagnetic spectrum lies in between :

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(A) X - ray and ultra-violet (B) Ultra violet and infra red
(C) Infra red and microwave (D) X-ray and infra red
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B-15 Compensation point occurs :

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(A) When intensity of light is high (B) During dark

(C) During morning and evening hours (D) During mid-day
B-16 The chlorophyll absorbs mostly :
(A) Blue and green light (B) Blue and red light (C) Green and red light (D) Violet light
B-17 CO2 fixation occurs in :
(A) Stroma (B) Grana (C) Outer membrane (D) Inner membrane
B-18 Stroma is the ground matrix of :
(A) Lysosomes (B) Oxysomes (C) Ribosomes (D) Chloroplast
C-1 Number of teeth in human which grow twice are :
(A) 18 (B) 14 (C) 12 (D) 20
C-2 Bile juice is produced by -
(A) Stomach (B) Liver (C) Gall bladder (D) Pancreas
C-3 During digestion of food in alimentary canal, protein is acted upon by enzymes in the following
sequence.
(A) ptyalin, trypsin and peptidase (B) amylase, trypsin and pepsin
(C) pepsin, trypsin and peptidase (D) ptyalin, pepsin and trypsin

3. NUTRITION
C-4 In amoeba the digestion is intracellular because
(A) amoeba is unicellular (B) amoeba is multicellular
(C) amoeba is found in pond (D) amoeba is a microscopic animal
C-5 The path taken by food material after ingestion is represented by
(A) Mouth Oesophagus Stomach Pharynx
(B) Mouth Pharynx Oesophagus Small Intestine Stomach
(C) Mouth Pharynx Oesophagus Stomach
(D) Oesophagus Mouth Pharynx Stomach
C-6 Teeth involved in cutting of food material are called
(A) incisors (B) canines (C) molars (D) premolars
C-7 The most important function of villi in the small intestine is
(A) to provide strength to the intestine
(B) to provide space for capillaries and lacteals
(C) to provide increased surface area for absorption of digested food
(D) to provide habitat for bacteria
C-8 Which of the following secretions does not contain enzymes ?
(A) Bile (B) Pancreatic juice (C) Intestinal juice (D) Saliva
C-9 Chewing is an example of
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(A) chemical digestion (B) mechanical digestion (C) involuntary action (D) hydrolysis
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C-10 Microvilli are present in
(A) stomach (B) small intestine (C) large intestine (D) mouth
C-11 Pepsin differs from trypsin in that it digests :
or
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(A) protein in alkaline medium in stomach (B) protein in acid medium in stomach
(C) protein in acid medium in duodenum (D) protein in alkaline medium in duodenum.
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C-12 Through mastication of food is essential because

(A) mastication of food makes the teeth stronger
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(B) it makes the process of swallowing the food easier

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(C) by this process bigger pieces of food are broken down into smaller pieces
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(D) bigger pieces of food are broken down into smaller pieces and saliva is properly mixed with it
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C-13 The wave of contractions that pushes the food through the alimentary canal is called
(A) peritoneum (B) peristalsis (C) cyclosis (D) polarisation
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C-14 In amoeba absorption of the digested nutrients occurs in

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(A) contractile vacuole (B) plasma membrane (C) cytoplasm (D) pseudopodia
C-15 Well developed alimentary canal first developed in
(A) Protozoans (B) Mammals (C) Nematoda (D) Poriferans

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Plants exhibit which of these modes of nutrition ?
(A) autotrophic (B) heterotrophic (C) saprophytic (D) holozoic
2. The organisms that can perform photosynthesis are
(A) bacteria , fungi, mycoplasma
(B) green algae, photosynthetic bacteria ,cyanobacteria
(C) cyanobacteria, fungi, rickettsias
(D) brown algae, green algae, fungi
3. Which wavelength of light carries out photosynthesis in bacteria ?
(A) Blue (B) Red `(C) Far red (D) Ultraviolet

3. NUTRITION
4. Structural component of chlorophyll among the following is -
(A) Mg (B) Mn (C) Fe (D) Zn
5. Photosynthesis will be highest when the plant is exposed to
(A) continuous strong light (B) continuous weak light
(C) alternate strong and weak light (D) intermediate light
6. The role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis is to
(A) absorb light and to decompose water photochemically
(B) accept the electron from oxygen
(C) accept electron from carbon dioxide
(D) none of the above
7. The dark reaction in photosynthesis is called so because it
(A) can occur more rapidly at night (B) does not require light energy
(C) cannot occur during day time (D) can occur only in shade
8. The first step in dark reaction of photosynthesis is
(A) formation of ATP
(B) attachment of CO2 to a pentose sugar
(C) excitement of electron of chlorophyll by a photon of light
(D) ionization of water
9. During photosynthesis, when PGA is changed into PGAL, which type of reaction occurs ?
(A) Oxidation (B) Reduction (C) Electrolysis (D) Hydrolysis
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10. In leaves, production of starch and not glucose, is often used as a test of photosynthesis, because
(A) starch is always formed in photosynthesis
(B) starch is formed before glucose in photosynthesis
(C) starch is more easily detected than glucose or
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(D) glucose is always formed in photosynthesis.
11. In amoeba the digestion of food is
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(A) extracellular (B) intracellular (C) intercellular (D) none of the above
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12. Ptyalin enzyme is secreted by

(A) salivary gland (B) liver (C) oesophagus (D) stomach
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13. Enzyme which breaks up starch into sugar is-

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(A) hydrolase (B) amylase (C) lipase (D) nuclease

14. Largest gland in the body is
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(A) liver (B) pancreas (C) gastric gland (D) adrenal

15. Bile is stored in -
in
(A) gall bladder (B) bile duct (C) liver (D) pancreas
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16. Which one does not produce any digestive enzyme ?

(A) Pancreas (B) Liver (C) Stomach (D) Duodenum
17. Food is stored in the liver and muscles as
(A) glycogen (B) starch (C) fat (D) cholesterol
18. Pepsin digests
(A) proteins in stomach (B) carbohydrates in duodenum
(C) proteins in duodenum (D) fats in ileum
19. Fat present below the skin surface in our body, acts as a barrier against
(A) loss of salts from the body
(B) loss of essential body fluids
(C) loss of heat from the body
(D) entry of harmful micro–organisms from the environment
20. The digestion of food is completed in the
(A) ileum (B) duodenum (C) Jejunum (D) large intestine

3. NUTRITION

1. The feature indicating omnivorous nature of man is (IJSO-Stage-I/2011)
(A) presence of canines and molars (B) long intestine and vestigial appendix
(C) ability to taste salty and sweet material (D) spacious stomach and caecum
2. Complete digestive juice having enzymes to digest all types of organic materials is secreted by -
(IJSO-Stage-I/2011)
(A) salivary gland and pancreatic gland. (B) gastric gland and pancreatic gland.
(C) salivary gland and intestinal gland. (D) pancreatic gland and intestinal gland
3. Human body cannot digest carbohydrate in the form of - (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) sugars (B) starch (C) cellulose (D) glycogen
4. The biochemical analysis to confirm CAM in a given plant is (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) titratable acid number (B) iodine number
(C) activity of transaminases (D) total reducing power
5. The general indigestion experienced by a patient suffering from obstructive jaundice is due to :
(A) the lack of emulsification of lipids (IJSO-Stage-I/2014)
(B) the acceleration of intstinal peristalsis reducing the retention time for food
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(C) the low pH in the intestine not supporting optimal activity of enzymes.
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(D) the diffusion of bile pigments in blood suppressiong secretion of digestive juices
6. The following graphs represent acitivities of different enzymes (A to D) at different temperature and pH :
or (IJSO/Stage-1/2015)
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A B
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0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature (°C)
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C D
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0 2 4 6 8 10
pH
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Observe the graphs carefully and infer which of the following options given below (most likely)
represents correctly the combinations A.B.C. and D.
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(A) A-enzyme of thermophilic bacteria B-typical human enzyme : C-pepsin (stomach enzyme) :
D-Trypsin (intestinal enzyme)
(B) A-enzyme of thermophilic bacteria B-typical human enzyme : C-Trypsin (intestinal enzyme) :
D-Trypsin (stomach enzyme)
(C) A-a typical human enzyme : B-enzyme of thermophilic bacteria : C-Trypsin (intestinal enzyme):
D-pepsin (stomach enzyme)
(D) A-a typical human enzyme : B-enzyme of themophilic bacteria : C-pepsin (stomach enzyme) :
D-Trypsin (intestinal enzyme)
7. In humans, the digestion of carbohydrates happens/takes place in the following parts of the
digestive system : (IJSO-Stage-I/2015)
(A) Mouth, stomach and small intestine (B) Small intestine alone
(C) Mouth and small intestine (D) Stomach and small intestine
8. Photosynthesis in plants is carried out in (IJSO-Stage-I/2015)
(A) leaves (B) leaves and stems
(C) leaves, stems and aerial roots (D) stems and roots
9. If a small part of the oesophagus of a person is excised, the consequence would be the person will
have to eat
(A) larger portion of food with large time interval (B) small portions of food at small time interval
(C) small portions of food at large time interval (D) majorly subsist on liquid diet

3. NUTRITION
EXERCISE - 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 B A-2 A A-3 B A-4 A A-5 D A-6 B

B-1 D B-2 D B-3 B B-4 B B-5 C B-6 B B-7 A B-8 C B-9 A B-10 A B-11 C B-12 C
B-13 D B-14 B B-15 C B-16 B B-17 A B-18 D

C-1 D C-2 B C-3 C C-4 A C-5 C C-6 A C-7 C C-8 A C-9 B C-10 B C-11 B C-12 C
C-13 B C-14 C C-15 C
EXERCISE - 2
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. A B C A C A B B B or
C B A B A A B A A C C
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EXERCISE - 3
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Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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A. A D C A A D C C B
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4. RESPIRATION
4. RESPIRATION
A. RESPIRATION
The sum total of all the vital activities is called as metabolism.Vital activities refer to all the
physiochemical activities of a cell. It has two aspects
(i) Anabolism : t includes metabolic processes by which complex cellular compounds are
synthesized from simple compounds, e.g. Photosynthesis
(ii) Catabolism : t includes metabolic processes by which larger molecules are broken down into
simpler molecules,e.g. Respiration. Respiration is an important catabolic process responsible
for the production of energy.
(a) Definition :
The process by which assimilated food is oxidised and energy is released is called as respiration. In
this process oxygen from air is taken in, this oxygen oxidizes food molecules present in the body
cells and energy is released slowly. This energy is stored in the form of ATP molecules inside the
cell for further use and the waste products i.e. CO2 and H2O are eliminated out of the body.
Food + oxygen CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP)
It is called as aerobic respiration.
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(b) Difference Between Breathing and Respiration :
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(i) Breathing involves taking in of oxygen and releasing out of carbon dioxide so it is a physical
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process while respiration is a biochemical process which, alongwith breathing involves
oxidation of food.
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(ii) Breathing involves lungs so it is an organ system level process while respiration besides being
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at organ system level, also occurs at cellular level.

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(iii) Breathing itself do not release energy while respiration results in the release of energy which
is then stored in form of ATP.
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(iv) Breathing is a part of respiration while respiration is not a part of breathing but it involves
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breathing.
(c) Step of respiration :
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(i) External respiration : Exchange of gases between an organism and its environment.
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(ii) Internal respiration : Exchange of gases between tissue cells and extracellular environment.
(iii) Cellular respiration : Involves oxidation of food alongwith release of energy, inside cell.
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(d) Types of Respiration :

(i) Aerobic : It is oxidation of food which takes place in presence of molecular oxygen.
Glycolysis In presence of O2
Food in cytoplasm Pyruvic acid Kreb cycle
6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP / 36 ATP.
in mitochondria
It is called as aerobic respiration.
(ii) Anaerobic respiration : When oxidation of food material does not require molecular oxygen
or it occurs in absence of molecular oxygen, it is called as anaerobic respiration.
In yeast
2C2 H5 OH + 2CO 2 + 2 ATP
(During fermentation)
Food Pyruvic
acid
Lactic acid + 2ATP
(During vigorous exercise)
In muscles
Fermentation : The process of breakdown of complex organic molecules into simpler

inorganic molecules, in absence of oxygen, by microorganisms.This process is used for
preparation of alcoholic beverages in presence of yeast in the absence of oxygen. Glucose
and fructose are converted into ethanol by this process. It is a type of anaerobic respiration.

4. RESPIRATION
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AEROBIC
AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
AEROBIC ANAEROBIC
It occurs in all living It occurs in bacteria,
cells of higher plants certain fungi,
and animals. germinating
seeds &
fleshy fruits,
muscles.
It requires oxygen. Oxygen is
not required.
The end products The end products
are CO2 and H 2O. are alcohol & CO2
or lactic acid.
The oxidation of one The number of ATP
molecule of glucose molecules produced
produces 38 ATP / 36 is only 2.
ATP molecules.
All the reactions All the reactions
except the reactions take place
of glycolysis take in cytoplasm.
place inside
mitochondria.
Organic compounds Organic compounds
are completely oxidised are incompletely
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& high amount of oxidised and very
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energy is released. small amount
of energy is released.
Non toxic to plants. Toxic to higher plants.
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B. RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
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• In plants exchange of gases takes place from leaves, stems and roots individually.
• Exchange of gases in plants occurs by simple diffusion.
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(i) Respiration by roots :

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• In young roots, the epidermal cells are extended to form root hair. These root hair remain in
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direct contact with the air present in between the soil particles. The oxygen from this air enters
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into the root hairs by simple diffusion and reaches to other cells of root for respiration.
• In older roots a protective layer of dead cells is present which have tiny openings called as
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lenticels. Diffusion of oxygen and removal of CO2 takes place through these pores.
(ii) Respiration by stems : In herbaceous plants, stem have small openings in their epidermal
in
cells called as stomata, the oxygen from air enters through stomata and carbon dioxide is
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released from the same.

• In hard and woody stems of big plants and trees, lenticels are present in place of stomata
through which exchange of gases takes place.
(iii) Respiration by leaves :
• Surface of leaves possess numerous tiny pores called as stomata in their epidermal cells,
exchange of gases takes place through stomata and when CO2 concentration in cell increases
stomata open and CO2 is released out.
C. RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS
(a) Respiration In Lower Organisms :
• Animals have different types of organs for respiration due to which mode of respiration varies
according to the organism but the basic mechanism is same.
• From phylum Protozoa to Ctenophora respiration is by general body surface.
• In phylums Platyhelminthes to Nematodes mostly are anaerobic & endoparasites.
• In phylum Annelida cutaneous respiration occurs.
• From phylum Arthropoda till Mammals various respiratory organs like trachea, gills and lungs
are developed.

4. RESPIRATION
S.NO. TYPE OF RESPIRATION ORGANS INVOLVED EXAMPLE
1. Cell surface respiration General body surface Amoeba, Paramecium
2. Tracheal respiration Trachea & tracheoles Insects
3. Branchial respiration Gills Aquatic animals (Fishes)
4. Cutaneous respiration Skin Frog
5. Pulmonary respiration Lungs Amphibians, reptiles, birds
6. Buccal respiration Buccal cavity Frog
Some important characteristics of respiratory organs of animals are :

• They have large surface area to get enough oxygen.
• They have thin walls for easy diffusion and exchange of gases.
• They have rich blood supply for transport of respiratory gases.
(b) Respiration in Humans :
(i) Human respiratory tract :
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Fig.4.1 : Tracheal division upto Tertiary Bronchi

Nostrils
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Vestibular region Contain hair and oil glands

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Nasal chamber Respiratory region Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, filter air
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Olfactory region Region receives smell

Internal nares
Pharynx Oropharynx
Nasopharynx
Laryngopharynx
Larynx (Voice box) Pharynx open into Larynx by glottis which is covered by epiglottis.
Thyroid (Male Adam's apple)

Cartilage of larynx Cricoid
Arytenoid
Vocal cords True and false

Greater tension Higher pitch of sound
Trachea or wind pipe Contain C-shaped

cartilaginous rings

4. RESPIRATION
Lungs
Covered by pleural membrane

Space b/w both lungs - mediastenum
Right lung - 3 lobes
Left lung - 2 lobes
Tracheal Tree
Trachea
primary bronchi
lungs
Secondary bronchi
Tertiary bronchi
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchiole
Respiratory bronchiole
Alveolar duct
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Air sac
Alveoli
I. or
External nostrils : First part of respiratory system. It opens into nasal cavity and is meant for
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inhalation of air from outside.
II. Nasal cavity : This cavity is separated from oral cavity by means of a hard and bony
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palate. t is lined by Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells which are rich in
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mucus, it brings about warming, moistening and sterilization of air. t contains hair and mucus
which entrap the dust particles.
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III. Internal nares : Nasal cavity opens into it and it leads to pharynx.
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IV. Pharynx : It is a common part between both alimentary canal and respiratory system.
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V. Larynx : It is an enlarged, upper part of trachea which is also called as ‘voice box’. It
produces voice by passage of air between vocal cords. t contains three different types of
cartilages. Among them a ‘c’ shaped thyroid cartilage protruding out in neck region is called
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Adam’s Apple.
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Alveolar sac
Alveolus
Fig. 4.2 : Bronchial intercom inside lung

VI. Trachea : It is also called wind pipe. It is 10-12 cm long tube. It’s walls are supported by 16 –
20 ‘c’ shaped cartilagenous rings which prevent them to collapse when air is absent in them.
VII. Bronchi : Trachea is branched into two bronchi left and right each of which enters into the
lungs.

4. RESPIRATION
VIII. Lungs : The lungs occupy the greater part of the thoracic cavity.Surrounding each lung is a
double-walled sac within the walls of which lies the pleural cavity.The right lung is divided into
three lobes and left into two.Inside the lung, each bronchus divides into numerous bronchioles,
each of which terminates into an elongated saccule, the alveolar duct, which bears on its
surface air sacs or alveoli.
The number of alveoli in the human lungs has been estimated to be approximately 300 million.
The lungs arg covered by a thin double layer of simple squamous epithelium called the pleura.
The outer or parietal pleuron remains attached to the wall of thoracic cavity.
The space between the two pleural membranes contains pleural fluid for reducing function and
makes the movement of lung easy. Inflammation of the pleura causes a disease called
pleurisy.Lungs are pink at birth, they become dark grey and mottled in adults due to deposition
of carbonaceous materials.
Darkening increases in smokers and persons exposed to pollutants.The right lung is shorter by
about 2. 5 cm due to raised position of diaphragm on the right side to accommodate liver.The
left lung is longer. It is, however, narrower than the right lung because it contains a cardiac
notch for accommodating asymmetrically placed heart. Left lung is divisible by an oblique
fissure into two lobes.Right lung has two fissures, horizontal and oblique. They divide the right
lung into three lobes.
IX. Diaphragm: It is a sheet of muscles that lies below the lungs and separates thoracic cavity
from abdominal cavity.
X. Intercostal Muscles : Intercostal muscles are several groups of muscles that run between the
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ribs, and are mainly involved in the mechanical aspect of breathing.These are of 2 types
1. External Intercostal muscles - Assist in the process of inspiration.
2. or
Internal Intercostal muscles - These are not involved in the process of normal breathing.
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They help in the process of forceful breathing.
XI. Thoracic Cage: Lungs are situated in the thoracic chamber which is anatomically a air tight
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chamber.
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• The thoracic chamber is formed- • Dorsally by vertebral column.

• Ventrally by sternum. • Laterally by ribs.
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• On the lower side by dome shaped diaphragm

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Respiratory System of man

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Steps involved in respiration -

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(i) Breathing or pulmonary respiration

(ii) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
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(iii) Transport of gases by the blood

(iv) Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
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(v) Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of CO2.
(ii) Mechanism of Breathing :
I. Inspiration :
• It is an active process.
• It the pressure with is the lungs (intra pulmonary pressure) is less than the atmospheric
pressure, ie there is negative pressure in the lungs with respect to the atmospheric pressure.
• The contraction of diaphragm increases the volume of thoracic chamber in antero-posterior
axis.
• The contraction of external intercostal muscles lifts up the ribs and the sternum causing an
increase in the volume of thoracic chamber in the dorso ventral axis.
• It causes an increase in pulmonary volume decrease the intra-pulmonary pressure to less than
the atmospheric pressure.
• It forces the air out side to move in to the lungs, i.e, inspiration.
II. Expiration :
• It is an passive process.
• Relexation of diaphragm and sternum to their normal positions and reduce the thoracic and
pulmonary volume.
• It increases in intrapulmonary pressure slightly above the atmospheric pressure.
• It causes the expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e, expiration.

4. RESPIRATION
III. TRANSPORTATION OF GASES :
• Blood is the medium of transport of O2 and CO2.
• About 97 per cent of O2 is transported by RBCs in the blood.
• 3 per cent of O2 is transported in the plasma in dissolved state.
• 20-25 per cent of CO2 transported in the RBC in the form of carbamino-haemoglobin.
1. Transport of Carbon-dioxide :
• 70 percent CO2 carried as bicarbonate ion in plasma.
• 7 percent CO2 transported in dissolved state in plasma.
2. Transport of Oxygen :
• Haemoglobin is red coloured pigment present in the RBC.
• O2 binds with hemoglobin reversibly to form oxy-hemoglobin.
• Each haemoglobin can binds maximum with four O2 molecules.
IV. Cellular Respiration :
• The biological oxidation of glucose in the cells is called cellular respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP.
The oxidation of glucose is a multistep process and is completed in a series of chemical
reactions. Each step is catalysed by a particular enzyme. The energy released as a result of
the oxidation of glucose is stored in the form of ATP molecules. Water being an important part
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of the body is retained in the body. CO2 being toxic beyond certain limit is to be eliminated.
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• Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and body tissues is called internal or tissue
respiration. The O2 from the blood diffuses into the body tissues whereas CO2 from tissues to
the blood because of higher concentration of CO2 in the body tissues, produced due to cellular
or
respiration. It refers to the oxidation of food taking place inside the cell. As this process is at
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cellular level so it is called cellular respiration. It takes place in 3 steps :
1. Glycolysis 2. Kreb Cycle 3. Electron Transport System
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Carbohydrates
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During digestion
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Glucose
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Glycolysis
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Pyruvic acid
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in absence of O 2 in presence of O2
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Anaerobic respiration Aerobic respiration

Kreb Cycle + ETS
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C2H5OH + CO2 + 2ATP

CO2 + H2O + 38ATP
1. Glycolysis : Glycolysis is also called as EMP(Embder, Meyerhof, Parnas) pathway.
Site- Cytoplasm of cell.
• In this cycle glucose is converted into pyruvic acid in presence of many enzymes and co-
enzymes.
• Oxygen is not required during glycolysis.
• There is no production of CO2 during this process.
2. Kreb Cycle :
Site : Mitochondria of cell
• Also called aerobic oxidation. • Discovered by Sir Hans Kreb.
• Another name TCA cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) or Citric acid cycle.
• It brings about the conversion of pyruvic acid, fatty acids, fats and amino acids into CO2 and
water by oxidation.
• It is the common path for oxidation of carbohydrates, fats, proteins.
3. Electron Transport System or ETS :
• n this hydrogen atoms produced during oxidation of various intermediates during kreb cycle
are first broken into protons and electrons.
• These protons and electrons after passing through a series of coenzymes and cytochromes
combine with oxygen to form water molecules.

4. RESPIRATION
Glucose
Glycolysis
2ATP
Pyruvate
Absence CO2
Alcoholic of O 2 Presence
Fermentation of O 2
Lactate Acetyl Group

Fermentation
CO2
2ATP Kreb's Cycle
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Electron
Transport e H 2O
System
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O2
V. Control of Respiration :
•
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The respiratory rhythm can be maintained and moderated by human beings to suit the
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demands of the body tissues. It is under dual control, i. e., nervous and chemical, This is
explained below as
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1. Neural Control :
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• The respiratory rhythm centre is composed of a group of neurons located in the medulla
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oblongata and pons varolii.

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• Pons Respiratory Centres: Neural signal from pneumotaxic centres stimulated reduce the
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duration of inspiration, altering the respiratory rate.

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• A chemosensitive area is located adjacent to rhythm centre that is highly sensitive to CO2 and
hydrogen ions. They increase activity of this centre, which in turn signals the respiratory centre
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to make necessary changes in order to eliminate these substances. Oxygen does not have a
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significantly direct effect on the respiratory centre of the brain in controlling respiration.
2. Chemical Control : Large number of chemoreceptors are located in the carotid bodies, which
lie bilaterally in the bifurcations of the common carotid arteries. Their afferent nerve fibres pass
through glossopharyngeal cranial nerve and thus, to dorsal respiratory area of the medulla
oblongata. Receptors of aortic arch and carotid artery recognise change in CO2 and H+
concentration and send necessary signals to the rhythm centre for remedial actions.
VI. Respiratory quotient :
• It is defined as the ratio of the volumes of CO2 liberated to the volume of O2 used during
respiration.
Volume of CO 2evolved CO 2
• R.Q. (Respiratory quotient.) = =
Volume of O2 absorbed O
2
• Value of RQ depends upon the type of ‘Fuel substance’ being utilized for energy production.
• When carbohydrate are the respiratory substrate. R.Q. = 1
• When fats are respiratory substrate, R.Q. = 0.7
• When proteins are respiratory substrate, R.Q. = (0.5 – 0.9).
• For Anaerobic respiration, RQ =

4. RESPIRATION
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RESPIRATION
& PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS
It is a catabolic It is an anabolic
process. process.
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are
are broken down s ynthes ised.
(oxidized).
Energy is liberated Light energy is stored in
in the form of ATP. the form of glucose or
chemical energy.
The amount of The amount of CO2
CO2 in the air in the air decreases
increases during during photosynthesis.
respiration.
It takes place It takes place only in
in all the living chlorophyllous cells.
cells, both green
and non-green
Dry weight of plant Dry weight of plant
decreases. increases .
Oxidative Photophosphorylation
phosphorylation occurs .
occurs.
O2 is utilized CO2 and H2O are used
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& CO2 and H2O while O2 is evolved.
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are formed.
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O
6CO2 + 12H2O or S unl i ght
Chlo roph yll
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+ energy.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RESPIRATION

AND COMBUSTION
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S.NO. RESPIRATION COMBUSTION

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1. It is a biochem ical It is a chem ical

proces s. process .
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2. It takes place at normal It takes place at

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temperature. high temperature.

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3. Respiration is a slow Com bustion is

proces s com pleted fas t proces s in
in s everal steps.Thus , which the energy
in
the energy is als o is liberated only in

liberated in several one s tep res ulting
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steps and rem ain in increase in

stored in the form tem perature and
of ATP. production of fire.
4. A series of respiratory No enzymes are
enzymes are involved. involved.
VII. Some Respiratory Disorders :

1. Emphysema : It occurs due to infection, smoking etc. It occurs due to obstructions in
bronchioles caused by breaking of alveolar septa. Bronchiodialators and O2 therapy are used
for curing this disease.
2. Asthma : Air passages are narrowed and lead to obstruction in breathing.
3. Pneumonia : Lymph and mucus accumulate in alveoli and bronchioles. It occurs due to
bacterial and viral infection.
4. Bronchitis : Swelling in living membranes of respiratory tract due to excessive smoking.
5. Tuberculosis : Bacterial infection in lungs.
6. Pleurisy : Inflammation of lung membrane (pleura) is called as pleurisy.

4. RESPIRATION
• Mountain sickness : It is also known as altitude sickness. At sea level

the concentration of oxygen is about 21% and the barometric pressure
averages 760 mm Hg. As altitude increases, the concentration remains
the same but the number of oxygen molecules per breath is reduced. At
12,000 feet the barometric pressure is only 483 mm Hg, so there are
roughly 40% fewer oxygen molecules per breath. In order to oxygenate
the body effectively, breathing rate (even while at rest) has to be
increased. This extra ventilation increases the oxygen content in the
blood, but not to sea level concentrations. The fall in oxygenation of blood
produces the symptoms of mountain sickness. These symptoms include
breathlessness, headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, mental fatigue
and a bluish tinge on the skin, nails and lips.
• Sudden contraction of diaphragm along with loud closure of glottis
causes Hiccough.
• Sudden and violent expulsion of air through mouth and nose is called
sneezing.
• In breathing inhalation and exhalation is repeated 15 to 18 times in a
minute and about 500 ml of air per breath is breathed in and out from
lungs. In 24 hours, we breath in 15000 liters of air.
• Carbon monoxide effect : Carbon monoxide binds with haemoglobin
about 230 times more readily than oxygen. When a person inhales
carbon monoxide, it diffuses from the alveolar air to the blood and binds to
haemoglobin forming carboxyhaemoglobin. The latter is a relatively
stable compound and cannot bind with oxygen molecules. So, the
amount of haemoglobin available for oxygen transportation is reduced.
The resulting deficiency of oxygen causes headache, dizziness, nausea
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and even death.
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SECTION (A) : RESPIRATION

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A-1 List out the differences between breathing and respiration .

A-2 Explain fermentation with example.
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SECTION (B) : RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

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B-1 Explain the process of respiration in roots?

B-2 How does exchange of gases takes place in the following :
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(i) Stem (ii) Leaves

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SECTION (C) : RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS

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C-1 What happens to the rate of breathing during vigorous exercise and why ?
C-2 What do you mean by inhalation and exhalation ?
C-3 What is the function of epiglottis in man and where it is situated ?
C-4 Draw a labelled diagram of human respiratory system.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 The process of respiration is concerned with
(A) liberation of oxygen (B) liberation of carbon dioxide
(C) liberation of energy (D) intake of oxygen
A-2 The common immediate source of energy for cellular activity is
(A) NAD (B) ATP (C) DNA (D) RNA
A-3 The tissue respiration refers to
(A) inspiration (B) external respiration
(C) internal respiration (D) expiration
A-4 In anaerobic respiration
(A) O2 is taken in (B) CO2 is taken in (C) O2 is given out (D) CO2 is given out

4. RESPIRATION
A-5 Respiration in yeast
(A) takes place in the presence of oxygen (B) yields lactic acid and carbon dioxide
(C) is anaerobic and produces carbon dioxide (D) takes place only in darkness
A-6 Muscle cells engaged in vigorous activity build up a high concentration of
(A) lactic acid (B) pyruvic acid (C) alcohol (D) cholesterol
A-7 More energy production occurs in which respiration –
(A) aerobic respiration (B) anaerobic respiration
(C) same energy in both (D) energy production is uncertain
B-1 Leaves respire with the help of
(A) lenticels (B) stomata (C) plasmodesmata (D) cuticle
B-2 Correct statement is
(A) roots of plant respire through lenticels and stomata
(B) stem of plant respire through lenticels
(C) both A and B are correct
(D) both A and B are incorrect
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C-1 If the CO2 concentration in the blood increases, the rate of breathing will
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(A) decrease (B) stop (C) increase (D) have no effect
C-2 Vocal cords occur in which structure ?
(A) pharynx (B) glottis or
(C) bronchial tube (D) larynx
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C-3 In man, which of the following structures is used for gaseous exchange ?
(A) Nostrils (B) Lungs (C) Bronchioles (D) Alveoli
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C-4 Which of the following prevents collapsing of trachea ?

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(A) Diaphragm (B) Ribs (C) Cartilaginous ring (D) Muscles

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C-5 Which is the correct sequence of the air passage in man ?

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(A) nasal cavity pharynx larynx trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli sac
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(B) nasal cavity pharynx trachea larynx bronchi bronchioles alveoli

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(C) nasal cavity larynx bronchi pharynx trachea bronchioles alveoli

(D) nasal cavity larynx pharynx trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli
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C-6 Breathing rate in mammals is controlled by a part of the brain called the
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(A) thalamus (B) hypothalamus (C) medulla oblongata (D) cerebellum

C-7 Disease called pleurisy is due to
(A) inflammation of pleura (B) inflammation of trachea
(C) inflammation of alveoli (D) none of the above
C-8 Which of the following gases makes the most stable combination with the haemoglobin of red blood
cells ?
(A) CO2 (B) CO (C) O2 (D) N2
C-9 Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried in the form of
(A) carbonic acid (B) bicarbonates
(C) carbaminohaemoglobin (D) dissolved CO2
C-10 Which of the following is not a characteristic of good respiratory surface?
(A) Thin and moist (B) Large surface area
(C) Close to oxygen and gas transport (D) Thick and dry surface
C-11 Oxygen is transported in blood mainly by
(A) leucocytes (B) erythrocytes (C) thrombocytes (D) blood plasma

4. RESPIRATION
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The percentage of O2 in inhaled air is about
(A) 21% (B) 16% (C) 79% (D) 4.4%
2. How many lobes are there in human lungs?
(A) 2 in left and 3 in right lungs (B) 3 in left and 2 in right lungs
(C) 3 in each lungs (D) 2 in each lungs
3. At high altitudes where there is less oxygen, the human body adapts itself by
(A) producing more red blood cells (B) producing more white blood cells
(C) producing more blood platelets (D) producing less number of RBC.
4. Structure which prevents the entry of food into the wind pipe is -
(A) pharynx (B) glottis (C) epiglottis (D) gullet
5. Pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid anaerobically in -
(A) liver (B) muscles (C) brain (D) skin
6. The covering of the lung is called
(A) Pericardium (B) Perichondrion (C) Pleura membrane (D) Peritoneum
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7. Which of the following shows branchial respiration ?
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(A) Man (B) Fish (C) Snake (D) Birds
8.
(A) Thin walled (B) Vascular
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Which of the following is a characteristic of respiratory organ ?
(C) Moist (D) All of the above
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9. In leaves the structure involved in gaseous exchange is -
(A) stomata (B) lenticle (C) leaf surface (D) simple pores
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10. During day time plants absorb-

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(A) oxygen (B) nitrogen (C) carbon dioxide (D) none of these
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11. The end products of aerobic respiration are-

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(A) sugar and oxygen (B) CO2, H2O and energy

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(C) water and energy (D) none of these

12. In linked reaction between glycolysis and TCA cycle is which compound is formed ?
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(A) pyruvic acid (B) glucose (C) oxaloacetate (D) acetyl-Co-A

13. Respiratory quotient is
in
(A) CO2 / O2 (B) O2 / CO2 (C) CO2 / N2 (D) N2 / CO2

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14. Oxygen is carried by-

(A) leucocytes (B) erythrocytes (C) platelets (D) none of these
15. Epiglottis guards the opening of-
(A) eustachian tube (B) glottis (C) larynx (D) internal ear
16. Skin is an accessory organ of respiration in-
(A) humans (B) frog (C) rabbit (D) lizard
17. The blood coming out of lungs is richer than that entering into lungs in
(A) CO2 (B) O2 (C) both (D) none of these
18. The exchange of gases between the external air and the blood occurs in the.
(A) bronchus (B) bronchiole (C) trachea (D) alveoli
19. Maximum amount of energy is released by the
(A) conversion of glucose into lactic acid
(B) conversion of glucose into pyruvic acid
(C) oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water
(D) conversion of sucrose to glucose
20. When there is an increase of carbon dioxide in the blood
(A) heart beat is increased
(B) heart beat is decreased
(C) breathing rate and heart beat are increased
(D) breathing rate is decreased and heart rate is increased

4. RESPIRATION

1. Raju Sharma, a 10th standard student participated in 100 meter sprint. During running he developed
painful muscle contraction and fell down. The physical education teacher rushed to him and gave a
hot water massage. Raju Sharma slowly recovered from the cramp. The teacher explained the
physiology behind the cramp and the sudsequent relief. Identify the right explanation.
(IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
(A) Because of the quick movement, the muscles looses its elasticity and are stressed. The
inflammation developed during this process causes cramp. After hot water massage the
inflammation subsides and the pain gets relieved.
(B) During vigorous physical activity, aerobic respiration in the muscles increases which leads to the
accumulation of more CO2 in the muscles. This causes cramps. Later CO2 was relieved upon hot
water massage resulting in pain relief.
(C) During vigorous physical activity, lactic acid accumulates in the muscles due to anaerobic
respiration. This causes the cramps. Hot water massage improves the circulation of blood and O2 in
the muscles. As a result lactic acid is converted into CO2 and water. Thus the pain gets relieved.
(D) During quick movements, the nerves will not co-operate with the muscles. There is a stimulus
which is taken to spinal cord and the effector function was done by motor neurons which cause
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cramp. On hot water massage the stimulus was subsided. Thus the pain gets relieved.
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2. The various parts of the human respiratory system are given below:
(i) Nasal passage (ii) Pharynx (iii) Wind pipe (iv) Bronchus (v) Bronchioles (vi) Alveoli
Identify the right sequence of air passage during exhalation.
or (IJSO/stage-I/2015)
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(A) vi, v, ii, iv, iii, I (B) vi, iv,v, iii, ii, i (C) vi, v, iv, iii, ii, i (C) vi, v, ii, iii, iv, i
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3. During gaseous exchange in the alveoli, what happens to nitrogen ? (IJSO/stage-I/2016)

(A) There is no net nitrogen exchange, as nitrogen is filtered out by the alveoli.
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(B) The nitrogen is absorbed by the alveolus to form amino acids.

(C) The nitrogen is filtered out by the alveolus, as the nitrogen molecule is too large to cross the
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gaps in the capillaries

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(D) There is no net nitrogen exchange, as the blood is saturated with nitrogen
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4. Which of the following is true about ATP (IJSO/stage-I/2016)

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(A) It is derivative of one of the nitrogenous bases that form DNA

(B) It splits into ADP and phosphate, and the energy produced is used by muscle cells to contract
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(C) It is produced in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

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5. Which one of the following statements is true about the fate of glucose, following oxidation in the
presence and in the absence of oxygen ? (IJSO/stage-I/2016)
(A) In absence of oxygen, glucose undergoes only up to glycolysis and pyruvate is converted to
lactate,
while in the presence of oxygen glucose undergoes only up to glycolysis and pyruvate is converted
to acetyl-CoA in the cytosol.
(B) In absence of oxygen, glucose undergoes only up to glycolysis and pyruvate is converted to
ethanol,
while in the presence of oxygen glucose undergoes only up to glycolysis and pyruvate is converted
to acetyl-CoA in the mitochondria.
(C) In absence of oxygen glucose undergoes only up to glycolysis and pyruvate is converted to
acetyl-CoA, while in the presence of oxygen glucose undergoes only up to glycolysis and pyruvate is
converted to lactate in the muscle.
(D) In absence of oxygen glucose undergoes only up to glycolysis and pyruvate is converted to
lactate, while in the presence of oxygen glucose undergoes only up to glycolysis and pyruvate is
converted to ethanol in bacterial cell.
6. A plant may not exchange CO2 or O2 with air at: (IJSO/stage-I/2017)
(A) noon (B) mid-night
(C) late hours in the morning (D) twilight
7. If the cell is using less oxygen molecules than the molecules of carbon dioxide evolved in
respiration, the substrate for respiration has to be: (IJSO/stage-I/2017)
(A) simple sugars (B) organic acids (C) fatty acids (D) cholesterol

4. RESPIRATION
EXERCISE - 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 C A-2 B A-3 C A-4 D A-5 C A-6 A A-7 A
B-1 B B-2 B
C-1 C C-2 D C-3 D C-4 C C-5 A C-6 C C-7 A C-8 B C-9 B C-10 D C-11 B
EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. A A A C B C B D A C B D A B B B B D C C
EXERCISE - 3
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Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A. C C D D B
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D B
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5. TRANSPORTATION
5.TRANSPORTATION
A. TRANSPORTATION IN HIGHER PLANTS

• The higher plants have specialized system for the transportation of materials inside the body.
The transportation of materials is carried out by means of vascular tissues of the plants.
• The vascular tissues act as pipes or vessels. Through these vessels or pipes, water, minerals,
salts, food etc. are transported in the plant body. n plants the medium of transportation is
water.
• Water and food flows through the xylem (tracheids and vessels are the constituents of xylem)
and phloem (sieve tubes and companion cells) respectively for various metabolic activities.
• Tracheids and vessels are nonliving parts of xylem while sieve tubes and companion cells
form the living parts of phloem. The terrestrial (land) plants absorb water and mineral salts
through their roots.
• The area of young roots where most of the absorption takes place is the root hair zone. Root
hair are the extensions of the epidermal cells. Root hair are delicate and do not live more than
two days.
• The root hair have sticky walls by which they adhere tightly to soil particles. The root hair
absorb water from soil by the process of osmosis but take in mineral salts by activetransport.
In plants transportation can be categorized into two types :
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(a) Short Distance Transport (b) Long Distance Transport
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(a) Short Distance Transport :
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Fig.5.1 : Process of Osmosis

(i) Diffusion : The movement of atoms or ions or molecules from higher concertation to lower
in
concentration region is called diffusion. It continues till equilibrium is not established between
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2 regions.
• Diffusion rate : Gas > liquid > solid.
• Diffusion pressure :- The diffused molecules or ions exert a pressure, on the substance or
medium in which diffusion takes place, konwn as diffusion pressure.
(ii) Osmosis :- “It is defined as special diffusion of solvent molecules”.
Or
Movement of solvent molecules from the region of higher concentration to lower concentration.
Through a semi permeable membrane is called osmosis.
H2O H2O H2O H2O
4 spoon sugar
+ 1 glass water 4 spoon sugar
solution SPM 1 spoon sugar + 1 glass water SPM 1 spoon sugar
+ 1 glass water solution + 1 glass water
solution solution
Fig.5.2 : Movement of Water from low concentration of sugar solution to higher
concentration of sugar solution

5. TRANSPORTATION
I. Osmotic pressure (OP) : The pressure developed in a solution which resists entry of solvent
molecules into it when both solution and solvent are separated by SPM.
• OP is due to presence of solute into solution.
• OP of pure water is zero.
• OP is measured by “osmometer”.
Osmolarity order of various plants-
Hydrophytes < Mesophytes < Xerophytes < Halophytes
• H2O moves from lower OP to higher OP.
Significance of osmosis :-
• Root hairs absorb water from soil by osmosis.
• Opening and closing of stomata.
• Conduction of water from one cell to another cell in plant occurs through osmosis.
II. Turgor Pressure & Wall Pressure :- The pressure that is exerted by cell content against the
cell wall is called TP(Turgor Pressure).
• The TP is counter balanced by an equal but opposite pressure of the thick cell wall on the
protoplasm. This is called wall pressure. So, TP & WP are equal, but opposit to each other.
TP = WP
• TP of flaccid cell is zero.
• Increase value of TP is found in fully turgid cell.
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Fig.5.3 : Turgid cell

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Significance :
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(a) It is essential to maintain different shape of cell.

(b) It maintain structure of cell orgenelle.
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(c) It controls opening and closing of stomata.

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III. DPD OR SUCTION PRESSURE : The difference between DP of solution and its pure solvent
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at particular temperature is called DPD.

• Its also known as demand of water in cell.
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• DPD conc. of solute.

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• DPD = OP - TP
So in another terms difference between OP and TP of solution is called DPD.
• Its also known as suction pressure.
• DPD of normal cell = OP-TP.
• In fully turgid cell = DPD = OP – TP
OP = TP
DPD = O
In flaccid cell :
DPD = OP – TP
here TP = O
So DPD = OP
In plasmolysed cell :
DPD = OP – TP
TP = –Ve
DPD = OP – (–TP) = OP + TP

5. TRANSPORTATION
Demand of Water : Plasmolysed cell > Flaccid cell > partially turgid cell > Fully turgid cell.
IV. Water potential ( w
) :
• Difference between free energy of molecules of pure water and free energy of the solution is
called water potential of the system.
• Its value is max. for pure water and lower down on addition of solute.
• Its represent by w psi / w and measured in bars / pascals.
• Its equal to DPD, but oppsite in sign, so its value is negative.
w
= – DPD and DPD = OP – TP
w
= s + p ( s= solute potential, p = pressure potential)
s
= – OP
p
= TP
Knowledge Booster
Movement of H2O molecule
High DP Low DP
Low OP High OP
Low DPD High DPD
High w low w
High TP low TP
Concentrated solution Dilute solution.
V. Plasmolysis : When a plant cell placed in a Hypertonic solution then, H2O molecules diffused
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out from the cell, as a result of this protoplasm detached from cell wall and starts shrinking
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This. is called plasmolysis.
•
Significance : or
Various food items like fishes, meat jams and jellies can be preserved by plamolysis.
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• It helps in removing of weeds by putting salts in their roots.
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VI. Permeability : Exchange of material throughout the membrane is called permeability.

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1. Permeable membrane: It allows both solvent and solute eg. - cell wall.
2. Semipermeable membrane: It allows only solvent molecule through it e.g. parchment paper,
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gall bladder membrane.

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3. Selective permeable membrane : It allows movement of only selected solute and solvent
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molecule to pass through it e.g. plasma membrane.

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4. Impermeable membrane : It doen’t allow any molecule to pass through it. e.g. rubber
membrane cutinised cell membrane.
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VII. Types of Solution :

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1. Isotonic solution : If the concentration of outer solution is equal to cell sap concentration,
then its called isotonic solution.
2. Hypotonic solution : If concentration of outer solution is less as compared to cell sap on
concentration, then its called hypotonic solution.
3. Hypertonic solution : If concentration of outer solution is higher than that of cell sap
concentration , then its called hypertonic solution.
(b) Long Distance Transport :
(i) Transport of Water and Minerals (Xylem Transport/Ascent of sap) :
• The water and mineral salts are transported from the roots to the leaves, flowers and other
parts of the plant. The upward movement of cell sap (water and minerals) through the xylem is
called “ascent of sap”.
I. Mechanism of Ascent of Sap : The most suitable mechanism to explain Ascent of Sap is
Transpiration Cohesion Theory. To undestand this theory, it is essential to know about
transpiration.
1. Transpiration : Most of the water absorbed is lost through the aerial parts of the plant into air
by a process called “transpiration”. Only two percent of total water absorbed is used up in
various metabolic activities in the plant body. Transpiration is the loss of water from the living
tissues of the aerial parts of the plant in the form of water vapours.There are three types of
transpiration :

5. TRANSPORTATION
• Cuticular transpiration (through cuticle) 5%
• Lenticular transpiration (through lenticles) .5%
• Stomatal transpiration (through stomata) 90-95%
Importance of transpiration :
• It controls the rate of absorption of water from the soil.
• It is responsible for ascent of sap.
• t regulates the temperature of the plant.
Disadvantage of transpiration :
• Most of the water absorbed by roots is lost by transpiration without serving any purpose. The
energy spent by the plants in transpiration is wasted. So transpiration is a necessary evil.
2. Pathway Of Water Absorbtion :
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Fig.5.4 : Absorption of Water by Root
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Fig.5.5 : Water transportation by apoplast and symplast pathway

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5. TRANSPORTATION
Stomatal Opening and Closing : The opening and closing of stomata are
explained by K+ - H+ Ion exchange theory.
ip + ADP
ATP
Cl
H+
Carbohydrates +
K
PEP
Pepcase CO2
OAA
Stomata
Open
Malic Acid
GC turgit
Endosmosis
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Rise in O.P. Malate
K-Malate
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+ +
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KH Ion Exchange Theory

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3. Transpiration Cohesion Theory :

• The main loss of water is through stomatal transpiration. Turgor pressure in the mesophyll
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cells of the leaf forces water outwards through the cell wall.
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• Water evaporates from the surface of the cells into the air spaces of the spongy tissues and
then passes into the outer atmosphere through the pores or stomata.
• The cell sap of mesophyll cells becomes concentrated by losing water and causes a drop in
turgor pressure.
• As a result water is sucked from adjoining mesophyll cells and ultimately from vascular
tissues. This tension is transmitted all the way down to the unbroken column of water through
the stem to the absorbing parts of the root.
• The molecules of the water show cohesion (mutual attraction) and molecules of water and
vessel wall show adhesion (affinity for water).
• Due to these adhesive and cohesive forces, water column does not break and pulled upward
by the force called as “transpiration pull”.
• The whole process can be compared with a person (transpiration pull) pulling a bucket full of
water (forces on water column) from a well with a rope (column of water due to cohesion).
(ii) Transportation of Food (Phloem Transport/Translocation) :
• Translocation : Phloem translocates the manufactured food (sugar) or starch from the leaves
to the different parts of the plant including the roots.
• Food is transported by vascular tissue phloem.
• In phloem movement of food is multidirectional. and in the form of sucrose.
• It can be explained by Mass flow hypothesis proposed by “Munch”.

5. TRANSPORTATION
It is described as :-
Formation of glucose
in leaf
Sugar is remove from

Glucose converted in phloem sap then OP
to the sucrose decrease so water
move out from phloem
Sucrose move into

companion cell Due to this difference
again sucrose move
by active transport
Transportated in
sieve tube by active Source of high OP and
transport High TP but sink
has low OP & Low TP
Due to this water

move into phloem Osmotic pressure &
from xylem by Turgor pressures are
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osmosis developed
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Source
or
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Phloem
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Sink
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Fig.5.6 : Phloem transport

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B. TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS
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(a) Types of circulatory system: Among animals two types of circulatory systems are found :
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(i) Open circulatory system (ii) Closed circulatory system

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TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

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CHARACTERS OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

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In some annelids, most of molluscs In most of annelids, cephalopods,

Occurrence
and arthropods. molluscs and all vertebrates.
Blood does not remain confined in the blood Blood remains confined in the
Position of blood
vessels and comes in lacunae or sinuses. blood vessels.
Blood flows at low pressure and cannot Blood flows at high pressure and
Blood pressure
be regulated. can be regulated.
Velocity of blood Blood flows at a low velocity. Blood flows at a high velocity.
Exchange of Direct exchange between blood Exchange occurs through the

materials and body cells. tissue fluid.
Respiratory When present, it is dissolved in Always present and is usually

pigment blood plasma. present in RBCs e.g. vertebrates.
Less efficient as blood takes More efficient as blood circulation

Efficiency
more time to complete one circulation. is completed in short period.

5. TRANSPORTATION
(b) Transportation in humans : In humans there is a circulatory system (Closed circulatory
system) that uses blood or lymph as carriers of materials (fluid exchange medium) and the
heart as the pumping organ to help in circulation. Circulatory system consists of blood vascular
system (blood as carrier) and lymphatic system (lymph as carrier).
(i) Blood Vascular System : The higher multicellular animals with higher metabolic rates
possess a well developed blood vascular system. This system helps in the quicker supply of
nutrients and oxygen to the body tissues and also in the rapid disposal of toxic waste materials
and carbon dioxide. The blood acts as the circulatory fluid. Blood vascular system consists of
blood, blood vessels and heart.
I. Blood : The blood is a specialized kind of living connective tissue which is made to circulate,
by the muscular pumping organ called as heart. In adult human beings there is 5.5 to 6 liter of
blood. The blood consists of fluid part (the plasma)and blood corpuscles. The red blood
corpuscles (RBCs), white blood corpuscles (WBCs) and blood platelets are present in the
plasma. The formation of blood is called “Haemopoiesis”.
1. Plasma : The plasma consists of water (90% & above) inorganic and organic substances. In
the plasma, RBCs, WBCs and blood platelets float. norganic salts (0.9%) are also present.
The organic substances are glucose, amino acids, proteins, hormones, digested and waste
excretory products. The blood proteins (7%) are fibrinogen, albumin, globulin and
prothrombin.
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Note : Serum is plasma from which fibrinogen is removed.(Plasma–Fibrinogen = Serum.)
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2. Blood Corpuscles :
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Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs) or Erythrocytes : The number of RBCs is about 5.5 million
per mm3 of blood. The total number of RBC is about 30 billion. Each RBC is a biconcave
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disc-like structure devoid of nucleus. The mammalian erythrocytes do not possess nuclei,
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mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. The erythrocytes contain haemoglobin. Haemoglobin

consists of globin (protein) and Fe2+ porphyrin complex (haem). 100 ml of blood contains 15 g
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of haemoglobin. If the amount of haemoglobin in blood is less, the person suffers from
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anaemia. The haemoglobin carries oxygen to the different cells of the body and brings carbon
dioxide from the cells. The life span of a RBC is 120 days.
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White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs) or Leucocytes The number of leucocytes is

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comparatively fewer i.e. 1mm3 of blood contains 5000 – 10000 leucocytes in humans. The total
number of WBCs is about 75 millions. The number of leucocytes increases in infections like
pneumonia, blood cancer (Leukaemia) etc. These are large in size and contain nucleus.
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White blood corpuscles are of two types :

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• Granulocytes : Contains granules in the cytoplasm. They are of three types: Eosinophils,
Basophils and Neutrophils.
• Agranulocytes : Monocytes and lymphocytes are two different types of agranulocytes.
Lymphocytes secrete antibodies which destroy microbes. The monocytes are phagocytic in
nature.
Monocytes Lymphocytes
Largest WBC
• Smallest WBC
Phagocytic
produce antibodies
• No. increases in infections
B-lymphocyte T-lymphocyte
Mature in bone Mature in thymus
marrow produce neutralizes virus.
antibodies.
granules take basic stain take both stain weakly

5. TRANSPORTATION
Fig.5.7 : Different types of Blood Corpuscules

Blood platelets : These are small and without nuclei. Their number varies from 0.15 to 0.45
million per mm3 of blood. Their normal life span is one week. These help in blood clotting at the
site of injury by liberating thromboplastin.
3. Functions of Blood : Blood performs the following functions :
Transportation of nutrients : The digested and absorbed nutrients like glucose, amino acids,
fatty acids are first transported to the liver and then to all the tissues for their storage, oxidation
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and synthesis of new substances.
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Transportation of respiratory gases : The respiratory gases (oxygen, carbon-dioxide) are
transported by the blood. Oxygen is transported from the respiratory surface (lung, skin and
or
buccal cavity) to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues is taken to the respiratory
organ for its removal.
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Transportation of excretory products : Different wastes from the different parts of the body
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are collected by the blood and then taken to the organs (kidneys, lungs, skin and intestine)
from where they are excreted.
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Transportation of hormones : Hormones are produced by endocrine glands. These

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hormones have target organs (place to act). These are carried by the plasma of blood and
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bring about the coordination in the working of the body.

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Maintenance of pH : The plasma proteins act as buffer system and maintains required pH of
the body tissues.
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Regulation of body temperature : The blood flows in all the parts of body, so it equalizes the
body temperature. It carries heat from one place to another place in the body.
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Transportation of metabolic intermediates : The blood carries metabolic intermediates from

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one tissue to another for further metabolism. In the muscle cells due to anaerobic respiration
lactic acid is produced. This lactic acid is carried to the liver for further oxidation.
Water balance : The blood maintains water balance to constant level by distributing it
uniformly in the body.
Protection from diseases : The WBCs (neutrophils and monocytes) engulf the bacteria and
other disease causing organisms by phagocytosis. The B- lymphocytes produce antibodies to
neutralize the action of toxins produced by pathogens.
Clotting of blood : Blood forms a clot at the site of injury and thus prevents the further loss of
blood.
Support. Blood flows under pressure in arteries. Due to this tissue become stiff as in the case
of erection of nipples, clitoris and penis.
4. Blood Clotting :
• At the site of injury of the blood vessels, the platelets induce blood coagulation through the
release of thromboplastin (thrombokinase).
• Thromboplastin changes prothrombin of blood plasma into thrombin.
• Thrombin converts soluble protein fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin.
• Fibrin forms a network which entangles RBCs and blood platelets to form plug or clot over the
injured area.
• Blood clotting is usually completed within 2-3 minutes.

5. TRANSPORTATION
Injured tissue + Blood platelets Thromboplastin
released
Thromboplastin
Prothrombin Thrombin
Ca++
Thrombin
Fibrinogen Fibrin
(Soluble) (Insoluble)
Fibrin + Red blood corpuscles Clot of blood
5. Blood Groups :
• Landsteiner discovered that blood of different individuals did not match each other but there
were biochemical differences.
• He discovered Antigens A and B and blood groups (ABO systems).
• Antigen (agglutinogen) is a glycoprotein present on RBCs. For each antigen there is a
corresponding antibody.
• Thus there are two antibodies (agglutinin) a and b occurring in the blood plasma. There are
four types of blood groups depending on the presence or absence of these antigens.
TABLE : BLOOD GROUP :
ANTIGEN AND ANTIBODY
Antigen present Antibody
Blood
on in
group
RBCs plasma
A A b
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B B a
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AB AB None
O None a, b
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Blood is a life saving fluid. It is often needed during accident and operation. The transfusion of
blood is only done when blood group is known. These groups are A,B, AB and O.
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• Blood of O group is a universal donor i.e. it can donate blood to any group (A, AB, B and O)
but it can receive blood from O blood group.
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• AB group is a universal recipient (receiver). It can receive blood from any group (A, B, AB, O)
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but it can donate to AB group only.

6. Blood Transfusion : The transfusion of blood from a healthy person to a patient suffering
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from blood loss due to injury or surgical operation is called as “blood transfusion”.
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• For this all major hospitals have blood banks where blood is collected from voluntary and
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professional donors. Before preservation the blood is tested for its blood group and Rh factor.
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• Though theoretically a patient may be able to receive blood of two or more types, it is always
advisable to have the donor blood of the same group as that of the recipient.
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• The blood of donor is always cross matched before transfusion to exclude any chance of
incompatibility. When blood from a donor is added to blood of the recipient, it is necessary to
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avoid bringing together corresponding antigen and antibody. This causes clumping of RBCs.
• Thus antigen A in RBCs of group A individuals reacts with antibodies of plasma of group B
individuals. This phenomenon is called “agglutination”.
TABLE : HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS AND TRANSFUSION
Blood group Blood group of recipient

of
donor O A B AB
O
A
B
AB
Compatible
Incompatible
Rh factor : Rh factor is also a type of antigen found on RBCs. Rh factor (in blood) can be
genetically determined. Most of the people (more than 85%) are Rh-positive (Rh+) while a few
are Rh negative (Rh–). Both people lead normal life. If an Rh– woman marries with an Rh+ man
then Ist pregnancy is normal but in 2nd pregnancy the mother with Rh– blood may lose the
baby due to incompatibility of Rh factor. This is known as Erythro blastosis foetalis. By new
techniques and procedures, now the child can be saved.

5. TRANSPORTATION
II. Blood Vessels : These are hollow tubes through which the blood flows.
1. Arteries : These are thick walled and deep seated blood vessels which generally carry the
oxygenated blood away from the heart to various body parts.
2. Veins : These are thin walled and superficially located blood vessels which generally carry
deoxygenated blood from the body parts to heart.
3. Capillaries : These are thinnest blood vessels and connect the branches of arteries and veins
which make the diffusion of various substances possible.
TABLE : DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARTERIES AND VEINS
S.NO. ARTERIES VEINS
1 Mostly deeply located Close to skin
2 Carry blood from heart to different organs. From different organs to heart.
Blood flows at a high pressure with rhythmic Blood flow under low pressure without
3
contraction and dilation. rhythmic contraction and dilation.
4 Wall is non-collapsible, thick and strong Collapsible, thin and weak.
5 Have no internal valves. Valves are present.
III. Heart :
• Heart is a hollow muscular organ that lies obliquely in the thoracic region in a cavity between
the two lungs that is pericardial cavity. It is lined by 2 layers outer and inner pericardial
membranes. These are filled with a fluid called “pericardial fluid”. It protects the heart from
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shock and injury.
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• Note : Heart is 2 chambered in fishes (Venous heart), 3 chambered in amphibians,
incompletely 4 chambered in reptiles and 4 chambered in birds and mammals.
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Heart is made up of 4 chambers : upper 2 chambers are auricles/atrium and the lower 2
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chambers are ventricles. Auricles are the receiving chambers and ventricles are the pumping
chambers. Walls of ventricles are thicker as they have to pump the blood.
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• Partition between right and left auricle is called “interauricular septum” and between right
and left ventricles is “inter ventricular septum”.
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Fig.5.8 : Structure of Heart

• Four pulmonary veins enter into left auricle, two from each lung bring oxygenated blood. There
is one auriculoventricular aperture with a bicuspid or mitral valve in left auricles which opens
into left ventricle.
• Left ventricle has aortic valve having 3 semilunar cusps for large artery i.e. dorsal aorta which
takes the oxygenated blood to all body parts.
• Right auricle has openings for superior venacava that brings deoxygenated blood from head,
neck and upper limbs, inferior venacava receives deoxygenated blood from rest of the body
and lower limbs. A coronary sinus that drains venous blood from heart muscles into right
auricle. Blood enters in to right ventricle through tricuspid valve.
• Right ventricle has pulmonary valve having 3 semilunar cusps for pulmonary artery carrying
deoxygenated blood to lungs.
• Note : During foetal condition a flap valve called “foramen ovale” is present at interauricular
septum after birth this foramen closes remain as a depression called as fossa ovalis. f it
remains after birth it results “a hole in the heart”.

5. TRANSPORTATION
IV. Types of circulation :
1. Single circulation : In this, blood passes once through the heart to supply once to the body. It
is found in fishes which have two chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
2. Double circulation : In double circulation, the blood passes twice through the heart to supply
once to the body.
Double circulation involves two circulations :
• Systemic circulation : Blood completes its circulation from left ventricle to right auricle
through the body organs.
• Pulmonary circulation : Blood completes its circulation from right ventricle to left auricle
through the lungs.
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Fig.5.9 : Double blood circulation

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V. Cardiac Cycle :
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• The serial wise or sequential changes which take place in the heart are called cardiac-cycle.
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• The contraction of the auricles is termed as auricular systole or atrial-systole,and their

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relaxation is called atrial-diastole.

• Same way the contraction and relaxation of ventricles is termed as ventricular systole and
ventricular diastole.
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• The time of cardiac-cycle is the reverse ratio of heart beat per minute. If heart beat per minute
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is 72, then the time of cardiac-cycle is 60/72 = 0.8 seconds.

Cardiac Events :
• Following events are related to the Cardiac-cycle-
Outer circle Auricles – Systole
Inner circle Ventricles – Diastole
Fig.5.10 : Common diagram showing events of both auricles & Ventricles

In a single cardiac cycle of man -
1. Auricular systole = 0.1 sec
2. Auricular diastole = 0.7 sec
3. Ventricular systole = 0.3 sec
4. Ventricular diastole = 0.5 sec

5. TRANSPORTATION
1. “Ventricular-systole”- It is an important process because during it the blood is pumped out of
the heart into the arteries.
• Walls of the ventricles start contracting, due to which pressure is more in the ventricles. Due to
the increase of this pressure the " Cuspid valves " close producing "LUBB' sound.
• During ventricular systole, the auricles receive blood from the veins.
2. “Ventricular Diastole”- Ventricles start relaxing now due to which pressure inside them falls
further. As a result of this, closure of semilunar valves occurs due to which 'DUP' sound is
heard at the onset of ventricular diastole.
3. “Auricle-Systole” – Due to contraction in the auricles the remaining blood comes into the
ventricles so the atrial pressure now becomes zero.
4. “Auricle-Diastole” – Auricle start relaxing now. Due to the presence of almost zero pressure
in the auricles, during diastole the auricles start receiving further blood from the veins.
• Joint Diastole 0.8 – 0.4 = 0.4 sec. (Period during which entire heart is in Diastole)
Cardiac output it is the amount of blood pumped by the each ventricle per minute. Its value
in a normal adult is about 5 litre/minute.
Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate.
Heart Sounds :
• The first sound “ LUBB” is produced when the atrio-ventricular valves get closed sharply at the
start of ventricular systole.
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• The second sound “DUPP” is produced when at the beginning of ventricular diastole, the
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semilunar valves at the roots of aorta and pulmonary artery get closed.
VI. or
Blood Pressure : It is the pressure of the flow of blood in the aorta and its main arteries. The
blood pressure varies according to the contraction and relaxation of the heart. In the condition
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of contraction or systolic phase (Lubb sound) it is about 120 mm of Hg. This is called “systolic
pressure”. n the relaxation or diastolic phase (Dupp sound) it is about 80 mm of Hg and is
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called “diastolic pressure”. The normal blood pressure of man (20 years) is 120/80. Fats and
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anxiety increases the blood pressure. The maximum normal blood pressure (systolic) should
not exceed 150 in males and 140 in females.The blood pressure is measured by
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“Sphygmomanometer”.
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Detection of Normal functioning of Heart : The muscle fibres of heart are specialized at
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certain parts called sinoatrial node (SA node or pacemaker) that generate tiny electrical
currents which cause the normal heart beats. The “electrocardiograph” (E.C.G.) is the
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device to record these electrical changes. Electrocardiogram is a record of electrical behaviour

of heart and remains constant in a normal man. Doctors use the E.C.G. for detection of
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various heart diseases. Sometimes the sinoatrial node (SA node or pacemaker) gets damaged
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and fails to generate cardiac impulses at normal rate. It becomes abnormally slow and
irregular and ventricles fail to pump the required amount of blood. It can be corrected by the
surgical grafting of an artificial pacemaker instrument in the chest of the patient. This
instrument stimulates the heart electrically at regular intervals to maintain the beats.
VI. Electrocardiogram (ECG)
• It is a graphical representation of the electrical activity of the heart during a single cardiac
cycle.
• The electrocardiogram is obtained by a machine known as electrocardiograph. The study or
the process of recording of electrocardiogram is called electrocardiography.
• The impulse generated by the SA node causes contraction and relaxation of heart chambers.
To obtain an ECG, a patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads (i. e., one
to each wrist and one to the left ankle), monitoring the activity of heart continuously and heart's
functioning is evaluated by attaching multiple leads to the chest region.
Reading an ECG
• An ECG consists of five peak, identified with the letter P to T that corresponds to a specific
electrical conductivity of the heart. These corresponds to a specific electrical activity of the
heart as follows:
Fig.5.11 : Diagrammatic representation of a standard ECG

5. TRANSPORTATION
Significance of ECG
• It gives accurate information about the normal functioning of atria and ventricles.
• Indicates the functioning of valves.
• Also helps in indicating any damage to local tissues of the heart in detection of overgrowth of
cardiac/heart chambers.
VII. Regulation of Cardiac Activity :
• The normal activities of the heart are intrinsically regulated, i. e., autoregulated by the
specialised muscles, (nodal tissue). Thus, the heart is known as myogenic heart.
• The neurogenic heartbeat is initiated by a nerve impulse, e. g., annelids and most arthropods.
• The rate of its formation and conduction is regulated by the following
1. Neural Regulation :
• In medulla oblongata, a special neural centre is present, which can moderate, the cardiac
function through the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).
• The neural signals through the sympathetic nerves (part of ANS) increase the rate of heartbeat
by stimulating SA node, it also increases the strength of ventricular contraction and Hereby,
the cardiac output.
• Whereas, the neural signal through parasympathetic nerves (another component of ANS) can
decrease the rate of heartbeat by inhibiting the SA node, speed of conduction of action
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potential, thereby decreasing the cardiac output.
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2. Hormonal Regulation :
• Adrenaline and noradrenaline hormones secreted by the medulla of adrenal gland has
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significant role in regulating heartbeat and thus increasing the cardiac output. The nor
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adrenaline accelerates the heartbeat, while adrenaline does this function at the time of
emergency.
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VIII. Disorders of circulatory system :

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• Many diseases may affect the blood vessels and the normal functioning of the heart.
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• Some of the common disorders are as follows

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1. High Blood Pressure (Hypertension) : The pressure exerted by the flow of Blood on the
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elastic walls of the arteries is known as blood pressure. Hypertension is the term used for
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blood pressure higher than the normal.The normal blood pressure in humans is measured as
120/80 mm Hg (millimetres of mercury pressure), Persistent increase in Blood pressure above
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140 mmHg (systolic) and 90 mmHg (diastolic) is termed as hypertension. Condition of

Hypertension may lead to many heart diseases and also affects vital organs of the body, like
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the brain and kidney.

2. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) : It is the hardening of arteries and arterioles due to the
thickening of the fibres tissue and the consequent loss of elasticity. It is often referred to as
atherosclerosis. This mainly affects the vessels, which are mainly responsible for supplying
blood to the heart muscle. It seems to occur due to deposition of calcium, far cholesterol and
fibrous tissues, making the lumen of arteries narrower.
3. Angina (Angina Pectoris) : This tends to occur when enough oxygen does not reach the
heart muscles. It occurs both in men and women of any age but seems to be more common
among the middle-aged and elderly individual. A symptom of acute chest pain occurs in
individual suffering from angina, which mainly occurs due to the conditions that affect the
bloodflow.
4. Heart Failure : It is the condition of the heart when it fails to pump blood effectively to meet
the needs of the body. The heart failure is sometimes called the congestive heart failure, as its
main symptom is congestion of lungs.
5. Bradycardia and Tachycardia : Tachycardia is a term applied to a rapid heart or pulse rate
(over l00/mins) Bradycardia is the term indicating a slow heart or pulse rate (under 50/min).

5. TRANSPORTATION
Portal System
• When the vein of any organ of the body does not open in the caval vein or
heart but it divides into capillaries in any other organ and its blood is
transported by vein of that other organs to the heart, then this type of system
is termed as portal system.
• It is of following types:-
(i) Renal portal system
(ii) Hepatic portal system
(iii) Hypophysial portal system
• In mammals, renal portal system is absent.
• In Frog both the portal systems ; renal portal system and hepatic portal
system are present.
(ii) Lymphatic System :

• The lymphatic system comprises the lymph, lymphatic capillaries (simply lymphatics),
lymphatic vessels and nodes.
• Lymph serves as the middle man between the blood and organ for exchange of any material.
• The lymph is the tissue fluid present in the intercellular spaces in the tissues. So it is also
called as “extracellular fluid”.
• The lymph resembles the blood except that the lymph is devoid of R.B.Cs, blood platelets and
some plasma proteins.
• Lymphatic system runs parallel to the veins.
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• The lymphatic capillaries are present in the form of network under epithelial surface .The
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ends of lymphatic capillaries are blind.
• The lymphatic capillaries unite to form lymphatic vessels and these vessels resemble with the
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veins. The lymphatic vessels possess the valves which prevent back flow of lymph.
Neighbouring body muscles help in the flow of lymph. The small lymphatic vessels unite to
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form large vessels.
• Larger lymphatic vessels unite to form large ducts i.e. right lymphatic duct and thoracic
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duct. Lymphatic duct opens into subclavian vein.Before the lymph reaches the blood, it always
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passes through the lymph nodes.

• The lymph nodes are enlargements of the lymphatic vessels. Lymphocytes and other plasma
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cells are present in the lymph nodes. The lymph is cleaned or filtered by lymph nodes. These
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cells also kill the germs and produce antibodies.

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Fig.5.12 : Diagram of Human lymphatic system

Functions of Lymph :
(i) It provides immunity through lymphocytes.
(ii) Fats are absorbed through lymph vessels in the intestine.
(iii) It supplies digested food and oxygen to various parts of the body.
(iv) It helps in removal of waste products like parts of dead cells.
(v) It returns proteins and excess tissue fluid to the blood from the tissue spaces.

5. TRANSPORTATION
Spleen
• Spleen is known to be the largest lymph node of body. It is the blood bank of the body.
• Spleen is also called " Graveyard of RBC".
• Spleen originates from embryonal mesoderm.
• Spleen is red- coloured lymph node, it is found attached by mesentery to
the lateral side of stomach. It is the largest solid mass of reticulo
endothelial tissue in the body.
• It is covered by a capsule formed of elastic fibrous connective tissue and
smooth muscles. It is called splenic capsule.
Functions of spleen:-
1. Its macrophages engulf or phagocytize and destroy wornout blood cells,
live or dead pathogens,cell debris etc.
2. In the embryonal stage it produces RBCs.
3. Some antibodies are synthesised here.
4. In adult stage spleen works as blood bank. Its sinuses serve as reservoirs
of blood when required their blood is squeezed into circulation.
5. Spleen stores iron.
6. The size of spleen increases at the time of malaria because lymphocytes & dead RBC number
is increased in it at that time (spleenomegaly).
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SECTION (A) : TRANSPORTATION IN HIGHER PLANTS
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A-1 Explain the importance of transportation.
A-2 Distinguish between transpiration and translocation. or
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A-3 Comment upon :
(i) Translocation in plants (ii) Xylem
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(iii) Phloem (iv) Composition of blood

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A-4 Explain various components of xylem and phloem.

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SECTION (B) TRANSPORTATION IN ANIMALS

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B-1 How does blood help in transportation ?

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B-2 Why AB+ blood group is considered as universal recipient ?

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B-3 Explain the composition of blood. Also give functions of all it’s components.
B-4 Write short note on leucocytes.
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B-5 Distinguish between open and closed circulatory system.

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B-6 What is ‘clotting of blood’ ? Write a flow chart showing major events taking place in clotting of blood.
B.7 Name the constituents of blood. Why are white blood corpuscles called ‘soldiers of the body’ ?
B-8 (a) List any four blood groups found in human beings.
(b) People of which blood group can
(i) Donate blood to all groups ?
(ii) Receive blood from all groups ?
B-9 What is double circulation ?
B-10 Distinguish between arteries and veins.
B-11 Explain the structure of human heart with the help of diagram.
B-12 What is lymph ? Explain its important functions. Write about its circulation.
B-13 Write one function each of the following components of the transport system in human beings.
(a) Blood vessels (b) Blood platelets (c) Lymph (d) Heart
B-14 (a) Draw a sectional view of the human heart and label on it Aorta, Pulmonary arteries, Vena
cava, Left ventricle.
(b) Why is double circulation of blood necessary in human beings ?
B-15 Draw a diagram of human heart and label the following on it .
(i) Aorta (ii) Pulmonary trunk (iii) Superior vena cava (iv) Coronary arteries

5. TRANSPORTATION
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
A-1 Osmosis is the movement of :
(A) solute particles from higher concentration to lower concentration
(B) solvent particles from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution through a
semipermeable membrane
(C) solute particles from higher concentration to lower concentration through a semipermeable
membrane
(D) solvent particles from lower water potential to higher water potential.
A-2 The ultimate cause for the movement of water against the gravity in a tree is
(A) osmosis (B) transpiration (C) imbibition (D) photosynthesis
A-3 Which one of the following is connected with transport of water in plants?
(A) Phloem (B) Xylem (C) Epidermis (D) Cambium
A-4 Which of the following contributes most to transport of water from the ground to the leaves of a tall
tree?
(A) Breakdown of ATP (B) Capillary rise of water in xylem
(C) Cohesion of water and transpiration pull (D) Root pressure
A-5 The process of transpiration in plants helps in
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(A) opening of stomata (B) absorption of CO2 from atmosphere
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(C) upward conduction of water and minerals (D) absorption of O2 from atmosphere
A-6 Opening and closing of stomata is due to
(A) pressure of gases inside the leaves or
(B) changes of turgor pressure in guard cells
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(C) effect of hormones (D) their genetic constitution
A-7 The carbohydrates synthesized in the leaves are transported through sieve tubes most commonly in
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the form of
(A) glucose (B) starch (C) sucrose (D) cellulose
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A-8 The phenomenon of uptake of water at the expense of energy by the cell and usually against the
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osmotic gradient is known as

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(A) active absorption (B) passive absorption (C) osmosis (D) diffusion
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A-9 Water will be absorbed by root hair when

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(A) concentration of solutes in the cell sap is high

(B) plant is rapidly respiring
(C) they are separated from soil by a permeable membrane
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(D) concentration of salts in the soil is high.

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A-10 Root cap has no role in water absorption because

(A) it has no direct connection with the vascular system
(B) it has no cells containing chloroplasts
(C) it has no root hairs
(D) it has loosely arranged cells.
A-11 Translocation of solutes primarily takes place through
(A) phloem (B) xylem (C) cortex (D) pith
+
A-12 Accumulation of K ions in guard cells shall cause
(A) Loss of turidity (B) Decrease in water potential
(C) Increase in water potential (D) Exosmosis.
A-13 Guttation occurs through
(A) Stomata (B) Lenticel (C) Cuticle (D) Hydathodes
A-14 Water potential of pure water and its solution are-
(A) 0 and 1 (B) 0 and 0 (C) 0 and more than 1 (D) 0 and less than 0
A-15 Solute potential of a solution is always-
(A) =0 (B) < 0 (C) > 0 (D) between 0.1 to 1.0
A-16 A plant cell become turgid due to-
(A) Plasmolysis (B) Exosmosis (C) Endosmosis (D) Electrolysis

5. TRANSPORTATION
SECTION (B) : TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN
B-1 Which of the following is used in measuring blood pressure ?
(A) Potometer (B) Sphygmomanometer(C) Barometer (D) Goneometer
B-2 An artery is a vessel that carries blood
(A) with high concentration of oxygen (B) with high concentration of CO2
(C) away from the heart (D) both A & C
B-3 Valves are found in veins to check the backflow of blood flowing under
(A) high pressure (B) low pressure (C) no pressure (D) atmospheric pressure.
B-4 In the cardiac cycle, diastole is
(A) the number of heart beats per minute (B) the relaxation period after contraction of the heart
(C) the forceful pumping action of the heart (D) the contraction period after relaxation of the heart
B-5 One of the difference between blood and lymph is that
(A) blood has RBCs and WBCs while lymph has lymphocytes
(B) blood has RBCs while lymph has no WBCs
(C) blood has WBCs while lymph has RBCs
(D) blood has dissolved organic salts while lymph has no such inorganic salt
B-6 Blood vessel carrying blood from lung to heart through
(A) Pulmonary artery (B) Pulmonary vein (C) Coronary artery (D) None of these
B-7 Mammals are said to have double circulation ,it means
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(A) Blood vessels are paired
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(B) There are two types of blood vessels attached to every organ
(C) There are two systems,
B-8
(D) The blood circulates twice through the heart
The first heart sound is produced when :
or
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(A) intraventricular pressure decreases (B) semilunar valve snaps shut
(C) bicuspid and tricuspid valve close quickly (D) diastole begins
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B-9 A transport system is needed to transport

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(i) Nutrients, oxygen and hormones from the place, they are absorbed or received to the cells.
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(ii) Waste products from the place they are formed to the place from where they are eliminated
outside
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(iii) Transport metabolic intermidiate from one to another place.

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(A) (i) and (ii) correct (B) (i) and (iii) correct (C) (ii) and (iii) correct (D) (i) , (ii) & (iii) correct
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B-10 Pulmonary vein carries -

(A) impure blood always (B) pure blood always
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(C) impure blood sometimes (D) mixed blood

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B-11 In a closed circulatory system, blood is completely enclosed with in

(A) sinuses (B) vessels (C) heart (D) skeleton
B-12 Removal of calcium from freshly collected blood will
(A) prevent clotting (B) result in clotting
(C) prevent oxidation of haemoglobin (D) cause hemolysis.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The clotting of blood requires –
(A) Vit K and Calcium (B) Vit K and Potassium
(C) Calcium and Potassium (D) None of the above
2. The erythrocytes of A, B, AB and O blood groups have distinct components on the surface. They are –
(A) Lipid (B) Fats (C) Carbohydrates (D) Antigen
3. Which are not true cells in the blood ?
(A) Platelets (B) Monocytes (C) Basophils (D) Neutrophils

5. TRANSPORTATION
4. The first heart sound is produced when :
(A) intraventricular pressure decreases (B) semilunar valve snaps shut
(C) bicuspid and tricuspid valve close quickly (D) diastole begins
5. Mitral valve in mammals guards the opening between–
(A) Stomach and intestine (B) Pulmonary vein and left auricle
(C) Right atrium and right ventricle (D) Left atrium and left ventricle
6. Bundle of HIS is a network of -
(A) Nerve fibres found throughout the heart.
(B) Muscle fibres distributed throughout the heart walls
(C) Muscle fibres found only in the ventricular septum.
(D) Nerve fibres distributed in ventricles
7. The walls of right ventricle are less muscular as compared to those of the left ventricle of a heart
because
(A) the right ventricle receives blood from the body
(B) the right ventricle sends blood to the head
(C) the right ventricle pumps blood to lungs.
(D) the right ventricle pumps blood to the alimentary canal.
8. Tick the wrong statement –
(A) RBC are of red colour and WBC of white colour
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(B) Red colour of RBC is because of haemoglobin
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(C) Iron is necessary for synthesis of haemoglobin
(D) Erythrocytes are called suicidal bags
9 or
The path of water and minerals in plants during ‘transpiration pull’ is–
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(A) root hair root xylem endodermis root cortex stem xylem leaf xylem
(B) root hair root cortex endodermis root xylem stem xylem leaf xylem
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(C) endodermis root hair root xylem root cortex stem xylem leaf xylem.
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(D) root hair endodermis root xylem root cortex stem xylem leaf xylem
10. Osmosis is defined as the process in which -
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(A) water diffuses from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution

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(B) solutes diffuse from lower concentration to higher concentration of solution

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(C) active transport of ions takes place

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(D) passive transport of ions takes place

11. Systolic pressure of heart is higher than diastolic pressure, because -
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(A) blood is forcefully pumped into arteries by the heart during systole and not during diastole
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(B) arteries offer resistance to the flowing of blood during systole only
(C) arteries contract during systole only.
(D) volume of blood in heart is greater during systole than during diastole.
12. Persons suffering from high blood pressure should take the following precaution to avoid excessive
rise in their blood pressure –
(A) sleep as much as possible (B) avoid standing
(C) increase their weight (D) avoid emotional disturbances and excitement.
13. A vein differs from an artery in having–
(A) narrower lumen (B) strongly muscular wall
(C) pigmented wall to give it a dark appearance (D) valves to control direction of flow of blood.
14. Both pulmonary and renal arteries–
(A) contain oxygenated blood (B) have internal valves
(C) deliver CO2 to the organs they supply (D) have thick wall and narrow lumen

5. TRANSPORTATION

1. Seeds trapped in crevices of rocks soak in water, swell and cause fragmentation of rock.The
process involved is termed. (IJSO Stage-1 / 2014)
(A) osmosis (B) imbibition (C) tyndall effect (D) water potential
2. When a cell is fully turgid, which of the following will be zero ?
3. Which of the following sequence depicts the flow of blood in human circulatory system ?
(IJSO Stage-I/ 2015)
(A)
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(B)
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(C)
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(D)
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4. Among the following, which is not true about vaccines ? (IJSO Stage-I/ 2015)
(A) Vaccines contain dead microbial cells or their parts.
(B) Vaccines contain antibiotics to prevent diseases.
(C) Vaccine contain special proteins which evoke immune system against disease.
(D) Vaccines contain inactivated micro-organisms.
5. How many times would a red blood cell pass through the heart during one complete cycle ?
(IJSO Stage-I/ 2016)
(A) Once (B) Twice (C) 4 times (D) 72 times
6. Which of the following does NOT contain living cells ? (IJSO Stage-I/ 2016)
(A) Bone tissue (B) Seive tube (C) Phloem (D) Epidermis
7. If atmospheric humidity decreases, transpiration rate (IJSO Stage-I/ 2016)
(A) Decreases because the concentration gradient between the mesophyll and the atmophere
decreases.
(B) Stays the same because active transport does not depend on humidity
(C) increases because of the higher concentration gradient between the air spaces of the mesophyll
and the atmosphere
(D) Decreases because the concentration of water vapour decreases

5. TRANSPORTATION
EXERCISE - 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
A-1 B A-2 B A-3 B A-4 C A-5 C A-6 B A-7 C A-8 A A-9 A A-10 C A-11 A A-12 B A-13 D
A-14D A-15 B A-16 C
B. TRANSPORTATION IN HUMAN
B-1B B-2 D B-3 B B-4 B B-5 A B-6 B B-7 D B-8 C B-9 D B-10 B B-11 B B-12 A
EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
A. A D A C D C C D B A A D D D
EXERCISE - 3
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Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A. B C A B B BONUS C
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6. EXCRETION
6.EXCRETION
A. EXCRETION IN ANIMAL
There are various metabolic activities which take place inside the living organisms. All these
activities are chemical reactions. As a result in animal body several end products are formed which
are of no use to the cells. These are called as metabolic wastes. These must be removed from the
body for proper functioning of the body. The elimination of these metabolic waste products from the
body is called as excretion. Waste materials are ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide,
pigments, salts, digestive wastes, excess of water etc. Ammonia, urea, uric acid are waste
nitrogenous products.The excretory products are both volatile & non-volatile. These are removed
from the body by different methods.
TABLE : FEATURES OF NITROGENOUS WASTES
TOXICITY
SOLUBILITY MODES OF
S.NO. NAME IN EXAMPLES
IN WATER EXCRETION
TISSUES
Aquatic
invertebrates,
1. Ammonia High High Ammonotelism
bony fish, tailed
amphibians.
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Land
invertebrates,
2. Urea Medium Medium or
Ureotelism cartilaginous fish,
amphibians,
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mammals.
Land insects,
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3. Uric acid Low Poor Uricotelism land

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reptiles, birds.
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Excretory Organs and Main Nitrogenous Wastes of Different Animal Groups

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Animal Groups Excretory Organs Main Nitrogenous Waste

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Protozoans (Amoeba), Poriferans

Plasma membrane, pellicle and
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(Sycon), Coelenterates (Cnidaria) Ammonia

general body surface
(Hydra)
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Platyhelminthes (flatworms) e. g.,

Protonephridia with flame cells Ammonia
Planaria. Fasciola. Taenia
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Nematheiminthes (Aschelminthes) e.
Renette cells Ammonia and urea
g.. roundworms, Ascaris
Metanephridia (in Nereis and leech),
Annelida Metanephridia and chloragogen cells Ammonia and urea
(in earthworm)
Malpighian tubules (in cockroaches),
Arthropods coxal gland, green glands or Uric acid and ammonia
antennary glands (in crustaceans)
Renal gland or organ of Bojanus (in
Ammonia in aquatic and
Mollusca Pila and Unio) and Keber's organ (in
uric acid in larva forms
Unio)
Echinodermata No specialised organ Ammonia
Protonephridia (in lancelets), neural

gland (in Herdmania), pharyngeal
Chordata nephridia and Hatschek’s nephridium Ammonia, urea & uric acid
in cephalochordates (Amphioxus). a
pair of kidneys in vertebrates

6. EXCRETION
B. HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
As a result of various metabolic processes going on in our body a number of waste products are
formed. These have to be eliminated as they are toxic to the body.
(a) Human Excretory Products :

(i) Carbon dioxide which is liberated during respiration; and is eliminated by the lungs.
(ii) Nitrogenous metabolic wastes, such as urea and uric acid produced in the liver from
excessive proteins.
(iii) Bile pigments : Bile pigments (e.g., bilirubin) derived by the breaking down of haemoglobin
of the erythrocytes, in liver.
(iv) Excess salts, water and vitamins : Concentration of these substances above the required
level, is harmful to the body.
(b) Human excretory System :

• The excretory system of man consists of two kidneys, two ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
(i) Kidney :
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• The kidneys are reddish-brown bean shaped structures present in the upper part of the
abdominal cavity, on either side of the vertebral column.
•
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Each kidney is made up of large number of coiled tubes called nephrons (uriniferous or
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renal tubules).
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• These filter the nitrogenous waste materials and excess of water and salts from the blood and
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form the urine.

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(ii) Ureters : These are a pair of long ,narrow, thin walled and tubular structure which starts from
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the kidney, run downward and open in urinary bladder.

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(iii) Urinary bladder : It is a thin walled, elastic, pear-shaped and distensible (able to swell) sac
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present in lower part of abdomen.

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• The urinary bladder stores the urine. When the muscles around the urinary bladder contract,
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the urine is excreted out through a small opening called the urethra.
(iv) Urethra : It is muscular and tubular structure which extends from the urinary bladder to the
outside. It carries the urine to the outside.
Fig.6.1 Excretory System of Human, L.S. of Kidney

6. EXCRETION
(v) Nephrons : Structural and functional units of kidneys. Each kidney is made up of a millions of
nephrons. Structurally a nephron has following 5 parts :
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Fig.6.2 : Structure of Nephron
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1. Bowman’s capsule : t is a single-cell thick, double walled cup-shaped structure present in
the cortex region of the kidney. The cup-shaped capsule contains a network of capillaries
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called Glomerulus. Glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule are together called as Renal
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corpuscle/ Malphigian body.

2. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) : t starts after the Bowman’s capsule and is greatly
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twisted. The whole PCT lies in the cortex region.

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3. Henle’s loop : Henle’s loop is a U-shaped tubule located in the medulla region. It consists of -
• a thin-walled descending limb in the medulla
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• a thick-walled ascending limb in the medulla. Henle’s loop is long in those animals which pass
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hypertonic urine.
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4. Distal convoluted tubule : The ascending limb continues into the distal convoluted tubule
which forms several coils in the cortex.
5. Collecting duct : Collecting tubule receives distal tubules of several uriniferous tubules.
Several such tubules unite to form a large collecting duct. The collecting ducts are held
together and converge to form a pyramid. The pyramid opens into the pelvis which leads into
the ureter.
(c) Mechanism Of Urine formation :
• Main function of nephron is to form urine.
• There are three main processes involved in the urine formation:
(i) Glomerular ultrafiltration : The blood flows through the glomerulus under great pressure
which is much greater than in the capillaries elsewhere. The reason for this greater pressure is
that the efferent (outgoing) arteriole is narrower than the afferent (incoming) arteriole. This
high pressure (hydrostatic pressure) causes the liquid part of the blood to filter out from the
glomerulus into the renal tubule. This filtration under extraordinary force is called ultrafiltration.
• During ultrafiltration almost all the liquid part of the blood (plasma along with most of its
organic and inorganic substances including urea, glucose, amino acids, etc.) comes out of the
glomerulus and passes into the funnel shaped cavity of the Bowman's capsule .

6. EXCRETION
• The fluid entering the renal tubule is called the glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate
consists of water, urea, salts, glucose and other plasma solutes. The thicker part of the blood
left behind in the glomerulus after ultrafiltration, namely, the two kinds of corpuscles, proteins,
and other large molecules are carried forward through the efferent arteriole. Thus, the blood
proceeding away from the glomerulus is relatively thick.
• Effective Filteration Pressure(EFP) :
• It is the net filteration pressure responsible for ultrafilteration.
EFP = GHP - [BCOP + CHP]
= 75 - [30+20]
= 25mmHg
= 10-25 mmHg
• Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure (GHP) - It develops due to difference in diameter of
afferent and efferent arterioles. It favors ultrafilteration. Diameter of afferent arteriole is more
than that of efferent arteriole.
• Blood Colloidal Osmotic Pressure (BCOP) - It is the osmotic pressure of blood which
develops due to presence of plasma proteins. It resists ultrafilteration.
• Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure (CHP) - It develops due to the glomerular filterate present in
Bowman’s Capsule. It resists ultrafilteration.
• Glomerular Filteration Rate (GFR) - It is the amount of filterate entering the Bowman’s
capsule per unit time.
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• GFR = 125 ml./min. or 180 litres/day.
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(ii) Tubular reabsorption : Glomerular filtrate contains a lot of useful materials like glucose, salts
or
such as that of sodium and water. These substances are reabsorbed from the renal tubule at
various levels and in varied proportions. But their reabsorption is only to the extent that the
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normal concentration of the blood is not disturbed. This is called selective reabsorption.
(iii) Tubular secretion : During this process substances like creatinine, potassium (K+), hydrogen
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(H+), NH4 +, urea, foreign substance (pigments, drugs like penicillin) etc. are actively secreted
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into different parts of nephron (PCT, Henle’s loop and DCT). This passage involves the activity
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of the cells of the tubular wall, and hence it is called tubular secretion.
• All these processes involved in urine formation require energy, hence the oxygen demand of
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the kidneys is 6 to 7 times higher than what is required by muscles.

(d) Urine excretion : Final urine passes into collecting ducts to the pelvis and through the ureter
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into the urinary bladder by ureteral peristalsis (waves of constriction in the ureters) and due to
gravity. Urine is expelled from the urinary bladder through the urethra (in the penis in males,
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and directly in females) by relaxation of the urinary bladder into sphincter muscles located at
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the opening of the urinary bladder into the urethra under impulse from the nervous system.
Such a process is called micturition.
(e) Chemical Composition Of Urine :
• Normal human urine consists of about 95% water and 5% of solid wastes.
• Besides the normal constituents, certain hormones and medicines like the antibiotics and
excess vitamins are passed out with urine.
• 95% water 2% salts , 2.5 % urea, .5% other (uric acid, hippuric acid, Creatinine).
• Normally a man excretes 1000-1750 ml of urine daily, depending upon the water intake, diet,
climate, mental state and physiological condition.
• Tea, coffee, alcohol and other beverages increase the formation of urine.
(h) Role of other organs in excretion :
(i) Lungs : Carbon dioxide produced by the oxidation of glucose or other food substances in the
tissues is removed by the blood. This carbon dioxide is carried to the lungs through the blood
vessels (veins) where it diffuses into the alveoli and out through the respiratory tract. Water
vapour in small amount is also exhaled during expiration from the lungs.
(ii) Skin : Substances like soluble food matter, oxygen, water, dissolved mineral salts, traces of
urea and uric acid diffuse from the thin walls of capillaries into the walls of the sweat glands.
Oxygen and food substances are used for metabolic activities of the cells of sweat glands but
the remaining metabolic wastes are excreted out of the gland through the sweat duct which
opens on the surface of the skin through sweat pore. Sweat contains 99% water, traces of
salts, urea and uric acid However, after heavy exercise, lactic acid forms a major constituent

6. EXCRETION
of sweat. Profuse sweating may lead to sodium deficiency, leading to muscle cramps. An
adaptation of prevention of water loss is the impermeability of our skin to water. However, in
aquatic animals, skin is the major excretory organ. They excrete ammonia through their skin
by diffusion as ammonia is highly soluble in water.
(i) Disorders of the excretory system : Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to several disorders
of the excretory system.Some of these are as follows
(i) Uremia: It is the presence of an excessive amount of urea in the blood. Urea is highly harmful
as it poisons the cells at high concentration and may lead to kidney failure.
(ii) Kidney Failure (renal failure): Partial or total inability of kidneys to carry on excretory and
salt-water regulatory functions is called renal or kidney failure.
(iii) Renal Calculi: It is the formation of stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts (calcium,
magnesium, phosphates and oxalates, etc. ), formed within the kidney.
(iv) Glomerulonephritis: It is the inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
• Polyurea – More urine passes out.
• Uraemia – Urea concentration in blood increases.
• Alkaptonuria – Homogentisic acid passes with urine.
• Glycosuria – Glucose in urine.
• Anuria – Failure of kidney to form urine.
• Haematuria – Blood in urine.
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• Albuminaria – Albumen in urine.
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• Ketosis – Ketone bodies (Acetoacetic acid, b-Hydroxybutyric acid &
Acetone) in urine.
• Dysuria – Painful urination. or
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• Diuresis – Increased volume of urine is excreted.
(j) Artificial Kidney :
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In case of loss or damage of one kidney, the other kidney performs the function of both the kidneys
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and the person can lead a normal life. But the failure of both the kidneys leads to death. Artificial
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kidney is a dialysis machine which cleans blood of waste products, thus acting like a kidney.
Diseased kidney may be replaced with healthy one by kidney transplantation. To lead a normal
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life, one healthy kidney is more than enough. Therefore, a healthy person can donate his one kidney
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to a patient who has both kidneys impaired.

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Fig.6.3 : Artificial kidney

6. EXCRETION
SECTION (A) : HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
A-1 Define Excretion.
A-2 Write down difference between excretion, defaecation & secretion.
A-3 What is the role of contractile vacuole of amoeba in excretion.
A-4 Write down excretory organ in following groups :-
(i) Platyhelminthes (ii) Arthropoda (iii) Protozoa (iv) Echinodermata
A-5 Define Osmoregulation.
SECTION (B) : HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
B-1 Name the fuctional unit of kidney.
B-2 Draw a well labelled diagram of kidney.
B-3 Explain role of urinary bladders in excretory system.
B-4 Explain excretory system of man with labelled diagram.
B-5 Draw the well labelled diagram of nephron and explain its functioning.
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) : EXCRETION IN ANIMAL
A-1 In cockroach,excretion is performed by-
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(A) Renette cells (B) flame cells (C) Nephridia (D) malpighian tubules
A-2 Which one is excretory organ among the following-
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(A) Archeocyte (B) choanocyte (C) solenocyte (D) pinacocyte

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A-3 Excretory organ in nematoda-

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(A) flame cells (B) Renette cells (C) coxal gland (D) malpighian tubules
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A-4 Excretion is removal of

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(A) CO2 (B) harmful and useless ingredients

(C) extra water (D) metabolic wastes
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A-5 Major function of contractile vacuole is

(A) excretion (B) circulation (C) osmoregulation (D) phagocytosis
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A-6 Urine is always fluid except in :

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(A) Birds (B) Humans (C) Amphibians (D) Mammals

A-7 Osmoregulation is control over :
(A) Removal of Nitrogen from the body (B) Concentrations of salt and water in the body
(C) Osmotic properties of cell membrane (D) pH of the blood
A-8 Nitrogenous wastes are formed from the breakdown of :
(A) NH3 (B) Fat (C) Amino acids (D) Water
A-9 Nitrogenous waste products are eliminated mainly as :
(A) Urea in tadpole and ammonia in adult frog (B) Ammonia in tadpole and urea in adult frog
(C) Urea in both tadpole and in adult frog (D) Urea in tadpole and uric acid in adult frog
A-10 Flame cells are the excretory organ in
(A) Platyhelminthes (B) Annelida (C) Sponge (D) none of these
A-11 In Amoeba, osmoregulation is carried out by :
(A) Food Vacuole (B) Plasma membrane (C) Contractile vacuole (D) Both B and C
A-12 Excretion is required for maintaining homeostasis of body fluids through regulation of their :
(A) Volume composition, pH and osmotic potential
(B) Volume
(C) Composition and pH
(D) Osmotic potential

6. EXCRETION
B-1 Which of the following parts of a kidney contains the lowest concentration of urea ?
(A) Loop of Henle (B) Branches of renal vein (C) Bowman’s capsule (D) Glomerulus
B-2 Uriniferous tubules of a kidney are concerned with formation of
(A) glucose (B) amino acids (C) hormones (D) urine
B-3 Podocytes are found in
(A) Bowmans capsule (B) PCT (C) DCT (D) None of these
B-4 Ammonia is converted into urea in
(A) kidney (B) spleen (C) liver (D) nephron
B-5 Function of loop of Henle is
(A) conservation of water (B) formation of urine (C) filtration of blood (D) passage of urine
B-6 Urea is transported through
(A) RBCs (B) WBCs (C) Plasma (D) lymph
B-7 Which one is an accessory excretory organ ?
(A) Liver (B) Stomach (C) Intestine (D) Heart
B-8 Functional unit of kidney is
(A) Nephron (B) Nephritis (C) Neuron (D) Loop of Henle
B-9 Which one of the following glands does not help in excretion ?
(A) liver (B) sweat glands (C) pancreas (D) both (A) and (C)
B-10 If Henle’s loop is absent from mammalian nephron, which one of the following is to be expected ?
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(A) Hardly any change in quality and quantity of urine formed
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(B) Urine will be more concentrated
(C) Urine will be more dilute
(D) No urine formation or
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B-11 Among which one of the following are part of nephron ?
(A) Cortex (B) Medulla (C) Bowman’s capsule (D) Collecting duct
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B-12 Which blood vessel contains the least amount of urea.

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(A) Hepatic vein (B) Renal vein (C) Hepatic portal vein (D) Renal artery
B-13 The filterate from the glomerulus contains :
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(A) Urea and uric acid (B) Urea, uric acid and ammonia
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(C) Urea, uric acid, ammonia and water (D) Urea, uric acid, glucose and water.
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B-14 Excretion is a continous process but urine is not passed out continuously because of :
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(A) Urinary bladder (B) Cloaca (C) Rectum (D) Ureter

B-15 Diameter of the renal afferent vessel is
(A) Same as that of efferent (B) Smaller than that of efferent
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(C) Larger than that of efferent (D) There is no efferent vessel

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B-16 The part of a nephron which opens into the collecting duct is/are
(A) DCT (B) DCT and PCT (C) Henle,s loop (D) glomerulus
B-17 Maximum water absorption occurs in
(A) PCT (B) DCT (C) Collecting duct (D) None of these
B-18 Substrate which is not filtered through glomerulus :
(A) Water (B) Glucose (C) Blood corpuscles (D) Urea
B-19 Which one of the following mechanism would account for increased urine production ?
(A) Decreased amount of antidiuretic hormone secretion.
(B) Increased aldosterone production
(C) Increased blood pressure
(D) The proximal tubules reabsorbing more water
B-20 Difference between glomerular filtrate and plasma is of :
(A) Proteins (B) Potassium
(C) First is white whereas latter is yellow (D) First is yellow whereas latter is white
B-21 The urine under normal conditions does not contain glucose because :
(A) The normal blood sugar is fructose
(B) Glucose of blood is not filtered in the glomerulus
(C) Glucose in glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in the uriniferous tubules
(D) Glucose in glomerular filtrate is converted into glycogen.

6. EXCRETION
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. A man takes large amount of proteins. He is likely to excrete a great amount of –
(A) Urea (B) Sugar (C) Uric acid (D) None of these
2. Kidney of a mammal resembles contractile vacuole of amoeba in expelling out–
(A) salt (B) glucose (C) excess water (D) urea and uric acid
3. Which of the two organs of the body are most Important for homeostasis ?
(A) Skin and liver (B) Liver & thyroid gland
(C) Liver and Kidneys (D) Kidneys and spleen
4. The term haematuria is used to describe-
(A) Blood cancer (B) Presence of red blood cells in urine
(C) Internal bleeding (D) Blood posioning
5. In mammals, the urinary bladder opens into -
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(A) uterus (B) urethra (C) vestibule (D) ureter
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6. Urea is produced from ammonia in the body of rabbit or man in–
(A) liver (B) urinary bladder or
(C) kidneys (D) blood
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7. The yellow pigment derived from haem break down and excreted by kidneys is:
(A) Uric Acid (B) Urochrome (C) Cholesterol (D) melanin
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8. Kidneys regulate the amount of -

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(A) salts (B) hormones (C) proteins (D) enzymes

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9. a brush border is formed in :

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(A) Distal convoluted tubule (B) Proximal convoluted tubule

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(C) Bowman’s capsule (D) Loop of henle

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10. During ultrafiltration from the capillaries of the glomerulus in to Bowman’s capsule, which of the
following substances do no filter but remain in the blood ?
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(A) Water and glucose (B) Urea and blood proteins

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(C) Blood proteins and blood cells (D) Fats and salts
11. Filtration of blood occurs in –
(A) Bowman’s capsule (B) loop of Henle (C) neck of nephrons (D) renal papillae
12. In which part of excretory system of mammals can you first use the term “urine” for contained fluid–
(A) Bowman’s capsule (B) loop of Henle (C) collecting tubule (D) urinary bladder
13. Creatinine the waste product closely regulated by kidneys is the end product of the metabolism of–
(A) ammonia (B) muscles (C) nucleotide (D) anaerobic

1. Urea is the principle excretary waste in larval as well as adult phases of : (IJSO/stage I/2014)
(A) Cockroach (B) Crab (C) Frog (D) Starfish

6. EXCRETION
EXERCISE - 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
SECTION (A) :EXCRETION IN ANIMAL

A-1 D A-2 C A-3 B A-4 D A-5 C A-6 A A-7 B A-8 C A-9 B A-10 A A-11 C A-12 A

B-1 B B-2 D B-3 A B-4 C B-5 A B-6 C B-7 A B-8 A B-9 C B-10 C B-11 C B-12 B B-13 D
B-14 A B-15 C B-16 A B-17 A B-18 C B-19 A B-20 A B-21 C
EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
A. A C C B B A B A B C A C B
EXERCISE - 3
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1
A. BONUS
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7. CONTROL & COORDINATION
7.CONTROL & CO-ORDINATION
A. CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN PLANTS

• The plants are fixed in the soil so they cannot avoid various stimuli by moving away. There is
no ‘brain-like’ structure in plants to adapt themselves according to the changes in their
surroundings. Still the plants show the positive or negative responses to light, water, gravity,
touch etc.
(a) Movement In Plants :
• The plant movements made in response to external stimuli fall into two main categories :
(i) Tropisms (ii) Nastic
(i) Tropisms (Tropic movement) : A growth movement of a plant part in response to an external
stimulus in which the direction of stimulus determines the direction of response is called
tropism. Thus, tropism is a directional movement of the part of a plant caused by its growth.
• If the growth (or movement ) of a plant is towards the stimulus, it is called Positive Tropism.
• It the growth (or movement) of a plant part is away from the stimulus, then it is called Negative
Tropism.
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STIMULUS TYPE OF TROPISM
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Light Phototropism
Gravity Geotropism
Chemical or
Chemotropism
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Water Hydrotropism
Touch Thigmotropism
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I. Phototropism : The response of a plant to light is called phototropism. If the plant part moves
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towards light, it is called positive phototropism. The stem (or shoot) of a growing plant bends
towards light, so the stem (or shoot) of a plant shows positive phototropism.
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Fig.7.1 : Diagrams to show the response of a plant to light (or phototropism).

II. Geotropism : Response of a plant to gravity is called Geotropism. If the plant part moves in
the direction of gravity, it called Positive Geotropism. The roots of a plant move downwards
in the direction of gravity, so the roots of a plant show positive geotropism.The stem (or shoot)
of a plant moves upwards against the direction of gravity, so the stem (or shoot) of a plant
shows Negative Geotropism.
III. Chemotropism is due to the chemical stimulus e.g. growth of pollen tube.The response of a
plant to chemical stimulus is called chemotropism. If the plant part shows movement (or
growth) towards the chemical, it is called Positive Chemotropism.The pollen tube grows
towards the sugary substance (chemical) secreted by the ripen stigma of carpel in the flower.
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Fig.7.2 : Diagram to show the response of a plant part ‘pollen’ to cheical secreted by stigma
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(or chemotropism).
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IV. Hydrotropism : The response of a plant part to water is called Hydrotropism. If the plant part
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moves towards water, it is called Positive Hydrotropism. The roots of a plant always go
towards water, so roots are Positively Hydrotropic.
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V. Thigmotropism : The climbing parts of plants such as tendrils grow towards any support
which happen to touch around that support. So,tendrils of plants are Positively
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Thigmotropic.
Fig. 7.3 : Diagrams to show the response of a plant part ‘tendril’ to the touch of an object
(here a bamboo stick).

(ii) Nasties / Nastic movements : The movement of a plant part in response to an external
stimulus in which the direction of response is not determined by the direction of stimulus is
called nastic movement.
• The folding up of the leaves of a sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) on touching.
• The opening up of the petals of dandelion flowers in morning in bright light and closing in the
evening when the light fades.
• The closing of the petals of moonflower in the morning in bright light and opening at dark when
the light fades.
I. Thigmonasty : The non-directional movement of a plant part in response to the touch of an
object is called Thigmonasty. The folding up of the leaves of a sensitive plant on touching is
due to the sudden loss of water from pad-like swellings called ‘pulvini’ present at the base of
all leaves of the sensitive plant which make the pulvini lose their firmness causing the leaves
to drop and fall. Leaves of ‘touch-me-not’ plant (Mimosa pudica) drops rapidly when touched. It
is due to turgidity of cells at the base.
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Fig. 7.4 : Diagrams to show the nastic movements in the leaves of sensitive plant (Mimosa
pudica) caused by ‘touch’.
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II. Photonasty : The non-directional movement of a plant part (usually petals of flowers) in
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response to light is called photonasty. The opening and closing of flowers in response to light
(or photonasty) are growth movements.
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(iii) Photoperiodism: Flowering and seed germination are regulated by the duration of light. This
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phenomenon called photoperiodism. Plants respond to this stimulus (light duration) with the
help of phytochrome pigment. These are proteinaceous pigment which regulate the
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phenomenon of flowering in plants.

• On the basis of photoperiod there are three classes of plants.
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I. Short day plants — Xanthium, Sugarcane

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II. Long day plants — Spinach, Radish

III. Day neutral plants — Cotton, Sunflower
Response of plants to photoperiodic stimulus is due to a specialized pigment phytochrome.
Fig.7.5 : Requirement of light and dark periods during 24 hours for flowering in short day, long
day and day neutral plants.

TABLE : DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHOTOTROPISM AND PHOTOPERIODISM
S.No. Phototropism Photoperiodism
1. It is a tropic movement It is physiological response to
relative lengths of day and night
2. The stimulus is perceived by apical The stimulus is perceived by the
meristem leaves
3. It is due to differential growth in It is due to the replacement of
elongation zone vegetative buds by reproductive
buds.
(b) Growth Regulators :

The biochemical substances which affects the growth of a plant are called growth hormones
(phytohormones). The growth regulators consist of auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene and
abscisic acid.
(i) Plant growth Promoters : These type of chemicals are involve in growth promoting activities
like cell division, cell elongation, flowering etc. e.g. auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins.
(ii) Plant growth inhibitor : These type of chemicals are involve in growth inhibiting activities like
dormancy , abscission etc. e.g.ethylene, ABA.
• First of all Charles Darwin & F. Darwin (1880) was studying phototropism.They observed
coleoptile bending in Canary grass (Phalaris). Wrote, Book "Power of movements in
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plants" term “Stimulus” By Darwin
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• Boysen & Jensen 1910 :- Experiments on oat (Avena sativa) Plant. In the first experiment,
he removed the coleoptile tip and then replaced it on stump. On providing unilateral light the
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coleoptile tip gave positive curvature. They observed, that if gelatin inserted between the tip &
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cut stump, then coleoptile bends towards the unilateral light. If mica inserted then coleoptile
fail to show phototropism. Material substance term for growth hormone was given by him.
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• F.W. Went (1928):- Went isolated the growing tip of Avena sativa on agar plate & performed
Agar block experiment.
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• He give name “auxin” to growth substance, thus credit of auxin discovery goes to F. W. Went
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• Biosynthesis :- From Tryptophan amino acid in presence on Zn+2 ion.

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Synthetic auxins – a & b– NAA, 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, IPA, PAA, IBA, Maleic hydrazide (MH).
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NAA – Napthalene acetic acid.

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2,4–D – 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid.

2,4,5–T – 2, 4, 5-Trichloro phenoxy acetic acid.
IPA – Indole Propeonic/Pyruvic acid
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PAA – Phenyl/phenoxy acetic acid

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• Physiological Effects :
(1) Apical dominance :- The phenomenon, in which apical bud dominates over the growth of
lateral buds is called apical dominance.
(2) Promotes Cell division & cell enlargement.
(3) Root initiation :- Rooting on stem cuttings is promoted by IBA & NAA (Root growth
inhibited by auxin)
(4) Potato dormancy :- MH (Maleic-Hydrazide), a-NAA, induces dormancy of lateral buds in
potato tubers & potato can stored for long duration.
(5) Prevention of abscission :- IAA, NAA prevents premature abscission of plant organs.
(6) Flower initiation :- Auxin is inhibitor of flowering but it promotes uniform flowering in
pineapple & litchi plants.
(7) Parthenocarpy :- Seed less fruits can be produced by spray of IAA.
(8) Selective weed killer :- Dicot broad leaf weeds can be eradicated by
Agent orange is used in biowar. It was used by USA against Vietnam.
(9) Flower & fruit thinning :- Certain trees like mango form less number of fruits in alternate
years.But auxins can produced normal fruit crops every year. This is known as fruit thinning.

(10) When antiauxin (TIBA-Tri-Iodo Benzoic Acid) are sprayed on mature cotton field then cotton
balls can picked easily.
• Gibberellins :
• First of all Japanese farmers observed peculiar symptoms in rice seedlings & called the
bakanae disease (foolish seedling disease)
• Rice plants become thin, tall & pale due to infection of Gibberella (Ascomycetes) or
Fusarium (Duteromycetes) confirmed by Kurosawa.
• Yabuta and Sumiki 1938 were the first to extract a crystaline substance from the Gibberella
fungus, which they named as Gibberellin.
• All Gibberllins are acidic.
• Biosynthesis of gibberellin takes place by mevalonic acid pathway.
• Physiological effects and applications :
(1) Stem/internode elongation :- GA induces internode elongation, leaf expansion & used in
sugarcane cultivation. Gibberellins induce stem elongation in rosette plants (Cabbage) this
phenomenon known as bolting effect.
(2) Elongation of genetic dwarf plants :
GA spray
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Fig.7.6 : Effect of GA on Internode (bolting effect)
(3) Flowering in LDP, in short light duration.
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(4) Induces Parthenocarpy.
(5) Substitution of cold treatment or vernalisation.
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(6) Breaking of dormancy.

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(7) Seed germination :- Gibberellin induce the synthesis of hydrolysing enzymes like a-amylse,
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lipases, & proteases

(8) Germination of photoblastic seeds :- Gibberellin treated light sensitive seeds can
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germinates in dark. Ex. Lettuce, Tobacco.

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(9) Fruit & flower enlarger :- Size of grape fruits increased by GA. (Pomalin = GA + CK)
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(10) In fermentation :- More growth of yeast cells by GA.

(11) Increase height of Sugarcene plant :- (More sugar contents by IAA )
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• Cytokinins (ck) (Adenine Derivatives)

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• Cytokinin was discovered by Miller when he was working (in lab. of prof. Skoog) on tobacco
pith culture. He added the contents of an old DNA-bottle (Herring fish sperms DNA) to
the culture medium & observed that the tobacco pith callus could grow for longer period.
• Miller isolated an active substance from autoclaved DNA from Herring sperm, which
stimulated cell division. He named this substance as kinetin.
• BAP (Benzylamino purine), diphenylurea and thidiazuron are synthetic cytokinins.
• Root tips are major site of synthesis of CK (by mevalonic acid pathway).
• Physiological effects and applications
(1) Induces Cell division & Cell enlargement.
(2) Formation of interfascicular cambium and induce secondary growth.
(3) Morphogenesis :- Morphogenetic changes induced by CK in presence of IAA.
High auxin + low CK - Root formation
Low CK Hight CK
( Ratio root) ( Ratio shoot differentiation)
Hight Auxin Low Auxin
(4) Counteraction of apical dominance :- promotes growth of lateral buds.
(5) Breaking the dormancy of seeds :- Like GA the dormancy of certain seeds can be broken by
CK.
(6) Seed germination :- Seeds of parasite plant can germinate in the absence of host by CK
treatment.

(7) Delay in senescence :- (Richmond Lang Effect) The ageing process of leaves usually
accompanies with loss of chlorophyll & rapid catabolism. This is called as senescence.
senescence postponed by CK.
(8) Flowring in SDP (also in long days).
(9) Induces stomatal opening.
ABSCISIC ACID
(aba) (Carotenoid Derivatives)
• Addicott & Okhuma (1963) obtained from mature cotton fruits and named as Abscisin II.
• ABA also known as stress hormone, because it protects plants from adverse conditions like
water stress. ABA increases tolerance of plants to various type of stresses.
• Physiological effects and applications
(1) Induce abscission – ABA causes ageing and abscission of leaves & fruits (antiauxin).
(2) Induce bud & seed dormancy – ABA regulates (anti–GA) bud & seed dormancy.
(3) Induce senescence – ABA accelerates senescence of leaves.
(4) Inhibition of cell division & cell elongation – anti CK.
(5) Stomatal closing – anti transpirant & stress hormone.
(6) Delaying of flowering in LDP.
(7) Inhibition of seed germination.
ETHYLENE
• H.H Cousin first suggested, that ripened oranges are responsible for ripening of unripen
bananas.
• Ethylene is a gaseous pollutant hydrocarbon, but Burg reported it as a fruit ripening
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hormone.
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• Biosynthesis of ethylene takes place by methionine amino acid. Ethylene is synthesized in
large quantity by ripening fruits and senescent organs.
• Ethylene also formed in roots in water logged condition.
• Physiological effects and applications :
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(1) Post harvest ripening of fruits – Citrus, oranges, banana, apple, tomato. today
ethephon/CEPA (Chloroethyl Phosphonic acid) used at commercial level.
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(2) Stimulation of senescence & abscission of leaves. Ethylene is synthesized in large

quantity by ripening fruits and senescent organs.
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(3) Flowering in pineapple.

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(4) Triple response on stem :- (i) Inhibition of stem elongation

(ii) Stimulation of radial swelling of stem
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(iii) Horizontal growth of stem (ageotropism)

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(5) Inhibits root growth :- Ethylene is inhibitor of root growth but stimulates the formation of root
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B. CONTROL AND COORDINATION IN ANIMALS

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• Animals receive external information through specialized structure called sense organs
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(receptors). These are photoreceptors for light, phonoreceptors for sound and olfactoreceptors
for smell. Control and coordination is achieved by two systems
(a) Endocrine system (b) Nervous system
PROPERTY HORMONAL CONTROL NERVOUS CONTROL
Nature of signal All hormones are chemical signal. Nerve impulses are
electrical
signals. Chemical signalling
takes place at synapses.
Speed of signal Slow. Rapid, Between 0.7 metres

per second and 120
metres per second.
Effect in the body General effect. The hormones Localized effect – affects
can influence cells in many different parts only the particular muscle
of the body. or the gland.
Effect on growth Can affect growth. Cannot affect growth.

Capacity for modification Cannot be modified Can be modified by
by learning from previous learning from the previous
experience. experiences.
Duration of effect Short term or long lasting. Only short - lived.

(a) Endocrine system :
• The branch of biology which deals with the study of endocrine system and its physiology is
known as " Endocrinology".
• ‘‘Thomas Addison’’ is known as father of Endocrinology.
• Co-ordination in the body of almost all the higher vertebrates is controlled by two systems
Nervous system and endocrine system.
• Substances secreted by these glands are known as hormones. The meaning of word '
hormone' in Greek is " to excite " = hormaein.
• It is a system of isolated glands that pour their secretion directly in to venous blood or lymph
for passage to different body organs, in order to control their functioning, metabolism, cell
permeability, growth, differentiation & stress conditions.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EXOCRINE & ENDOCRINE GLANDS.

S.NO. EXOCRINE GLANDS ENDOCRINE GLANDS
1. Exocrine glands have ducts. Endocrine glands are ductless.
2. These glands discharge These glands discharge
their secretions into the ducts. their secretions directly into the blood.
3. These glands are present near the site of action. These glands are present far away from the
Examples : Sweat and oil glands site of action.e.g.Pituitary, thyroid,
of skin, salivary glands, etc. hypothalamus, etc.
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• Heterocrine glands : These are mixed gland having both exocrine and endocrine parts.
e.g.pancreas.
(i) Hormones :
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• Secretin was 1st discovered hormone, discovered by Bayliss & Sterling.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers and are produced
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in trace amounts and poured into blood, which carries it to some part of body, where it
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produces a definite physiological effect.

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Knowledge Boos te r
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Chemical Nature of Hormones –

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(1) Biogenic Amines (amino acid derivatives) –

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• Thyroxin, Adrenaline & Nor-adrenaline & Melatonin.

(2) Proteinaceous –
• Hypothalamic hormones, ACTH, GH, MSH, Prolactin, Lipotropin,
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Oxytocin, Vasopressin, Parathormone, Cacitonin, Insulin, Glucagon,

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Relaxin, Gastrointestinal hormones, Thymosin

(3) Glycoproteinaceous –
• TSH, FSH, LH, Erythropoietin.
(4) Steroids –
• Sex hormones & Adrenocorticoids.
(ii) Mechanism of Hormone action –

• Hormones produce their effects on target tissues by binding to specific proteins called
hormone receptors located in the target tissues only.
• Hormone receptors present on the cell membrane of the target cells are called membrane-
bound receptors and the receptors present inside the target cell are called intracellular
receptors, mostly nuclear receptors (present in the nucleus).
• Binding of a hormone to its receptor leads to the formation of a hormone-receptor complex.
• Hormone-Receptor complex formation leads to certain biochemical changes in the target
tissue.Target tissue metabolism and hence physiological functions are regulated by hormones.
• For water soluble hormone (e.g.TSH,FSH,LH, Insulin etc.) receptors are present on
membrane while for lipid soluble hormones receptors are present inside the cell (e.g.
Estrogen).

(iii) Endocrine Glands :
(I) Hypothalamus :
• It is part of forebrain & appears as floor of diencephalon.
• It is formed of masses of grey matter, called hypothalamic nuclei, which contain
neurosecretory cells.
• These cells secrete neurohormones, which are stored in or regulate activity of pituitary gland.
Neurohormones are of two types –
1. Releasing Hormones – These stimulate anterior pituitary to secrete its hormones.
Ex. – TSHRF , GNRF (FSHRF,LHRF),ACTHRF,PRF , GHRF, MSHRF.
2. Inhibitory Hormones – These stop anterior pituitary to secrete its hormone. Ex. – GHIF, PIF,
MSHIF.
(II) Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) :
• It is called as Master endocrine gland.
• It is smallest endocrine gland.
• It is attached to hypothalamus by a stalk, called as infundibulum.
• It consists of three lobes – anterior, middle & posterior lobes.
• In man middle lobe is not well developed.
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Fig.7.7 : Diagrammatic representation of pituitary and its relationship with hypothalamus

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It is divided in to two parts –

1. Adenohypophysis –
Hormones -
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
• It controls functioning of thyroid gland.
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
• It regulates structure & functioning of adrenal cortex.
Growth Hormone (GH) or Somatotrophic Hormone (STH) or Somatotropin
• It brings about body growth by synthesis & deposition of proteins in tissues, retention of
Calcium, growth of long bones, growth of muscles, visceral organs & control of metabolism.
Gonadotrophic Hormone (GTH) –
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• It is also called as gametokinetic factor.
• In females, it stimulates development & maturation of ovarian follicles, producing egg cell &
female sex hormone – estrogen.
• In males, it induces spermatogenesis in testis.

Leutinizing Hormone (LH) or Interstitial cell Stimulating hormone (ICSH)
• In females, it is called as LH & is involved in further development of egg cell & its release by
rupturing ovarian (graafian) follicle. It stimulates development of corpus luteum, which secretes
progesterone hormone.
• In males, it is called as ICSH & stimulates secretion of testosterone hormone from Leydig’s
cells of testis.
Prolactin or Lactogenic Hormone or Luteotrophic Hormone (LTH)
• It stimulates lactation, so it is also called as Maternity hormone.
• It stimulates growth of mammary glands during pregnancy.
Intermedin or Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
• It stimulates distribution & concentration of melanin pigment granules in epidermal cells of
skin.
Knowledge Booster
Disorders of anterior pituitary Gland -

(i) ` Dwarfism – It is due to hyposecretion of GH from childhood. It is
characterized by smaller body size (dwarf or midget), but intelligence &
alertness are normal.
(ii) Gigantism – It is due to hypersecretion of GH from childhood. It is
characterized by abnormal elongation of long bones.
(iii) Acromegaly – It is due to hypersecretion of GH after attainment of full
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skeletal growth. It is characterized by abnormal growth of hands, feet &
face.
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Disorders of Posterior pituitary Gland-
(i) Diabetes insipidus or Drinker’s Disease –
• It is due to hyposecretion of ADH.
or
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• Large amount of urine is excreted – polyurea (5 liter / day), so excessive
thrust – polydipsia & dehydration.
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2. Posterior Pituitary or Neurohypophysis –

• It does not synthesize any hormone, it only stores & releases two hormones, which are
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synthesized in specialized nuclei (Supra-optic & paraventricular nuclei) of hypothalamus. So it

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is a storage gland.
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• Secretion of both hormones is controlled by signals from hypothalamus.

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• Hormones -
Oxytocin (Pitocin)
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• It produces contraction of uterine muscles & uterus, so it is also called as birth hormone or
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parturition hormone.
• It promotes ejection of milk from ducts of lactating breasts, so it is also called as milk ejection
hormone.
• It produces vasodilation – reduces B.P.
Vasopressin (Pitressin) or Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
• It regulates reabsorption of water from nephric filtrate In DCT & collecting tubules.
• It produces vasoconstriction – increases B.P.
(III) Pineal Gland –
• It is small, stalked & rounded gland.
• Its calcification (CaPO4 & CaCO3) occurs in middle age, which is called as Brain sand.
• It is a timing device to keep internal events synchronized with the light-dark cycle in
environment.
Hormones :
(1) Melatonin –
• It is antigonadotrophic, opposes FSH & LH.
• It is antagonistic MSH.
• During day, its amount is low, during night amount increases.
(IV) Thyroid Gland –
• It is largest endocrine gland.
• It lies just below larynx & just anterior to upper portion of trachea.

• It has two lobes, joined by isthmus of tissue (H-shaped gland).
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Fig.7.8 : Diagrammatic view of the position of Thyroid and Parathyroid (a) Dorsal side (b)
Ventral side
Hormones –
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1. Thyroxine Hormone – Aminoacid derivative.
• It consists of four organic compounds, called as Iodothyronins (T1, T2, T3 & T4), which are
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synthesized as large precursors, called as thyroglobulin (colloid).

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• Iodine is essential for formation of thyroxine.

• It increases oxidative metabolism.
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• It helps to regulate tissue growth & development.

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• It has metabolic effects on protein synthesis & lipid metabolism.

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• In amphibians, it is required for metamorphosis.

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Knowledge Booster
Disorders –
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(i) Cretinism –
• It is due to hyposecretion of thyroxin from birth.
• It is characterized by retarded physical, mental & sexual development & low metabolic rate.
• Children are stunted (not able to grow) & of low intelligence.
(ii) Myxoedema –
• It is due to hyposecretion of thyroxin in adults.
• It is characterized by low metabolic rate, increased plasma cholesterol, thickness & puffiness of
skin, weight gain, loss of hair, reduced B.P. & pulse rate & decreased body temperature.
(iii) Hashimoto’s Disease or Auto-immune Thyroiditis –
• It is hyposecretion of thyroxin.
• Antibodies are formed against thyroglobulin in middle aged females – thyroid gland is enlarged,
so it is also called as suicide of thyroid.
(iv) Simple Goitre –
• It is due to dietary deficiency of Iodine.
• It is disease of hyposecetion of thyroxin.
• It is enlargement of thyroid, which results in swelling of neck.
• Number of thyroid cells increase to secrete more hormone to compensate original hormone
deficiency.
(v) Grave’s Disease or Exophthalmic Goitre –
• It is disease of hypersecretion of thyroxin, also called as thyrotoxicosis.
• It is characterized by enlargement of entire gland, protrusion of eyeballs (exophthalmus), weight
loss, elevated B.M.R., high pulse rate & profuse perspiration.

(2) Calcitonin –
• It reduces blood calcium & phosphate concentration.
• It makes the bones strong – reduces reabsorption of calcium from bones.
• It inhibits reabsorption of calcium from renal tubules.
• Its deficiency causes osteoporosis (loss of bone density).
[V] Parathyroid Glands –
• These are four small glands.
• To each lobe of thyroid gland, two parathyroid glands are attached.
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) or Parathormone
• It is also called as Collip’s hormone.
• It increases blood calcium level & decreases phosphate level.
• It causes absorption of calcium & phosphate from bones.
• It enhances calcium & phosphate absorption from intestine.
• It reduces excretion of calcium from kidneys.
• It causes excessive phosphate excretion from kidneys.
Disorders –
(i) Tetany –
• It is due to hyposecretion of PTH.
• Plasma calcium level is decreased & phosphate level is increased, which results in
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muscular twitching (sudden quick movement, which can not be controlled), cramps &
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spasms (sudden painful tightening of muscle), especially of hands, feet, face &
larynx.
(ii)
•
Osteoporosis –
It is due to hypersecretion of PTH.
or
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• Cavities are formed in bones due to excess reabsorption of calcium, making them
soft, liable to fracture & develop deformities.
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• Excess calcium deposits in body, bringing calcification of soft tissue & stones in
kidneys & ureters.
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[VI] Adrenal Glands or Suprarenal glands –

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• These are one pair, yellowish, vascular glands, lying over kidney, embedded in fat.
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• These are also called as 4S-glands (Sugar metabolism, Salt retaining, Sex hormone & Stress
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reaction).
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in
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Fig.7.9 : Diagrammatic representation of : (a) Adrenal gland on kidney (b) Section showing
two parts of adrenal gland
Each gland consists of two parts –
Adrenal Cortex –
• It is outer, yellowish & mesodermal part.

Hormones -
• Adrenal cortex produces three groups of steroid hormones, collectively called as
adrenocorticoids.
1. Mineralocorticoids –
• These act on kidney.
• These are steroid hormones, secreted by zona glomerulosa.
• Ex. – Aldosterone & Deoxycorticosterone.
• Secretion of aldosterone is controlled by Renin-Angiotensin system.
• Aldosterone is salt retaining hormone, its main function is retention of sodium & excretion of
potassium.
(2) Glucocorticoids –
• These act on liver.
• These cause gluconeogenesis, lipolysis & breakdown of proteins.
Ex. Cortisol (Hydrocortisone) & Cortisone.
(3) Sex Corticoids –
• These act on gonads.
• These also include small amount of female sex hormones – Estrogen & Progesterone.
• These promote secondary sex characters in males, but have minor role, as these are
produced in small quantities.
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Adrenal Medulla –
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• It is reddish-brown & completely surrounded by cortex.
• It is stimulated by sympathetic nervous system.
Hormones –
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(1) Adrenaline (Epinephrine) –
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• It is called as emergency hormone, as it is secreted in emergency – cold, injury, pain,

emotional stress, anger, fear & fall in B.P. & blood sugar.
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• It is also called as Triple ‘F’ hormone – hormone for fight, fright & flight.
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• It increases blood supply to muscles & heart.

• It reduces peristalsis, digestion & urinary activities.
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• It dilates pupil.
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• It increases glucose & oxygen supply to skeletal muscles.

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(2) Nor-adrenaline (Nor-epinephrine) –

• Its effects are more or less same as adrenaline, but it operates during normal conditions &
in
exercise.
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• It has lesser effect on cardiac activity, but it produces greater vasoconstriction in muscles &
increases B.P.
• It has lesser effect on metabolism.
[VII] Pancreas –
• It is 2nd largest endocrine gland.
• It is heterocrine gland.
• Exocrine part is acini.
• Endocrine part is Islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islets, which are 2 – 3 % of pancreas.
These are clusters of endocrine cells, scattered through exocrine tissue.
• -cells – these secrete glucagon hormone.
• -cells – these secrete insulin hormone.
• -cells – these secrete somatostatin hormone.
Hormones –
(1) Glucagon –
• It increases blood glucose level, by promoting glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis.
• Its effects are opposite to insulin, it is secreted whenever, there is decrease in plasma level of
glucose. Its hypersecretion causes glycosuria.

(2) Insulin –
• It is regulator of carbohydrate metabolism.
• It decreases blood glucose level by stimulating glycogenesis in muscles & liver.
• Both insulin & glucagon are associated with carbohydrate metabolism & have antagonistic
effect, so these regulate blood glucose level.
Disorder –
(i) Diabetes mellitus –
• It is due to hyposecretion of insulin.
• It is characterized by hyperglycaemia, glycosuria.
(3) Somatostatin –
• It inhibits growth hormone.
• It keeps a check on secretion of glucagon, insulin & gastrin.
(VIII) Gonads –
(1) Testis –
• These are located in scrotum of male.
• Endocrine part is Leydig’s cells (interstitial cells), which are group of cells found in connective
tissue around seminiferous tubules.
• These secrete male sex hormone – Androgens.
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Androgens –
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• Testosterone is main androgen.
• Testosterone is responsible for growth & development of male secondary sex organs
• It stimulates spermatogenesis.
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(prostrate, seminal vesicles etc.) & male secondary characteristics (beard & moustaches).
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Ex. – Testosterone, Androsterone, Epiandrosterone & Dehydroepiandrosterone.
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(2) Ovaries : These lie in abdominal cavity of females.

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Estrogens –
• These are group of steroid hormones, secreted by follicular epithelial cells of membrana
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granulosa of graafian follicles.

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• Estradiol is main estrogen.

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• It stimulates growth & development of female secondary sex organs & characteristics.
• It decreases secretion of FSH & increases secretion of LH during menstrual cycle.
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• During pregnancy, it is secreted by placenta.

• Ex. – Estradiol
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Progesterone –
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• It is steroid hormone, secreted by corpus luteum.

• Small quantity is also produced by adrenal cortex & placenta.
• It is responsible for maintenance of pregnancy, so it is also called as pregnancy hormone.
• Its hyposecretion causes abortion, so it is also called as antiabortion hormone.
• During pregnancy, it helps in attachment of embryo to uterine wall, development of placenta &
growth of secondary alveoli in mammary glands.
• It has negative feedback effect on FSH & LH secretion.
Relaxin – .
• It is secreted by ovaries & also by placenta.
• In ovaries, it is secreted by corpus albicans, which is formed from corpus luteum at the end of
gestation period.
(IX) Thymus Gland-
• The thymus gland is a lobular structure located between lungs behind sternum on the ventral
side of aorta.
• The thymus plays a major role in the development of the immune system.
• This gland secretes thymosins.
• Thymosins play a major role in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes, which provide cell-
mediated immunity.
• In addition, thymosins also promote production of antibodies to provide humoral immunity.
• Thymus is degenerated in old individuals resulting in a decreased production of thymosins. As
a result, the immune responses of old persons become weak.

DIFFERENT ENDOCRINE GLANDS, THEIR LOCATION IN THE BODY & THE HORMONES
SECRETED BY THEM.
S.NO. DIFFERENT LOCATION HORMONES SECRETED

ENDOCRINE
GLANDS
(A) Pituitary Located below Anterior Somatotropic hormone(SH/GH)

Hypothalamus lobe (Growth Hormone)
Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH)

Leutinizing hormone(LH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH)
Thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)

Prolactin
Middle Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
Posterior Vasopressin/Anti Diuretic Hormone

lobe (ADH)
Oxytocin
(B) Pineal gland Located between Melatonin

cerebral hemispheres.
Serotonin
(C) Thyroid Thyroxine
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Calcitonin
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(D) Parathyroid Situated on lobes of the Parathormone
thyroid gland.
(E) Thymus Located in the upper part of the

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Thymosin
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gland thorax near heart.
(F) Pancreas lies below the Insulin,Glucagon and Somatostatin
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Pancreas stomach in a bend of the (Islets of Langerhans)

duodenum.
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Mineralo corticoids
(G) Adrenal Located on the
gland top of kidneys. Adrenal cortex Sex hormones
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Gluco corticoids
Adrenal medulla
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Adrenaline Noradrenaline
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(H) Gonads Ovaries (Female) - Located Estrogen

in pelvic cavity in Progesterone
abdomen. Relaxin
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Testes (Male) extra- Testosterone

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abdominal in position
SUMMARY OF THE EFFECT OF HYPERSECRETION AND HYPOSECRETION OF SOME

IMPORTANT ENDOCRINE GLANDS.
GLANDS HORMONES HYPERSECRETION HYPOSECRETION
GH Gigantism In child; Dwarfism in child.
1. Pituitary Acrom egaly in adulthood
ADH Diabetes insipidus
Thyroxine Exophthalm ic goitre Cretinism in young,
2. Thyroid
(Grave's Disease) Myxoedema in adults .
3. Parathyroid PTH Decalcification of bones; Parathyroid Tetany ; low
increase calcium level in calcium and high phosphate levels .
blood.
4. Adrenal Mineralocorticoid Hypertens ion, Conn's Addis on's disease.
(aldosterone) disease.
Glucocorticoid Cushing's disease –

(cortis ol)
Adrenaline – –
Noradrenaline Hypertens ion Increases blood pressure.
5. Pancreas Insulin Decreas e in blood Increase in blood glucose level -
glucose level. hyperglycemia; diabetes mellitus.

(b) Nervous system :
n animals two kinds of control & co-ordination (nervous & chemical) are present.The nervous
co-ordination is brought about by the nervous system and the chemical co-ordination by hormones.
Both the systems work an integrated system. Infact such a control and coordination requires
• Gathering information about changes in the external environment.
• Transmitting this information to the internal cells located away from the body surface.
• Exchange of information between the cells situated away from each other.
• The nervous system of human beings consists of central & peripheral nervous systems.
(i) Neuron :
• Neuron is the structural & functional unit of nervous system. It is the longest cell found in the
body.
• They unite the receptor and effector organs with each other.
• The nervous system is composed of neurons.
• These are surrounded by a connective tissue called neuroglia.
• Impulses from receptors run through neurons.
• The number of neurons are almost fixed for a particular species.
(I) Structure of Neuron :
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sts
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Fig.7.10 : Neuron
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• Each neuron consists of a cell body called cyton and a number of branches (nerve fibres)
arising from the cyton. Neuron does not divide.
(1) Cyton contains a nucleus within the cytoplasm & Nissl’s granules (formed of RER with
ribosomes) and fine thread like fibres, called neurofibrils.
(2) Dendrites : These are short, several, much branched & contain granules. They carry impulse
towards the cyton.
(3) Axon : t is a large, single and unbranched structure. It has no nissl’s granules. t carries
impulses from cyton to the effector organs like glands, muscles etc. Synapse is a very fine gap
between these two neurons. Thus, in the entire nervous system neurons are linked together.
(II) Types of Neurons or Nerve Fibres :
(1) Motor : t carries impulses from brain and spinal cord to effector organs.
(2) Sensory : t transmits impulse from sensory organs to central nervous system.
(ii) Human Nervous System :
It consists of following parts –
(I) Central nervous system : It lies along the main (longitudinal) axis of the body. t consists of
the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is covered by cranium & spinal cord is covered by
vertebral column, both are also surrounded by three membranes of the connective tissues
called meninges.

Fig.7.11 : Sagital (Median) Section of Human Brain

• Outer most membrane duramater
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• Middle membrane arachnoid
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• Inner most membrane piamater.
• The space between the membranes is filled with a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid that
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protects the brain from mechanical shocks. The brain can be differentiated into three main
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regions fore brain, mid brain & hind brain.
1. Fore brain : t consists of olfactory lobes, cerebrum and diencephalon.
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Olfactory lobes : They receive impulse for smell.

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Cerebrum : t is the largest part of the brain. t consists of two cerebral hemispheres.
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Fissures divide each cerebral hemisphere into four lobes.

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• Occipital lobe : Region for visual perception

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• Frontal lobe : For muscular activities

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• Parietal lobe : For touch, smell, temperature and conscious association

• Temporal lobe : For auditory reception
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Cerebrum has sensory areas where impulses are received from sense organs (receptors). Similarly
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it has a general motor area from where impulses are sent to effector organs (Muscles & glands).
Diencephalon : t encloses a cavity called third ventricle. It consists of thalamus and
hypothalamus. Thalamus serves as a relay centre for sensory and motor impulses from spinal
cord and medulla oblongata to cerebrum. It recognizes sensory impulses of heat, cold, pain,
light & pressure. Floor of third ventricle is called hypothalamus. It possesses control centres
for hunger, thirst, thermoregulation, sleep, sex, stress etc.
2. Mid Brain : These are the centres for control of eye movement and hearing responses.
3. Hind brain : Posterior part of the brain.
Cerebellum : t controls coordination and adjustment of movements (equilibrium) and posture.
Pons varolii : It controls some aspects of respiration.
Medulla oblongata : t is the posterior most part of the brain and continues into the spinal
cord. t controls involuntary functions of the body such as heart beat, rate of breathing,
secretion of saliva, swallowing, coughing, sneezing & vomiting etc.
4. Spinal cord : It lies in the vertebral column. t starts from medulla oblongata and extends
downward. t is also protected by three meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. It also acts as a
centre for spinal flexes.

Fig.7.12 : Reflex arch

Reflex Action : Reflex action is the name given to the response which is at the level of spinal
cord itself. t is a rapid automatic response to a stimulus by an organ or a system of organs,
which does not involve the brain for its initiation. A reflex action is an unconscious (without will)
and involuntary response of effectors (muscles or glands) to a stimulus. Mammals show a
wide range of reflexes which can be broadly classified into two types : unconditioned and
conditoned reflexes.
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• Unconditioned reflexes. Even when the body has no past experience of a stimulus it still
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responds spontaneously and such responses or actions are called unconditioned reflexes.
These are responses to a natural unconditioned stimulus. The examples of unconditioned
or
reflexes are the blinking of an eye when a particle of dust touches the eyelids, excitement of
the salivary glands after seeing the food, etc. Other reflex actions are shown in the Table.
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• Conditioned reflexes : When a reflex which does not naturally exist had becomes a part of
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the animal behaviour. Such a reflex is said to be conditioned.

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(II) Peripheral nervous system : It consists of nerves, which extend between the central nervous
system and the sense organs or body’s effectors (muscles, glands, etc.) or both. It carries
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information to and from the CNS. It mainly controls the voluntary activities of the body.It
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includes cranial nerves (They arise from or join the brain) and spinal nerves (They arise from
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spinal cord). There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves in man and 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise
from spinal cord.
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(III) Autonomic nervous system : It consists of nerves which connect the visceral receptors and
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effectors with the CNS through the cranial and spinal nerves. t controls involuntary activities
of internal organs such as heart, blood vessels, glands & smooth muscles of alimentary canal
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& uterus. It is subdivided into

• Sympathetic • Parasympathetic system
• Organs receive nerves from both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibres. They have
opposite effects on the organs if one is stimulatory, the other is inhibitory.
• The activity of brain is recorded as electrical potentials such a record is called Electro
Encephalogram (EEG). An instrument called electro encephalograph.
SECTION (A) : COORDINATION IN PLANTS
A-1 Name the chemical substances which control and coordinate in plants.
A-2 Write a short note on chemical co–ordination in plants.
A-3 What do you mean by tropic and nastic movements ? Give one example of each.
A-4 What is 'Phototropism'? How does it occur in plants ? Describe an activity to demonstrate
phototropism.
A-5 What is ‘hydrotropism ‘ ? Describe an experiment to demonstrate ‘hydrotropism’’.

SECTION (B) : CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION IN ANIMALS
B-1 Define hormones. Name the hormones secreted at puberty in males and females?
B-2 Differentiate between endocrine and exocrine glands. Write the characteristics of hormones.
B-3 Name the different types of hormones secreted by pituitary. Also mention their functions.
B-4 What are the hormones of the following endocrine glands ?
(i) Pancreas (ii) Thyroid (iii) Adrenal (iv) Ovaries (v) Testes
B-5 Name the parts of endocrine system called as super master and master, also write their functions.
B-6 What is hypothalamus ? Where it is situated ? What are its main functions and secretions ?
B-7 Which hormone is responsible for the development of moustache and beard in men.
B-8 Why are some patients of diabetes treated by giving injections of insulin ?
B-9 Which type of coordination will get disrupted in case of a spinal cord injury ?
B-10 Name the part of hind brain which takes part in regulation of respiration.
B-11 What is reflex action and reflex arc ?
B-12 How are involuntary actions and reflex actions different from each other ?
B-13 Describe the structure of neuron with the help of a well labelled diagram.
B-14 Define ‘nerve impulse’. Which structure in neuron helps to conduct a nerve impulse ?
(i) Towards the cell body (ii) Away from the cell body
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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A-1 The movement of plant organs in response to the force of gravity is called
(A) hydrotropism (B) geotropism or
(C) heliotropism (D) phototropism
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A-2 Movement of pollen tube towards ovule is :
(A) Chemotropism (B) Hydrotropism (C) Thigmotropism (D) Phototropism
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A-3 Phytohormones are

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(A) hormones regulating growth from seed to adulthood

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(B) hormones regulating secondary growth

(C) growth regulators synthesized by plants and influencing physiological processes
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(D) hormones regulating flowering

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A-4 The natural plant hormones were first isolated from

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(A) cotton fruits , spinach leaves, rice plant (B) avena coleoptile, fungus gibberella
(C) corn germ oil, human urine (D) human urine, rice plant
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A-5 f the tip of a seedling is cut off, growth as well as bending ceases because it hampers
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(A) perception of light stimulus (B) transpiration

(C) respiration (D) photosynthesis
A-6 A plant bends towards the source of light when exposed to the light on only one side. Which of the
following is the best explanation of the phenomena ?
(A) t needs light for photosynthesis
(B) The apices of their stems are attracted by light
(C) Some auxin accumulates on the shaded side to induce greater cell elongation on that side
(D) Light stimulates the cells on the illuminated side to increase in length
A-7 A high concentration of synthetic auxins is generally used for
(A) pest control (B) enhancing root initiation
(C) controlling of cell enlargement (D) preventing the growth of the lateral buds
A-8 Cytokinins are known to
(A) inhibit cytoplasmic movement (B) help in cell division
(C) influence water movement (D) promote abscission layer formation
A-9 Ethylene is a
(A) solid hormone (B) gaseous enzyme (C) gaseous hormone (D) liquid gas mixture
A-10 Pineapple can be made to flower in off season by
(A) Zeatin (B) ethylene (C) Auxin (D) ABA

B-1. Hormone that stimulates heart beat is
(A) Thyroxine (B) Adrenaline (C) Glucagon (D) Gastrin
B-2. The hormone that promotes reabsorption of water from glomerular filtrate is –
(A) oxytocin (B) relaxin (C) vasopressin (D) calcitonin
B-3. In human body which is the master gland ?
(A) Adrenal (B) Pancreas (C) Pituitary (D) None of the above
B-4. Hypersecretion of growth hormone in a period of growth leads to
(A) Midget (B) Anemia (C) Acromegaly (D) Cushing syndrome
B-5. Failure or reduced insulin production causes
(A) Diabetes insipidus (B) Diabetes mellitus (C) both A and B (D) Cretinism
B-6. Reflex action in a body is not
(A) inborn (B) automatic & quick (C) voluntary (D) protective in nature
B-7. Synapse is a close proximity of -
(A) two veins (B) two arteries (C) two lymphatics (D) two neurons.
B-8. The largest part of brain is
(A) Corpora quadrigemina (B) Medulla oblongata
(C) Cerebellum (D) Cerebrum
B-9. The centre for the sense of smell in brain is -
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(A) cerebellum (B) cerebrum (C) midbrain (D) olfactory lobes
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B-10. Involuntary actions are controlled by -
(A) Medulla oblongata (B) cerebrum or
(C) midbrain (D) olfactory lobes
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OBJECTIVE QUESTION
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1. Apical dominance is not affected by :

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(A) Indole acetic acid (B) Gibberellins (C) Auxin (D) Indole butyric acid
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2. The first hormone discovered was :

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(A) Thymosine (B) Secretin (C) Duodenum (D) Thyroxine

3. Hormones are :
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(A) Chemically all are steroid

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(B) Stored in body in liver and thyroid

(C) Harmful only in excess
(D) Similar so that hormones of one species perform the same function in other species
4. While dwarfism and cretinism suffering child are somewhat of the same height, the main difference
is that :
(A) Cretins have normal intelligence while dwarf do not
(B) Cretins are mentally retarded
(C) The head of cretin is especially large
(D) The dwarf have elongated chin
5. Hyperactivity of which gland result in acne at the time of adolescence :
(A) Pituitary (B) Sebaceous gland (C) Sweat gland (D) All of these
6. The production of which hormone in adults leads to a gorilla - like appearance called as
Acromegaly :
(A) Adrenaline (B) Growth hormone (C) Thyroxine (D) Testosterone
7. Find the odd one out in the series given below :
Salivary gland; Gastric glands; Tear gland; Thyroid gland
(A) Salivary gland (B) Gastric glands (C) Tear gland (D) Thyroid gland
8. Effect of thyroxine on B.M.R. is :
(A) Increases (B) Decreases (C) Uncertain (D) No effect
9. Hormone responsible for embryo implantation and formation of placenta is :
(A) Adrenaline (B) Estradiol (C) Estrogen (D) Progesterone

10. A woman started developing male characteristics. It may be due to :
(A) Overproduction of adrenal androgens (B) Overproduction of estrogen
(C) Damage to mammary glands (D) Damage to posterior pituitary
11. Which hormone would be secreted when a mad dog is running after you :
(A) Testosterone (B) Adrenaline (C) Thyroxine (D) Thymosin
12. The hormone which reduces the sodium loss through urine and sweat is :
(A) Calcitonin (B) Aldosterone (C) Parathormone (D) Thyroxine
13. The dendrites of typical vertebrate neuron, compared to neuron’s axon are generally :
(A) Longer (B) Larger in diameter (C) More mylinated (D) More branched
14. Which sequence best describes a simple reflex arc such as the knee-jerk reflex ?
(A) Sensory neuron interneuron (B) Sensory neuron interneuron motor neuron
(C) Sensory neuron motor neuron interneuron (D) Sensory neuron effector cell motor neuron
15. Which of the following is not a structure in the hind brain :
(A) Medulla oblongata (B) Hypothalamus (C) Cerebellum (D) Pons
16. The part of Hind brain that is responsible for hand eye coordination is the :
(A) Pons (B) Cerebrum (C) Medulla oblongata (D) Cerebellum
17. How many pairs of cranial nerves are there in a human :
(A) 8 (B) 12 (C) 25 (D) 31
18. Sympathetic nervous system induces :
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(A) Heart beat (B) Secretion of saliva
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(C) Secretion of digestive juices (D) All of these
19. Pineal body attaches to :
(A) Diencephalon
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(B) Cerebellum
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(C) Ventral side of cerebellum (D) Lateral side of cerebrum
20. Which of the following is not a reflex action :
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(A) Coughing (B) Sneezing (C) Reading (D) Sweating

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1. When a cell fails to communicate with other cells in multicellular organism, it -

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(IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) becomes cancerous (B) enters mitotic phase
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(C) chooses to die (D) is eaten up by other cells

2. On a field trip in North America, students noticed that when threatened, Horned lizards (Genus:
phrynosoma) squirt blood at the attackers.When the professor asked what could have been the
reason behind such behaviour of Horned lizards, one student said that certain sensory receptos had
fired and triggered a neural reflex culminating in increasing the pressure in their sinus cavities until
the blood vessels in the corners of the eyes burst.Another student said that it was just an act to
frighten off the predator.Thus it can be said that (IJSO-Stage-I/2013)
(A) The first response is correct, while the second is incorrect
(B) Both explanations are reasonable and can be scientifically tested.
(C) The first response is biological, while the second is philosophical.
(D) The first explanation is testable as a scientific hypothesis, while the second is not.
3. People residing in coastal area usually do not face the problem of Thyroxin hormone deficiency
because their food intake will be rich in one of hte following minerals. (IJSO/Stage-1/2013)
(A) sodium (B) chlorine (C) Iodine (D) Phosphorus
4. Suresh accidentally touched silencer of his two wheeler while parking and withdrew his leg
Immediately. Identify the correct order of the flow of message to the brain ?
(IJSO/Stage-1/2013)
(A) Receptor Sensory neuron CNS Motor neuron Effectors
(B) Sensory neuron CNS Motor neuron Effectors Receptors
(C) CNS Motor neuron Effectors Receptors Sensory neuron
(D) Effectors Receptors Sensory neuron Motor neuron

5. A plant kept in a box with only a hole for entry of light shows bending, the process called
phototropism. It occurs due to: (IJSO/Stage-1/2017)
(A) Synthesis and diffusion of cytokinin in the leaves
(B) Breakdown of auxin in the shoot
(C) Synthesis and diffusion of abscisic acid
(D) Synthesis and diffusion of auxin in the shoot
6. An action potential in the nerve fibre is produced when positive and negative charges on outside
and inside of the axon membrane are reversed because: (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
(A) all potassium ions leave the axon
(B) more potassium ions enter the axon as compared to sodium ions leaving it
(C) more sodium ions enter the axon as compared to potassium ions leaving it
(D) all sodium ions enter the axon
7. It was observed in a group of tadpoles of a mutant frog reared in a laboratory that their development
was arrested at a particular stage. The exact tissue that was affected by the mutation is unknown.
The development was then resumed and accelerated by injecting the tadpoles with the extracts
prepared from various tissues of the wild type frogs. The observations of the experiment are given
below. (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
Experiment No. Tissue Extract Observations
1 Anterior lobe of pituitary Development resumed
2 Posterior lobe of pituitary Development did not resume
3 Thyroid gland Development resumed
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4 Anterior lobe of pituitary + Thyroid Development resumed
5 gland
Anterior + posterior lobe of pituitary Development resumed
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Posterior lobe of pituitary + Thyroid
gland
Development did not resume
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From the above observations, find out the tissue that is affected by the mutation.
(A) Anterior lobe of pituitary (B) Posterior lobe of pituitary
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(C) Thyroid gland (D) Both pituitary and thyroid gland

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8. A patient was administered a chemical agent called Guanfacine hydrochloride after the patient
showed the symptoms like shortness of breath and headache. Guanfacine hydrochloride is a known
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stimulant of central 2-adrenergic receptors of the medulla regulating the sympathetic nervous
system. The patient in this case must be suffering from_ (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
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(A) Hypertension (B) Hyperstimulation (C) Hyperpolarization (D) None of the above
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EXERCISE - 1
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 B A-2 A A-3 C A-4 B A-5 A A-6 C A-7 D A-8 B A-9 C A-10 B
B-1.B B-2 C B-3 C B-4 C B-5 B B-6 C B-7 D B-8 D B-9 D B-10 B
EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A. B B D B B B D A D A B B B B B D B D A C
EXERCISE - 3
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A. C B C A D C B C

8.REPRODUCTION
8.REPRODUCTION
A. REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is a process by which a living organism is able to produce more of its own kind. The
ability to reproduce, i.e. to produce a generation of individuals of the same species, is one of the
essential characteristics of living beings.
There are three types of reproduction :
a) Asexual Reproduction : It is a type of reproduction in which only one parent is involved and
there is no formation and fusion of gametes. Cell division involved in asexual reproduction is
mitosis while meiosis plays no role in this. Since no meiosis takes place, offsprings are exact
copy of their parents and since new individuals are formed from the somatic part of the
organism, it is also known as somatogenic reproduction.
b) Vegetative Reproduction : The vegetative parts of a plant body such as root, stem, leaf, etc.
produce new plant. Vegetative propagation is common in plants like orchids, ornamental
plants and grasses.
c) Sexual Reproduction : It is a type of reproduction in which two parent organisms are
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involved. It involves formation of haploid gametes by the process of meiosis. Later on there is
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fusion of two types of gametes derived from different parents. This process is called
fertilization. After fertilization single diploid cell formed is known as zygote which contains
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information from both the parents. Zygote undergoes further development by the process of
mitosis to form new offspring. Since meiosis is involved in this type of reproduction therefore
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offsprings are genetically not like their parent.
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(a) Asexual reproduction :

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In this method certain body cells undergo repeated mitotic divisions and give rise to two or
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more new organisms of the same kind.

• Different methods are :
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(i) Fission (Binary eg Amoeba and Multiple e.g., Plasmodium)

(ii) Budding (e.g., Yeast, Hydra)
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(iii) Fragmentation (e.g.,Spirogyra)

(iv) Spore formation (e.g., Fungi)
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(v) Regeneration (e.g., Planaria, Starfish)- This is not generally a method of reproduction, rather
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a method of repair and replacement of damaged body parts.

(vi) Tissue culture (e.g., Orchids)
(vii) Parthenocarpy (e.g., Banana, Grapes)
(B) Vegetative Propagation in Plants :
(i) Vegetative propagation by roots : e.g. Dahlia, sweet potato, etc.
(ii) Vegetative propagation by stems : Vegetative propagation by stems is of two types :
(I) By subaerial stems : Runner e.g. Grasses, Sucker e.g. Mint, Offset e.g. Eichornia, Stolon
e.g. Strawberrry.
(II) Underground Stems : Tuber e.g. Potato. Rhizome e.g. Ginger, Bulb e.g. Onion. Corm e.g.
Colocasia.
(iii) Vegetative propagation by leaves : e.g. Bryophyllum
B. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

• It is a type of reproduction including formation and fusion of gametes.
• Flower is reproductive part of plant that is also considered as modified shoot.
• Flower has usually four whorls. out of them calyx and corolla are non-essential whorls of
flower whereas Androecium and gynoecium are called essential whorls of flower.

8.REPRODUCTION
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Fig.8.1 : A diagrammatic representation of L.S. of flower
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(a) Stamen or microsporophyll :
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Stamen is structural and functional part of Androecium.The fertile portion of stamen is called
anther.Each anther is usually made of two lobes connected by a connective.A typical anther
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consists of four microsporangia (Tetrasporangiate) and such anther is called dithecous or bilobed.
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Fig.8.2 : (a) A typical stamen (B) Three-dimentional section of an anther

(i) Structure of anther : It involves anther wall and sporogenous tissues.
Anther wall : It consists of following parts
I. Epidermis : It is first formed layer of anther wall. It is protective in function.
II. Endothecium : It lies inside epidermis.

8.REPRODUCTION
III. Middle layers : It is the third wall layer of the anther.The number of middle layers generally
ranges from 1-4 but rarely there are several middle layers. The middle layers degenerate at
maturity of the anther.They are nutritive in function. Store food material is starch.
IV. Tapetum : It is the inner most wall layer of the anther surrounds sporogenous tissue. Its cells
are large multinucleate and polyploid.
Fig.8.3 : Transverse section of a mature anther ; (b) Enlarged view of one microsporangium showing
wall layers
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Fig.8.4 : Anther : T.S.of mature dithecous anther

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(ii) Sporogenous tissues : When the anther is young, a group of compactly arranged
homogenous cells called the sporogenous tissue occupies the centre of each
microsporangium.
(iii) Microsporogenesis : The formation and differentiation of microspores (pollen grains) is called
microsporogenesis. In the cavity of microsporangium the microspore mother cells divide
meiotically to produce pollen tetrads.
(iv) Structure of microspore or pollen grain : Pollen grains are generally spherical measuring
about 25-50 micrometers in diameter. The cell wall of microspore consists of two layers, outer
is exine and inner is intine. The outer exine is made up of sporopollenin.
Fig.8.5 : Structure of Pollen grain

8.REPRODUCTION
(v) Development of male gametophyte :
I. Prepollinaton development : Development of male gametophyte from pollen grain is called
microgametogenesis, pollen grain develops in anther so it is called precautious or insitu
germination.Cell of microspore divides mitotically to form large tube cell and small generative
cell. Male gametophyte is partially developed pollen grain. It is haploid (n) structure.
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Fig.8.6 Enlarged view of a pollen grain tetrad ; stages of a microspore maturing into a pollen
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grain
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II. Post pollination development :

• After falling of pollen grain on stigma, pollen-grain absorbs water and nutrients of the
stigamatic secretion through its germs pores.The tube cell comes out in form of pollen tube.
• Growth of pollen tube is apical and regulated by carbohydrates, boron and calcium.
• The generative nucleus divides mitotically to form two male gametes.
• The male gametes are non-motile and amoeboid. They are slightly unequal in size.
• The function of pollen tube is to carry gamete. In the pollen tube, tube nucleus enters first
which is vestigeal and soon disintegrate.The tube nucleus guides the passage of the pollen
tube.
(b) Carpel or megasporophyll :
Carpel is structural and functional part of Gynoecium. It consists stigma, style and ovary. Ovary
contains ovules or megasporangia.
(i) Structure of ovule or Megasporangium :
• Ovule is a outgrowth of placenta. Each ovule is connected to its placenta by a stalk called
funicle. The point of association of the funicle with the main body of the ovule is called hilum.
• Main body of a ovule is called nucellus which consists of a mass of parenchymatous tissue.
• Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes called integuments. Integuments encircle the
ovule except at the tip where a small opening called the micropyle is organised. Opposite the
micropylar end, it the chalaza, representing the basal part of the ovule.

8.REPRODUCTION
Fig : 8.7 A dissected flower of Hibiscus showing pistil (other floral parts have been removed);
A diagrammatic view of a typical anatropous ovule
(ii) Megasporogenesis : The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother
cell is called megasporogenesis. Ovules generally differentiate a single megaspore mother cell
(MMC) in the micropylar region of the nucellus . It is a large cell containing dense cytoplasm
and a prominent nucleus. The MMC undergoes meiotic division. Meiosis results in the
production of four megaspores.
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Fig : 8.8 (a) Parts of the ovule showing a large megaspore mother cell, a dyad and atetrad of
megaspores ; (b) 1,2,4, and 8-nucleate stages of embryo sac and a mature embryo sac ; (c) A
diagrammatic representation of the mature embryo sac
(iii) Structure of embryo sac : The embryo sac develops from one megaspore. It develops from
chalazal megaspore. Nucleus of functional megaspore divides by three mitotic division to form
8 nuclei. This embryo sac is 7 celled and 8 nucleated.
• Three cells at chalazal end form antipodals (n) or vegetative cells of female gametophyte.
• Three cells at micropylar end form egg apparatus. One is egg cell (n) and two are synergids(n)
or cooperative cells. Each synergid has filiform apparatus that secretes some chemical
substance for attracting pollen tube towards micropyle.
• Two nucleic (one from each pole) in the centre are called polar nuclei (n) which are fused to
form diploid secondary nucleus just before fertilization.

8.REPRODUCTION
Knowledge Booster
Chalaza : A place from where funicle and integuments
arise is called Chalaza.
Micropyle : Integument is absent just opposite to the
chalaza, so that a narrow passage (pore) is formed which
is called micropyle.
(c) Pollination :
The transfer of pollen grains from anther of a flower to the stigma of the same or different
flower of the same species is called pollination. Pollination is of two types.
(i) Self pollination (ii) Cross pollination or Allogamy
(i) Self pollination : It is of two types
(I) Autogamy (II) Geitonogamy
I. Autogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same
flower is called autogamy.
II. Geitonogamy : Pollination occurs between the two flowers of the same plant (genetically self
pollination and ecologically cross pollination).
(ii) Cross pollination(XENOGAMY) : Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a
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different plant. This is the only type of pollination which during pollination brings genetically
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different types of pollen grains to the stigma.
Agents of Pollination
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Water - Hydrophily
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Abiotic agents Biotic agents

Wind - anemophily Animals - Zoophily
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Bats - Chiropterophily
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Birds - Ornithophily
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Insect - Entomophily
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Snail - Malacophily
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Man - Artificial pollination

(D) Fertilisation :
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Fusion of male & female gametes to form diploid Zygote is called Fertilization.
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Fig : 8.9 : Longitudinal section of a flower showing growth of pollen tube

8.REPRODUCTION
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Entry of pollen tube in embryo sac : In most of the plants,
pollen tube enters in the embryo sac through one degenerated
synergid.
Porogamy : In this, pollen tube enters into the ovule through
the micropyle.It is known as porogamy.It is found in most of
Angiosperms (Capsella). Chalazogamy : In this method, the
pollen tube enter into the ovule through the chalaza.e.g.Juglans
Double fertilization :
• Pollen tube discharges its two male gametes in embryo sac. One male gamete (n) is fused
with egg cell (n) to form diploid zygote (2n). It is called True fertilization or syngamy.
• Second male gamete (n) is fused with diploid secondary nucleus (2n) to form Triploid primary
endosperm nucleus (3n) It is called triple fusion or vegetative fertilization.
• Thus fertilization occurs two time so that it is called double fertilization. It is unique feature of
angiospermic plants that is absent in other groups of plants.
Significance of Double fertilization :
• Viable seeds are formed due to it.
• Embryo can not develop without endosperms that is formed by fertilization.
• Ovary is converted in fruit after it.
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• It maintains the diploid number of Chromosomes in offsprings.
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(e) Endosperm :
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Endosperm development precedes embryo development. The primary endosperm cell divides
repeatedly and forms a triploid endosperm tissue.The cells of this tissue are filled with reserve
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food materials. and are used for the nutrition of the developing embryo.
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Fig : 8.10 : Fertilised embryo sac showing zygote and Primary Endosperm Nucleus (PEN) ; (B)
Stages in embryo development in a dicot [shown in reduced size as compared to (a)]
Fig : 8.11 T.S.of ovule with young embryo, A typical dicot embryo

8.REPRODUCTION
(f) Seed :
The fertilized ovule forms seed. On the basis of absence or presence of endosperm, the seeds are
of two types.
(i) Non endospermic or exalbuminous seeds : Endosperm is completely consumed during
development of the embryo, thus the seeds are called nonendospermic or exalbuminous Ex :
Dicots (gram, pea, groundnut).
(ii) Endospermic or albuminous seeds : Endosperm not consumed during development of the
embryo e.g. Sunflower, Castor bean.
(iii) Perispermic seeds : Some time, some part of nucellus remains unused which is present in
the form of thin layer around the endosperm is called perisperm. e.g. Black pepper.
Knowledge Booster
Vivipary : Sometimes seeds germinate within the fruit while attached to

plant. Such type of germination is called vivipary Ex: Rhizophora.
C. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

• The reproductive system in human beings become functional (or start functioning) at a definite
age called puberty.
• Generally boys attain puberty at the age of 13 to 14 years while girls reach puberty at a
comparatively lower age of 10 to 12 years.
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• On attaining puberty, the male gonads called testes starts producing male gametes called
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sperms and the female gonads called ovaries start producing female gamete called ova (or
eggs). In addition to producing sex cells (or gametes) male and female gonads (testes and
•
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ovaries) also produce and secrete sex hormones with the onset of puberty.
The testes produce the male sex hormone called testosterone, and the ovaries produce two
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female sex hormones, oestrogen and progesterone.
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The sex hormones play following important role in the process of reproduction.
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• The sex hormones control the process of gametogenesis. In other words, the sex hormones
control the production of gametes like sperms and ova.
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• The sex hormones maintain the structure and functions of accessory sex organs. The testes
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and ovaries are the primary sex organs. All other organs associated with the process of
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reproduction (like penis, seminal vesicles, vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes, etc.) are
accessory sex organs.
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(a) Male Reproductive System :

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(i) Primary Sex Organs. Primary sex organ of male is a pair of testes (singular testis). They are
present in a small pouch called scrotum and scrotum is present in extra-abdominal cavity.
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Scrotum has temperature 1 – 3 lower than body temperature which favours the formation of
sperms.Testes produce sperms.
Fig : 8.12 : Male reproductive system

8.REPRODUCTION
Fig : 8.13 : Longitudinal section of mammalian testis

(ii) Duct system :
I. Vasa efferentia : Testis is connected to epididymis through a fine tubule called as vasa
efferentia. They help in conduction of sperms.
II. Epididymis : They are long tubules which lie compacted along the testis from their upper
ends to lower back side. Its walls are muscular and glandular to provide or secrete nutritive
fluid which provides nourishment to the sperms.
III. Vas deferens : Vasa efferentia from epididymal duct finally opens into vas deferens.
IV. Ejaculatory duct : They are short, straight, muscular tubes, each formed by the union of vasa
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deferens and duct of seminal vesicles.
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V. Urethra : It arises from urinary bladder forming a urinogenital canal. It carries urine, sperm
and secretion of seminal vesicles, prostrate and cowper’s glands.
VI.
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Penis : It is a male copulatory organ which also passes urine.
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VII. Accessory glands : These are three types of glands.
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1. Seminal vesicle 2. Cowper’s gland 3. Prostate gland

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• Secretions of these glands provides nourishment and mobility to sperms.

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• Copulatory organ : Penis is a copulatory organ for the transfer of the sperms to female
reproductive tract. Semen = Sperms + Secretion of accessory glands.
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(b) Female Reproductive System : The human female reproductive system consists of the
following organs.
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(i) Ovaries : Ovary is divided into 2 parts : - Outer part is cortex made up of dense connective
tissue with reticular fibres, ovarian follicles and few blood vessels while inner or central part is
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medulla made up of less dense connective tissue with elastic fibres, numerous blood vessels.
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Cortex also consists of large mass of yellow cells termed as corpus luteum, formed in an
empty follicle after the release of it’s ovum.
The cells of corpus luteum secrete the hormones.
• Progesterone during pregnancy.
• Relaxin at the end of pregnancy.
Fig : 8.14 : Structure of Ovary

8.REPRODUCTION
(ii) A pair of Fallopian tubes (which are also called oviducts) Oviduct provide site of fertilisation.
(iii) Uterus: It is large , highly elastic muscular sac specialized for the development of the embryo.
(iv) Cervix : Lower narrow cervix that projects into the vagina.
(v) Vagina : It is a large, median, elastic, muscular tube. It is also called as “Birth canal”.
ampulla
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Fig : 8.15 : Female reproductive system
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(c) Menstrual Cycle :
• The reproductive cycle in the female is called menstrual cycle.
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• The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called menarche.

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• In human females menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days, and
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the cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next one is called the menstrual
cycle.
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• During this cycle, a series of changes occur in the ovary and uterus.
• These changes are termed menstrual changes.In human beings, menstrual cycle ceases
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around 50 years of age; that is termed as menopause.

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It comprises of 4 phases :
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(i) Menstrual phase

(ii) Follicular phase or proliferative phase / Post- Menstrual
(iii) Ovulatory phase
(iv) Luteal phase/Secretory phase
(i) Menstrual phase : (4-5 days) Corpus luteum degenerates and level of LH & progesterone get
reduced. The endometerium degenerates.
(ii) Proliferative phase (7-10 days) : This is mainly influenced by FSH and estrogen. During this
phase repairing of endometrium lining takes place.
(iii) Ovulatory phase : (14th day of cycle) Ovulation take place.
(iv) Secretory phase : (7 days) After ovulation LH stimulates remaining cells of ovarian follicles to
develop into corpus luteum and it secretes progesterone. During this phase uterine glands
produce watery mucus.

8.REPRODUCTION
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Fig : 8.16 : Menstrual cycle showing hormonal relations : (A) Gonadotropin, (B) Ovarian
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(d) Gametogenesis :
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• The formation of gametes is called gametogenesis.The formation of male gamete / sperm is

called spermatogenesis. The formation of ovum is called oogenesis.
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Ovum
Fig : 8.17 Gametogenesis

8.REPRODUCTION
(e) Fertilization and Implantation :
• During coitus semen is released by the penis into the vagina. The motile sperms swim rapidly,
pass through the cervix, enter into the uterus and finally reach the junction of the isthmus and
ampulla of the fallopian tube.
• The ovum released by the ovary is also transported to the ampullary-isthmic junction where
fertilization takes place. Fetilization is the process of union of an ovum with sperm make a
zygote.
(f) Stages of human embryonic development :
• The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through the isthmus of the oviduct called
cleavage towards the uterus and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
• The embryo with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called a morula.
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Fig : 8.18 Embryonic development

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(i) Blastulation :
• It is formation of blastula, which is next stage to morula.
• After about four days of fertilization, morula enters in uterine cavity.
• Due to rearrangement of blastomeres, a central fluid filled is formed inside morula.
• This entire structure is called as blastula.
• In human, blastula is called as blastocyst.
• As blastocyst is formed, zona pellucida becomes thinner & finally disappears.
• Now embryo implants in to uterine lining.
(ii) Implantation :
• It involves attachment of blastocyst to endometrium of uterus.
• Embryo is attached on dorsal wall of uterus.
• It takes place after 7 days of fertilization.
(iii) Gastrulation :
• It is formation of gastrula from blastula.
• It is the stage of embryonic development in which germinal layers are formed.
• It involves differentiation & movement of cells of blastocyst from their original place to the site,
where they finally settle.

8.REPRODUCTION
(iv) Formation of Germ Layers :-
• Three germ layers – ectoderm, mesoderm & endoderm are formed by differentiation of cells of
blastocyst.
(v) Organogenesis :-
• It is formation of various organs in embryo.
(vi) Gestation Period : It is time from conception to birth. Human = 270 – 290 days (from last
menstruation).
(vii) Foetal Membranes : (extra-embryonic membranes ) formed from trophoblast
• These are found only in amniotes (Reptiles, Birds & Mammals).
• These surround developing foetus (amnion, chorion, allantois & yolk sac).
• Amniocentesis – It is a technique to determine the sex of foetus & for checking chromosomal
defects by taking out amniotic fluid containing foetal cells. It is done b/w 15 & 17 weeks of
gestation.
(viii) Placenta :
• It is organic connection b/w fetus & uterine wall for physiological exchange b/w foetus &
mother’s mother.
Functions of Placenta :-
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• Nutrition, Respiration & Excretion
• Storage – It stores glycogen & fat.
•
•
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As a barrier – It allows only essential elements to pass in to foetal blood.
Endocrine function – It secretes estrogen, progesterone and human chorionic
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gonadotorpin(hCG).
• It maintains the corpus luteum and thereby stimulate the synthesis of estrogen and
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progesterone.
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Fig : 8.19 Placenta

(ix) Parturition :
• Child birth is called as parturition.
• Child birth begins with long series of involuntary contractions of uterus, which are experienced
as labour pain.
Knowledge Booster
Parturition : Parturition is the act of expelling the fully formed youngone from the
mother's uterus at the end of gestation. Hormones involved oxytocin and relaxin.
Colostrum : After birth, the breasts does not release milk but colostruum for 2 or 3 days.
This is a thin, yellowish, opalescent fluid, often called foremilk. It transfers antibodies
from the mother to the baby to combat infection.

8.REPRODUCTION
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Fig : 8.20 Development of Embryo
SECTION (A) : REPRODUCTION
A-1 Define the following terms
(i) spore formation (ii) multiple fission (iii) Chain budding (iv) Parthenogenesis
A-2 Name the asexual reproduction method in following-
(i) Hydra (ii) Planaria (iii) Spirogyra (iv) Yeast
A-3 Write down 4 differences between asexual and sexual reproduction

8.REPRODUCTION
SECTION (B) : SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
B-1 Define the following terms-
(a) Synergids (b) Double fertilization (c) Triple fusion
B-2 Explain different types of asexual reproductive methods in plants.
B-3 Explain the sexual reproduction in Angiosperm
B-4 Write down the differences between male and female gamete of plant
SECTION (C) : SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS
C-1 What do you understand by gestation period and what is it’s time duration.
C-2 Explain the structure and function of male reproductive system with suitable diagram.
C-3 (a) In the Human body what is the role of
(i) Seminal vesicles (ii) Prostrate gland
(B) List two functions performed by testes in human beings.
C-4 Expalin female reproductive system in detail.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 Asexual reproduction through budding occurs in
(A) Rose (B) Neem (C) Yeast (D) Ginger
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A-2 In case of fungi, which type of asexual reproduction takes place
(A) Fission (B) Budding
(C) Spore formation (D) None of these are correct
A-3 Binary fission is a regular mode of multiplication in
or
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(A) yeast (B) Bacteria (C) Marchantia (D) Mosses
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A-4 During bud formation the bud remains attached to parental body
(A) for nutritional requirement (B) for support
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(C) both A & B (D) None of them are correct

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A-5 Vegetative reproduction is a common phenomenon in :-

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(A) Plants (B) Mammals (C) Microbes (D) Reptiles

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A-6 The roots of some plants can give rise to new plants. Select correct one from the following.
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(A) Potato (B) Bryophyllum (C) Sweet potato (D) Turmeric

A-7 Reproduction by leaves occurs in.
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(A) Potato (B) Sugarcane (C) Bryophyllum (D) Ginger

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A-8 Which one of the following under ground structure is a modified stem ?
(A) Potato (B) Sweet potato (C) Turnip (D) Carrot
A-9 Scion is a term in relation to
(A) layering (B) cutting (C) grafting (D) micropropagation
A-10 Which of the following is primitive feature ?
(A) Asexual reproduction (B) Sexual reproduction
(C) Both of these (D) None of these
SECTION (B) : REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
B-1 Bryophyllum can be propagated vegetatively by-
(A) Stem (B) Root (C) Leaf (D) Flower
B-2 Which of the following can not regenerates with the help of layering ?
(A) Jasmine (B) Rose (C) Mango (D) Cactus
B-3 Development of egg without fertilization is
(A) parthenocarpy (B) polyembryony (C) parthenogenesis (D) adventive embryony
B-4 Scion is a term in relation to
(A) layering (B) cutting (C) grafting (D) micropropagation
B-5 Which one of the following is propagated by means of cuttings ?
(A) Sugarcane (B) Coffee (C) Citrus (D) All of these

8.REPRODUCTION
B-6 Which is not a method of asexual reproduction-
(A) Micropropagation (B) Budding (C) Sowing (D) Layering
B-7 Anemophily is pollination by
(A) air (B) water (C) insects (D) animal
B-8 Pollination between different flowers of same plant is called
(A) autogamy (B) geitonogamy (C) allogamy (D) xenogamy
B-9 Double fertilization is
(A) fusion of two male gametes with egg
(B) fusion of one male gamete with egg and the other male gamete with the polar bodies
(C) both are correct
(D) both are incorrect
B-10 The structure meant for the nourishment of developing embryo in case of plants is -
(A) pollen tube (B) endosperm (C) both A & B are correct (D) none of these
B-11 The embryo is formed by the fusion of-
(A) male gametes (B) male & female gametes
(C) female gametes (D) spores & gametes
B-12 The genetic information is stored in -
(A) DNA (B) RNA (C) Ribosome (D) ER
B-13 Each female flower consists of
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(A) ovary (B) stigma (C) ovary, style & stigma (D) thalamus
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SECTION (C) : SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
C-1 In mammals, the testes lies in scrotal sacs due to
(A) presence of urinary bladder or
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(B) presence of rectum
(C) long vas–deferens
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(D) requirement of low temperature for sperm formation

C-2 Graffian follicles are found in
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(A) testis of mammals (B) ovary of frog (C) ovary of cockroach (D) ovary of mammals
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C-3 Site of fertilization in mammals is

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(A) ovary (B) uterus (C) vagina (D) fallopian tube

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C-4 The process of reproduction which involves only a single parent to form an individual
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(A) sexual reproduction (B) asexual reproduction

(C) none of these (D) Both A & B are correct
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C-5 Loss of reproductive capacity in women after age of 45 years is

(A) menstruation (B) ageing (C) menopause (D) menarche
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C-6. Release of oocytes from ovary is

(A) gestation (B) ovulation (C) parturition (D) implantation
C-7 Acrosome is formed by
(A) mitochondria (B) centrioles (C) golgi bodies (D) ribosomes
C-8 Acrosome aids the sperm to
(A) penetrate vitelline membrane of ovum (B) find ovum
(C) swim (D) higher activity
C-9. Progesterone is secreted by
(A) corpus luteum (B) thyroid (C) thymus (D) testis
C-10 Implantation of the zygote takes place at which of the following embryonic stage ?
(A) Gastrula (B) Morula (C) Blastula (D) Single-celled
C-11. After ovulation Graffian follicle regresses into
(A) corpus atresia (B) corpus callosum (C) corpus luteum (D) corpus albicans
C-12. The correct sequence of spermatogenetic stages leading to the formation of sperms in a mature
human testes is
(A) spermatogonia-spermatocyte-spermatid -sperms
(B) spermatid- spermatocyte - spermatogonia - sperms
(C) spermatogonia - spermatid - spermatocyte - sperms
(D) spermatocyte - spermatogonia - spermatid – sperms

8.REPRODUCTION
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Reproduction is necessary to maintain :
(A) Continuity of life (B) Maintainance of species or race
(C) to increase the population (D) All of these are correct
2. Vegetative propagation helps a plant grower in :
(A) Growing a plant similar to the parent plant genetically
(B) Quick propagation of plants
(C) Combination of desirable traits of two plants
(D) Both (B) and (C)
3. Ovary in a tomato flower had numerous ovules but fruit has approximately 40 seeds at maturity, the
remaining ovules were :
(A) Used in making fruit wall (B) Converted into juicy liquid
(C) Destroyed (D) Ejected out of ovary
4. The odd one is :
(A) Micropyle (B) Embryo sac (C) Nucellus (D) Pollen grain
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5. Where do pollination and fertilization takes place :
(A) Stigma & Style (B) Style & stigma (C) Stigma & ovule (D) Stigma & pollentube
6. A phenomenon is termed as parthenogenesis when : or
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(A) Artificial fertilization occurs (B) Egg is fertilized by a sperm
(C) Egg undergoes cleavage without fertilization (D) Sperm dies before fertilization
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7. Microscopic structure in a flower that contains the polar nuclei is :

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(A) Pollen tube (B) Pollen sac (C) Embryo sacs (D) Male-gametophyte
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8. Seminiferous tubules are composed of :

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(A) Spermatogonia (B) Glandular epithelium(C) Sensory epithelium (D) Germinal epithelium
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9. Mitochondria of a sperm occur in its :

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(A) Middle piece (B) Head (C) Acrosome (D) Tail

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10. Relative sizes of egg cell, morula blastula & gastrula are :
(A) Egg cell is smallest & gastrula cell is largest
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(B) Egg cell is the largest and gastrula cell is smallest

(C) Egg cell is largest & morula cell is the smallest
(D) All are of equal size
11. Syngamy is the process in which :-
(A) Male gamete fuses with female gamete
(B) Pollen tube enters into the ovule through chalaza
(C) Pollen tube enter into the ovule through micropyle
(D) Generative cell and tube cell fuse
12. If root of a flowering plant has 24 chromosomes, then its gamete has how many chromosomes :-
(A) 24 (B) 12 (C) 4 (D) 8
13. Two non motile male gamete in angiosperm is produced by :-
(A) generative cell (B) microspore mother cell
(C) vegetative cell (D) tube cell
14. Arising from placenta is megasporangium which is commonly known as :
(A) Ovule (B) Ovary (C) Ovarian cavity (D) Stamen
15. If the epididymis is not presented then what will happen :-
(A) Sperm life cycle is short (B) Early cross the pathway
(C) Functional maturation is early (D) Sperm will be incapable for fertilization

8.REPRODUCTION
16. Puberty occurs in females at the age of
(A) 8 - 10 years (B) 11-14 years (C) 15-17 years (D) 18-20 years
17. "Spermiogenesis" is a process in which :-
(A) Spermatids change into spermatozoa
(B) Spermatogonia produce a spermatid
(C) Spermatocytes give rise to spermatozoa
(D) Dormant spermatozoa become active just before ejaculation.

1. The body of hydra is cut transversely into three pieces and the middle piece is kept up side down on
the substratum. Then, (IJSO/Stage-1/2010)
(A) it fails to regenerate into an independent hydra.
(B) it would form tentacles and foot in the same locations as oriented.
(C) it would form tentacles and foot at the original upper and lower ends.
(D) it will form a hydra with tentacles at both the ends.
2. The tissue whose activity is important in vegetative propagation of a plant grafting is -
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(IJSO-Stage-I/2010)
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(A) meristem (B) phloem (C) cambium (D) pith
3. Genome of a sexually reproducing organism is (IJSO-Stage-I/2011)
(A) all the chromosomes present in the diploid cell. or
(B) total number of chromosomes present inthe haploid cell.
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(C) total number of genes present in a cell.
(D) totality of DNA present in the haploid cell.
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4. Which of the following is not a usual floral pigment ? (IJSO-Stage-I/2011)

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(A) Betacyanins (B) Anthocyanins. (C) Carotenes (D) Betaxanthins.

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5. The body of hydra is cut transversely into three pieces and the middle piece is kept upside down on
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the substratum. Then, (IJSO-Stage-I/2011)

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(A) it fails to regenerate into an independent hydra.

(B) it would form tentacles and foot in the same locations as oriented.
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(C) it would form tentacles and foot at the original upper and lower ends.
(D) it will form a hydra with tentacles at both the ends.
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6. The tissue whose activity is important in vegetative propagation of a plant grafting is-
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(IJSO-Stage-I/2011)
(A) meristem (B) phloem (C) cambium (D) pith
7. of the following the combination of processes related to sexual reproduction are:
(IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
i. Conjugation ii. Fragmentation iii. Gamete formation iv. Zygote
(A) i, iii and iv (B) i, ii and iv (C) ii, iii and iv (D) only iii and iv
8. The combination of the following structures possessing a single set of genome is:
(IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
i. Ovary ii. Anther iii. Egg iv. Zygote
v. sepal vi. Petal vii. Pollen
(A) i,ii, iv, and vi (B) ii, iii, iv and vii (C) only iii and vii (D) only ii, iii and vii
9. Plants with inferior ovary always bear - (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) pseudocarps (B) berries (C) aggregate fruits (D) seedles fruits
10. In some societies, “Women were solely held responsible for giving birth to female baby” assuming
no role for men. But scientific advancement has proved men equally responsible for the birth of
either sex. Armed with this information which of the following would be the most appropriate
scenario for the birth of female child ? (IJSO-Stage-I/2013)
(A) Ovum with X chromosome and Sperm with Y chromosome is Female
(B) Ovum with Y chromosome and Sperm with Y chromosome is Male
(C) Ovum with X chromosome and Sperm with X is female
(D) Ovum with X chromosome and Sperm without chromosome is Female

8.REPRODUCTION
11. In pregnant women, foetus’s physiological functions like nourishment, respiration and excretion are
taken up by (IJSO/Stage-1/2013)
(A) Stomach of mother (B) Placenta (C) Umbilical cord (D) Uterus
12. In a plant, 30 megaspore mother cells are generated. If all the ovules are fertilised, how many sees
are expected to be formed ? (IJSO/Stage-1/2014)
(A) 60 (B) 30 (C) 90 (D) 120
13. Regeneration in animal kingdom is observed in which of the following animals ?
(IJSO-Stage-I/2015)
(A) Frog (B) Planaria (C) Birds (D) Snakes
14. The testes of man lie in a small muscular pouch called scrotum located outside the abdominal
cavity; choose the correct reason. (IJSO-Stage-I/2015)
(A) Sperm formation in testes requires a higher temperature than the normal body temperature.
(B) Seminal vesicles requires lower temperature to produce nutrients for sperm.
(C) Sperm formation in testes requires a lower temperature than the normal body temperature.
(D) Sperm produced in scrotum is easily released out without going into abdominal cavity.
15. The dry mass (mass excluding water) of a seed in the process of germination :
(A) increases over time until the first leaves appear (IJSO/Stage-1/2015)
(B) decreases over time until the first leaves appear
(C) Stays constant unit the first leaves appear
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(D) first increases and then decreaes until the first leaves appears
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16. During a study the number of cells was recorded to increase as follows : (IJSO/Stage-1/2017)
64 128
(A) Budding
256 512 1024.This represents :
(B) Meiosis
or
(C) Binary fission (D) Fragmentation
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17. In a self-pollinated plant, what would be minimum number of meiotic divisions required for setting
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400 seeds ? (IJSO/Stage-1/2017)

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(A) 100 (B) 200 (C) 400 (D) 500

18. If a flower is producing a large number of minute and smooth pollen, the agency for cross pollination
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is most likely to be : (IJSO/Stage-1/2017)

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(A) Air (B) Water (C) Insects (D) Bats

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EXERCISE - 1
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 C A-2. C A-3 B A-4 C A-5 A A-6C A-7C A-8 A A-9 C A-10 A
SECTION (B) : REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
B-1 C B-2 D B-3 C B-4 C B-5 D B-6 C B-7 A B-8 B B-9 B B-10 B B-11 B B-12.A B-13.C
SECTION (C) : SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
C-1 D C-2 D C-3 D C-4 B C-5 C C-6 B C-7 C C-8 A C-9 A C-10 C C-11 C C-12 A
EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
A. D D B D C C C D A B A B A A D B A
EXERCISE - 3
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
A. C C D BONUS C C A C A C B B B C D C D A

9. HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
A. HEREDITY AND VARIATIONS

(a) Heredity :
• Transmission of traits from one generation to another generation is known as heredity.These
characters are fixed for a particular individual.
(b) Variations :
It is concerned with the differences between the individuals of same species and also between the
offsprings of the same parents.
Variations could be of two types :
(i) Somatic Variation (ii) Germinal Variation
(i) Somatic Variation : It affects the somatic cells of an organism. It is neither inherited from
parents nor transmitted to next generations. It is acquired by individuals during their life and is
lost with death. So it is called as acquired variation.
Somatic variations are due to :
I. Environment II. Use and disuse of organs
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III. Conscious efforts
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(ii) Germinal Variation :- This variation affects the germ cells of an organism and is consequently
inheritable, it is received by the individual from the parents and is transmitted to the next
generation. Also called as blastogenic variation. or
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Significance of Variations :
• Variation enables the organisms to adapt themselves to the changing environment. This
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enables the organisms to face the struggle for existence in a better way.
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• It forms raw material for evolution.

• Helps in improving the races of useful animals and plants.
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• It is the basis of diversity.

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• It also leads to the occurrence of new traits.

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(c) Genetics :
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• It is the branch of biology that deals with the study of heredity and variation.
(i) Gene : Basic unit of inheritance, located on a chromosome. Mendel had used the term ‘factor’
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for it before ‘genes’ were identified.

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(ii) Allele : Alternative form of a gene; there are two alleles of a gene which govern the
expression of a pair of contrasting character. For example, blue colour and black colour of
eyes are two alleles of the eye colour gene.
(iii) Homozygous : A condition in which the two members of an allelic pair are similar in a diploid
organism.
(iv) Heterozygous : A condition in which two members of an allelic pair are dissimilar.
(v) Phenotype : The physical or external appearance of an organism, regardless of its genetic
constitution. For example, tall and dwarf plants, smooth and wrinkled seeds.
(vi) Genotype : The genetic constitution of an organism.
(vii) Dominant characteristic : Any characteristic that appears in the F1 generation offspring from
a cross between parents possessing contrasting characteristics such as tallness and
dwarfness in pea plants.
(viii) Recessive characteristic : Any characteristic present in the parental generation that does not
appear in the F1 generation but reappears in the F2 generation.
(ix) Monohybrid cross : A cross (hybridization experiment) in which a single pair of contrasting
character is studied at a time. For example, a cross involving tall and dwarf plant is a
monohybrid cross.
(x) Dihybrid cross : A cross involving two pairs of contrasting characters. For example, a cross
involving round and yellow seeded plant with wrinkled and green seeded plants.

(xi) Offspring : Organism produced as a result of sexual reproduction; same as progeny.
(xii) F1 generation (First filial generation) : The offspring produced by the parental generation.
(xiii) F2 generation (Second filial generation) : The offspring produced by the F1 generation.
(xiv) Pure variety : Breeding characteristics that appear unchanged generation after generation.
(xv) Pedigree : Ancestral record of an organism.
(xvi) Back Cross : When F1 individuals are crossed with one of its parents either dominant or
recessive, the cross is called back cross.
(xvii) Test Cross : When F1 individuals are crossed with its pure recessive parent, the cross is
called test cross. The result of it is always 1:1.
(xviii)Checker Board / Punnett Square : It is a square divided into smaller squares which shows
the probable result of cross, both phenotypic and genotypic. Forked line or branching system
is also used to know phenotypic and genotypic probabilities.
(d) Mendel’s Experiment and Laws of Inheritance :
• Gregor Johann Mendel is called as Father of genetics. With the help of his experiments on
garden pea(Pisum sativum), he was able to formulate laws which explain the manner of
inheritance of characters.
• Mendel’s work was not recognized at that time, in 1900, Mendel’s laws were rediscovered by
three different scientists :
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(i) Hugo de Vries- Holland
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(ii) Karl Correns-Germany
(iii) Erich von Tschermak -Austria
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Mendel chose garden pea as plant material for his experiments, since it has following
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advantages :-
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• Well defined characters • Bisexual flowers

• Predominantly self - pollination • Easy hybridization
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• Cross fertilization is possible • It has short life cycle.

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Traits Choosen By Mendel For His Experiment : There are seven traits choosen by Mendel
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for his experiments :-

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SEVEN PAIRS OF CONTRASTING TRAITS OF GARDEN PEA STUDIED BY MENDEL

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S.No. Characters Dominant Recessive

1 Plant size Tall (T) Dwarf (t)
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2 Shape of seeds Round (R) Wrinkled (r)

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3 Colour of seed Yellow (Y) Green (y)

4 Colour of flower Violet (V) White (v)
5 Shape of pod Inflated (I) Constricted (i)
6 Colour of pod Green (G) Yellow (g)
7 Position of flower Axillary (A) Terminal (a)
Crossing Technique Employed By Mendel :

• Selection of Parents
• Formation of pure line by self pollination
• Emasculation (Removal of anther)
• Bagging (protection from undesired pollination)
• Pollination (By dusting pollens)
• Obtaining seeds
(i) Monohybrid cross: It involves the study of inheritance of one pair of contrasting characters.
e.g. cross between pure tall and pure dwarf plants to obtain F1 generation and following
results were obtained:
I. In the F1 generation it was found that only one of the trait was expressed and not the other.
• The trait which got expressed is called as dominant, where as the one which was not
expressed is called as recessive trait.

II. The F2 generation was obtained by self pollination, the dominant and the recessive traits
obtained were in the ratio of 3 : 1 i.e. 75% of the offsprings which appeared in F2 generation
had dominant trait, while 25% had recessive trait. This ratio of 3 : 1 is also known as
Mendelian monohybrid ratio.
Dwarf pea plant
TT × tt
T T t t
In F1 all are tall
(F1 × F1)
Tt × Tt
T t T t
T t
T TT Tt
t Tt tt
In F2 we will get 3 : 1 ratio (Phenotypic)
III. Mendel further found that the phenotypic ratio of 3 : 1 of dominant to recessive form of a trait
was actually a genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 of pure dominant, hybrid and pure recessive forms.
• The traits which remain hidden in F1 generation got expressed in F2 generation. This was later
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on proved in F3 generation.
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IV. Results of Monohybrid Cross :
1. The principle of Dominance :- When two homozygous individuals with one or more sets of
or
contrasting characters are crossed, the characters that appear in the F1 hybrids are dominant
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characters and those which do not appear in F1 are recessive characters.
2. The principle of Segregation :- [Law of purity of gametes] :- The law of segregation states
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that when a pair of contrasting factors or genes or alleles are brought together in a
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heterozygous condition, the two remain together without being contaminated but when
gametes are formed from them the two separate out from each other. This is also known as
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Mendel’s first law of heredity.

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(ii) Dihybrid Cross : Mendel also performed dihybrid crosses. A dihybrid cross is a cross
between two sets of plants involving two pairs of contrasting characters. For example, a cross
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between plants having yellow and round seeds (YYRR) with plants possessing green and
wrinkled seeds (yyrr) is a dihybrid cross.
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P generation
P generation
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Yellow and round X Green and wrinkled
Seeds (YYRR) Seeds (yyrr)
F1 generation Yellow and round seeds (YyRr)
Selfing
Ratio
F2 generation Yellow round (YR) 9
Yellow wrinkled (Yr) 3
Green round (yR) 3
Green wrinkled (yr) 1
16

YYRR yyrr
×
YR YR yr yr
Gametes yr yr
YR YyRr YyRr
YR YyRr YyRr
All F1 plants are yellow and round seeded

YyRr × YyRr
YR Yr yR yr YR Yr yR yr
Gametes YR Yr yR yr
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
yR YyRR YyRr yyrr yyRr
yr YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
In F2 generation :
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• Phenotypic ratio is 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
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• Genotypic Ratio is 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 4 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1
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9 : 3 : 3 : 1 phenotypic ratio in the F2 generation is obtained in a dihybrid cross, and is called
the Dihybrid ratio. If we analyse the result of a dihybrid cross, two additional combinations
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(yellow and wrinkled seeds and green and round seeds) are obtained. It means that
yellow/green seed character and round/wrinkled seed character are independently inherited. In
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other words, the inheritance of one pair is not affected by the presence of the other (also
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termed as the law of independent assortment).

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Mendel’s Laws Of Inheritance :

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I. Principle of Independent Assortment : If the inheritance of more than one pair of characters
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is studied simultaneously, the factor or genes for each pair of characters assort out
independently. It is known as Mendel’s second law of Inheritance.
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(iii) Exceptions Of Mendel’s Laws Of Inheritance :

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I. Incomplete Dominance :
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• It was discovered by Correns, 1903. It is a post Mendelian discovery. Incomplete dominance

is the phenomenon of neither of the two alleles being dominant so that expression in the
hybrid is a fine mixture or some what intermediate between the expressions of two alleles in
their homozygous states.
• Incomplete dominance is not blending inheritance because parental characters reappear in F2
generation. In Snapdragon (Dog Flower, Antirrhinum majus) and Four O’Clock (Mirabilis
jalapa ; Correns, 1903) there are two types of pure breeding plants, red flowered and white
flowered. On crossing the two, F1 , plants or hybrids possess pink flowers. On selfing them F2
generation has 1 red : 2 pink : 1 white flowered plants with phenotypic ratio beings similar to
genotypic ratio. Pink flower colour is due to incomplete dominance of red flower trait over white
flower trait.
I. Co-Dominance :
• It is the phenomenon in which two alleles express themselves independently when present
together in an organism. In other words, it is the phenomenon in which offspring shows
resemblance to both the parents, e. g. ABO blood grouping in humans.
• ABO blood groups are controlled by the gene I. The plasma membrane of the red blood cells
has sugar polymers that protrude from its surface and the kind of sugar is controlled by the
gene.
• The gene I has three alleles IA, IB and i. The alleles IA and IB produce a slightly different form
of the sugar while, allele i does not produce any sugar.

• In humans, each person possesses any two of the three I gene alleles. IA and IB are completely
dominant over i. When IB and i are present, only IB expresses (because i does not have any
sugar), same is the case with IA and i.
• But when IA and IB are present together, they both express their own types of sugars, this is
due to codominance.
• Therefore, the red blood cells have both A and B types of sugars. Since, there are three
different types of alleles, there can be six different combinations.
• Hence, a total of six different genotypes of the human ABO blood types are present as given
below in the table :
TYPES OF BLOOD GROUPS
Blood Group Genotype Antigen Antibody
A A A o
A I I ,I I A b
B B B O
B I I ,I I B a
A B
AB II A&B Nil
O
O O
I I Nil a, b
III. Multiple Alleles :

• When more than two alternative forms (allele) of a gene occupying the same locus on a
chromosome in a population, these arc known as multiple alleles.
• The ABO blood grouping is a good example of multiple alleles. In this case, more than two, i.
e. three alleles are present governing the same character. Multiple alleles can be found only
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when population studies are made.
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IV. Linkage : Linkage is the phenomenon of certain genes (present on the same chromosome) to
remain together and get inherited block (as a single unit) through generations. It was
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discovered by Morgan (1910). Linkage is an exception to the principle of independent
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assortment. The genes which remain together on the same chromosome are called linked
genes.
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B. ORIGIN & EVOLUTION

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Chronology of events
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Origin Ago (Billion yrs)

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Universe 10–20
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Solar system 4.6

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Earth 4.5
Oldest surviving rock 4.3
Life (Heterotrophs) 4.2–3.9
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Old rock 3.9

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Chemosynthetic
3.8–3.5
procaryotes
Oldest microfossils
3.3–3.5
(Cyanobacteria)
Photosynthetic
3.5–3.3
procaryotes
Eukaryotes 1.6–1.5
(a) Origin Of Life :
Big-Bang Theory :
• This theory was proposed by Abbe Lemaitre, according to which, the universe orginated
about 15 billion years ago due to a thermonuclear explosion of a dense entity called Big-
bang.
• About 4.5 billion years ago, the origin of our solar system took place by the gaseous clouds
formed due to this explosion. These gaseous clouds collapsed and converted into flat disc-like
structure made up of atoms and small particles due to their own gravitational pull. These flat-
disc like structure is called Solar-Nebula.
• The very hot central part of this solar Nebula became still hotter & converted into the sun.
Now, due to condensation of atoms and dust particles moving around the sun formation of the
other planets took place.
• When the earth's surface cooled down and its temperature decreased to 100ºC, water formed on it.

Ancient Theories for origin of life :
(i) Theory of special creation –
• According to it life has not changed ever since its origin.
• Special creation theory lacks scientific evidences so it is not accepted.
(ii) Theory of Spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis or Auto genesis) –
• According to this theory life was originated from nonliving things or decaying and rotting matter
like straw, mud etc. spontaneously.
(iii) Theory of Biogenesis –
• Harvey (1651) and Huxley (1870)
• New organisms can be originated on earth only by pre-existing life.
• This theory reject the theory of Spontaneous generation but cannot explain origin of life.
• To prove Biogenesis and to disprove abiogenesis experiments were performed by Louis
Pasteur.
• Pasteur is popular for Germ Theory of Diseases or Germ theory and he disproved
abiogenesis.
• He prepared sterlized syrup of sugar and killed yeast by boiling them in flasks.
• He took two flasks one of broken neck and another of curved neck (swan neck flask). No life
appeared in swan neck flask because germ laden dust particles in the air were trapped by the
curved neck which serves as filter while in broken neck flask colonies of microorganism were
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developed. By the experiment he proved that life comes only from pre-existing life.
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(iv) Modern theory/ Oparin-Haldane theory/Theory of Chemical Evolution :
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•
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This theory was proposed by Russian Scientist A.I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane.
According to this theory life originated by the composition of chemicals.
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• Ist life originated in the water of oceans. So water is essential for origin of life.
• At the time of origin of life free O2 was absent, so first life was anaerobic.
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• In the primitive atmosphere free oxygen was present but complete oxygen consumed in
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composition so primitive atmosphere of earth was reducing.

• Oxygen was reproduce by photosynthesis and atmosphere converted in oxidising.
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(b) Chemical Evolution :

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(i) The atomic stage – The earth was originated about 4.5 billion years ago.The lightest atoms
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like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen formed the primitive atmosphere.
(ii) Molecular stage – Free atoms combined to form molecules and simple inorganic compounds.
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The primitive atmosphere was reducing (without free oxygen) unlike present oxidising
atmosphere (with free oxygen). The first molecular compounds formed were probably
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water and Ammonia. CO2, CO, N2, H2 etc. were also formed.
(iii) Origin of early organic compounds – The nitrogen and carbon of the atmosphere combined
with metallic atoms forming nitrides and carbides. Water vapour and metallic carbides reacted
to form the first organic compound Methane(CH4).
• Water which formed on earth due to high temperature evapourated so clouds were formed.
• Water vapour changed into rain drops and by the collection of water on earth primitive oceans
were formed.
(iv) Origin of simple organic compounds – The early compounds interacted and formed simple
organic compounds like, aldehyde, Ketones, Alcohols,Pentose and hexose sugar, Amino
Acids, Glycerol, Fatty Acids, Purines, Pyrimidines etc.
• Energy was obtained from U.V. Rays of sunlight, cosmic rays and heat of volcanic
eruptions.
(v) Origin of complex organic compounds –
• The small simple organic molecules combined to form large complex organic molecules.
• These macromolecules forms main component of protoplasm hence the possibility of origin of
life in primitive oceans could be established.
• After long time the water of primitive oceans became rich mixture of organic compounds as a
result of chemical evolution.

(v) Experimental evidence for formation of simple organic compounds (Miller’s
Experiment) :
• In this experiment Miller took the mixture of methane, ammonia and hydrogen (ratio 2 : 1 :
2) in a large flask and passed steam over it by boiling water and connecting it with a glass
tube. Electric spark was discharged at 800 °C in the mixture by using two tungston electrodes
as source of energy.
• After 18 days this fluid was collected and analysed. This dark red fluid was found to contain,
simple amino acids, simple organic acids, Pentose, hexose, aldehydes, ketone etc.
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Fig.9.1 :Miller’s experiment

(c) Biological Evolution :
(i) Macromolecules which were synthesized abiotically in primitive ocean later came together and
formed large colloidal drop like structures called coacervates each of which was a cluster of
macromolecules. They could divide by budding like bacteria, many chemical reactions
including the decomposition of glucose took place inside the protobionts. The sun provide
energy for chemical reaction.

• According to oparin coacervates were the first sole living molecules which gave rise to cell.
(ii) The first living form originated in the primitive oceanswhich were clusters of nucleoproteins
which formed by composition of nucleic acids and enzymetic proteins. Nucleoproteins had the
property of self duplication.
(iii) Origin of Prokaryotes - As a result of mutation the protocells became more complex and
efficient to use the materials available in the surrounding medium and condensed themselves
into prokaryotic cells. Thus the first living being were prokaryotic, like bacteria they were single
celled and consisted of naked DNA. Nutritionally they were chemoheterotrophs
(saprotrophs), respiration was anaerobic.
(iv) Origin of Autotrophs : After some time bacteriochlrophyll developed in some autotrophic
bacteria like organism. They could absorb solar energy and convert it into chemical form. They
were anaerobic and utilised hydrogen from sources other than water like H2S. Therefore, no
oxygen was evolved and atmosphere remained reducing. The Bacterio chlorophyll formed true
chlorophyll by molecular changes. Such organism which were bearing true chlorophyll are
similar to Cyanobacteria (B.G.A). During the photosynthesis liberation of free O2 by blue
green algae like prokaryotes caused changes like -
• Atmosphere of earth changed from reducing to oxidising, hence possibilities of further
chemical evolution and abiogenesis finished, because chemical evolution always take place in
reducing environment.
• Free O2 oxidized CH4 and NH3 to form gases like CO2, N2 and H2O.
• Accumulation of free O2 formed a layer of O3 (ozone) above the atmosphere of earth. Which
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started absorbing most of the U.V. rays of sunlight.
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(v) Origin of Eukaryotic cell: About 2.7 billion years ago conditions became suitable for aerobic
or
respiration with the release of free O2 hence the prokaryotes adapted themselves for aerobic
mode of respiration. Nucleus, mitochondria and other cell organelles developed in the cell and
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thus free living eukaryotic cell like organism originated about 1.5 billion years ago in the
primitive ocean.
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(d) Organic Evolution :

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Organic evolution states that the present day complex organism have evolved from earlier simpler
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organism by small but gradual changes which have occurred over millions of years.
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(i) Evidences Of Organic Evolution

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I. Palaeontological evidences : Study of fossils – Palaeontology

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Types of Fossils :
1. Unaltered Fossils : In this type whole bodies of extinct organisms are found frozen in ice at
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the polar regions eg. Wooly mammoths (25000 yrs before extinct fossils were found from
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siberian region)
2. Petrified fossils – Most common type of fossil. Replacement of organic part by mineral
deposits is called petrification. These fossils consists of only the hard parts e.g. bones, teeth,
shells, wood etc. of extinct organisms.
3. Mould fossils – Here no any part of the original organism is present. Only an impression of
the external structure of body is preserved in wet soil.
4. Cast fossils – Some times minerals fills in the mould, resulting in cast fossils.
5. Print Fossils – Foot print or prints of wings, skin, leaves, stems etc made in soft mud which
subsequently become fossilized are a common type of fossils.
6. Coprolites – These fossils include the fossil preservation of contents of the intestine or
excreta of many ancient animals including particularly the reptiles or fishes.
By studying fossils following facts about organic evolution are evident –
• Fossils found in older rocks are of simple type and those found in newer rocks are of
complex types.
• In the beginning unicellular protozoans were formed from which multicellular animals evolved.
• Some fossils represents connecting links between two groups.
• Angiosperms among plants and mammals among animals are highly developed modern
organism

Archaeopteryx : Transitional fossils between birds & reptiles.
II. Morphological and anatomical evidence :
1. Homologous organs : Similar in origin, embryonic development and same basic structure but
performs different function.
Examples of Homologous organs –
Forelimbs of mammals – In their fore limbs similar bones are present like – humerus,
radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.
Mammals Horse Bat Whale Seal Man
Appearance Foot Wings Paddle Flipper Hand
Function Running Flying Swimming Swimming Holding
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Fig.9.2 : Homologous organs-vertebrate fore limbs

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• Thorn of bougainvillea and tendril of cucurbita(Modification of axillary bud).

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• Wings of sparrow and pectoral fins of fish.

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• Hind limb of mammals.

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• Potato & ginger.

• Radish & Carrot
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Fig.9.3: Homologous structures.Thorns and tendrils in plants, Analogous Organs.Tendrils of

different origin.A, stem tendirls of passiflora; B. leaf tendrils of Pisum sativum
• Homologous organs show divergent evolution.
• Divergent Evolution: Species which have diverged after origin from common ancestor giving
rise to new species adapted to new habitats and ways of life is called divergent evolution/
adaptive radiation.

2. Analogous organs : Similar in function but dissimilar fundamental structure and different
origin.
• Wings of bat & birds are analogous to wings of insects.
• Pelvic fins of fish, flipper of seal
• Sting of bee and scorpion.
• Potato and sweet potato.
• Flippers of penguin (bird) and dolphin (mammals).
• Analogous organs show convergent evolution.
• Convergent evolution: Development of similar adaptive functional structures in unrelated
groups of organisms is called convergent evolution.
3. Evidence from vestigial organs : Vestigial organs show common ancestory and evolution.
III. Evidence from Connecting links : Some organisms show character of two separate groups,
known as connecting link. eg.
• Virus : Between living and non living
• Euglena : Between plants and animals
• Peripatus : Between annelida and arthropoda
• Archaeopteryx : Between reptiles and birds
• Platypus : Between reptiles and mammals
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Fig.9.4: Fossil Archaeopteryx

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IV. Evidence from physiology and biochemistry : Different organism show similarities in
physiology and biochemistry thus proved that all animals have evolved from same common
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ancestor.
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V. Evidence from embryology : Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny it means an organism show

its ancestor stages in its embryo development.This law is known as Recapitulation Theory.
Fig.9.5 : Embryological evidences

(ii) Theories of Organic Evolution
I. Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Character/Lamarckism –Lamarck
Basic Concepts of Lamarckism :
1. Internal Vital Forces : Some internal forces are present in all organisms. By the presence of
these forces organism have the tendency to increase the size of their organs or entire body.
2. Effect of environment and new needs –Environment influences all type of organisms.
Changing environment gives rise to new needs. New needs or desires produce new structures
and change habits of the organism.
3. Use and disuse of organs - If an organ is constantly used, it would be better developed
whereas disuse of organ result in its degeneration.
4. Inheritance of acquired character : During the life time of an organism new characters
develop due to internal vital forces, effect of environment, new needs and use and disuse of
organs.
• These acquired characters are inherited from one generation to another. By continuous
inheritance through many generation these acquired characters tend to make new generation
quite different from its ancestors resulting in the formation of new species.
Criticism of Lamarkism : (by Weismann)
• Weismann was the great criticizer of theory of use and disuse or Inheritance of acquired
characters.
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• Germplasm Theory given by Weismann in order to disprove the theory of use and disuse or
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Inheritance of acquired characters.
• Experiment : Weisman experimented on white mouse he continued cutting the tail of new
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born mice for many generations, yet there was no hereditary effect and even upon the length
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of tail.
II. Darwinism :
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• "Darwinism" or "The theory of Natural Selection" was proposed by Charles Darwin. In his book
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'On the origin of species by the means of Natural Selection' (1859).

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He was influenced by the ideas of :

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• T.R. Malthus (1799) – An Essay on Population

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• Charles Lyell (1832) – Principles of Geology

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• Herbert Spencer (1856) – Idea of Survival of fittest

• Wallace's Chart : Wallace presented a chart to explain main points of theory of Darwin :
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S.No. Facts Consequences (Conclusions)

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(i) Enormous rate of reproduction among animals

1. Struggle for existence
(ii) Constant number of animals of a species
(i) Struggle for existence

2. Survival of the fittest or natural
(ii) Heritable variations selection
(i) Survival of the fittest Continuous natural selection

3.
(ii) Continuous environmental changes leading to evolution of new species.
The main features of Darwinism were –

1. Over Production : All organisms have capability to produce enormous number of offspring,
organisms multiply in geometric ratio.
e.g. – Plants produce thousands of seeds.
– Insects lay hundreds of egg.
2. Struggle for existence: Every individual competes with others of the same and other species
for basic necessities like. space, shelther and food. It is called struggle for existence and it
continues for the whole life from zygote stage to its natural death.

3. Variations and heredity – Except the identical twins no two individuals are similar and their
requirements are also not same. It means there are differences among the individuals. These
differences are called variations. Due to variations some individuals would be better adjusted
towards the surroundings than the others.
4. Survival of the fittest or natural selection – According to Darwin most suitable and fit
individuals are successful in struggle for existence.
In the struggle for existence only those members survive which posses useful variations
means nature selects fit individuals. This was called Natural Selection.
5. Origin of New Species – Darwin explained that variations appearing due to environmental
changes are transmitted to the next generation. So offspring become different from ancestors.
Criticism of Darwinism –
• This theory has no satisfactory explanation for the cause, origin and inheritance of variation.
• This theory only explain the survival of fittest but unable to explain arrival of fittest.
• The main drawback of Darwinism was lack of the knowledge of heredity.
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Fig.9.6 :Comparision between Lamarckism and Darwinism

III. Neo Darwinism – Neodarwinism is a modified form of Darwinism along with recent
researches of Weismann, Mendel, Devries, Huxley, Gates, Stebbins etc. They performed
many experiments to remove the objections against Darwin's theory. The salient features of
neodarwinism are as follows –
1. Rapid multiplication : All organism multiply in geometrical ratio.
2. Limited food and space : Food and space are limited.
3. Struggle for existence : It is of three types. Intraspecific, Interspecific and environmental.
4. Genetic Variations : They are inheritable variation which can occur due to the following
reasons:
Mutation : Sudden heritable change in genetic material of an organism is called as Mutation.
• They are discontinuous variations which develop due to permanent changes in genotype.
• Mutation are discontinuous source of variation.
• Mutations are of three types –
• Genomatic mutations : Change in number of chromosome.
• Chromosomal Aberrations : Change in structure of chromosome.
• Gene Mutation : Change in nucleotide.

Knowledge Booster
Mutation theory:
• Proposed by Hugo-de-vries on the basis of his experiments on a plant Oenothera lamarckiana.
According to mutation theory :
• Mutation or discontinuous variation are the raw material of evolution.
• Mutation appears suddenly and produced their effect immediately.
• Mutants are different from the parents and there are no intermediate stages between the two.
• The same type of mutation can appear in several individuals of a species.
• Mutation can appear in all direction and all mutations are inheritable.
• Useful mutations are selected by nature and lethal mutations are eliminated.
• Mutation is a discontinuous process. De-vries termed single step large mutation as saltation.
• Mutations are random and directionless.
• Gene recombination : They are new combination of genes which are usually caused by
crossing over.
• Hybridisation and gene migration : It is crossing of organisms which are genetically different
in one or more traits.
• Genetic drift : It is the elimination or addition of the genes of certain characters when some
animals in population migrate or dies or immigrate. It changes the gene frequency of
remaining population. Genetic drift operates only in small population.
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5. Natural Selection: If differential reproduction (some individuals produce more, some only few
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and still others none) continuous for many generations, genes of the individuals which produce
more offspring will become predominant in the gene pool of the population. Thus natural
or
selection occurs through differential reproduction in successive generations.
Examples of natural selection :
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(1) Industrial melanism (2) Drug resistance
(3) Sickle cell anaemia & malaria (4) Malaria & G-6-PD deficiency.
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Industrial Melanism :
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• Before industrial revolution, the dull grey forms of peppered moth-Biston betularia - were
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dominant; the Carbonaria form (Black) was rare because it was susceptible to predation by
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birds. The reason was that it was conspicuously visible while resting on tree trunks.
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• The industrial revolution, resulted in large scale smoke which got deposited on tree trunks
turning them black. Now grey varieties became susceptible - the black forms flourished.
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Replacement of coal by oil and electricity reduced production of black moth so the frequency
of grey moths increased again.
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Fig.9.7 : Figure showing white - winged moth and dark - winged moth (melanised) on a tree
trunk cryptic colouration in bitularia (a) in unpolluted area (b) in polluted area
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Types of natural selection :
– Stabilisation - In which more individuals acquire mean character value.
– Directional change - More individuals acquire value other than the mean character value.
– Disruption - More individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the
distribution curve

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6. Isolation: Isolation is a segregation of populations by some barriers which prevent

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interbreeding. The reproductive isolation between the populations due to certain barriers leads
to the formation of new species.
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7. Origin of new species: An isolated population of a species independently develops different

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types of mutations. They latter accumulate in its gene pool. After several generations the
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isolated population becomes genetically and reproductively different from others so as to

constitute a new species.
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(e) Speciation :
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Formation of one or more new species from an existing species is called speciation. Speciation is of
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2 types.
(i) Allopatric Speciation : When a species split into two or more geographically isolated
population and these population finally form a new speices. This mode of speciation is called
allopatric speciation and these species are known as allopatric species.
(ii) Sympatric species : In this type of speciation a sub population becomes reproductively
isolated from its parental population. Sympatric speciation is the formation of species without
geographical isolation and these species are known as sympatric species.
(f) Human Evolution :
• The study of Human evolution and culture is known as Anthropology, which deals with fossil,
prehistoric and living man.
• The sequential arrangement of stages in evolution is known as Geneology.
• Human Classification :
Phylum – Chordata
Sub-phylum – Vertebrata
Class – Mammalia
Order – Primates
Sub order – Anthropoidea
Super family – Hominoidea
Family – Hominidae
Genus – Homo
Species – Sapiens

Human ancestory : The arrangement of fossils in evolutionary sequence includes :
Tree shrews
Prosimian early anthropoids
Dryopithecus
Ramapithecus
Australopithecus
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo neanderthalensis (Java man)
Homo sapiens fossilis (Cro-magnon man)
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Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern man)
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• Primates : Primates are found in the North American sediments from lower to upper Eocene
time. Primates are placental mammals with nails, with clavicles, with orbits encircled by bone;
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possessing a brain. The primate order contains two sub orders : Prosimians and
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Anthropoids.
• Prosimians includes tree shrews, lemurs and tarsiers.
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• Tree shrews are certainly the most primitive of primates. Tree shrews are at present known
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only in the oriental region; where they are widely distributed. Lemurs are arboreal, primitive
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animals found both in Africa and Asia. Lemurs are generally nocturnal, hence, their eyes are
large.
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• Anthropoids includes old world monkey, apes and man.

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Common Characteristics of Old World Monkey, Apes and Man :

• Reduced tail or absent.
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• Erect posture with increase in the mentality.

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• Pinna comparatively smaller in size.

• Increase in brain capacity.
• Decrease in number of lumbar vertebrae.
• Menstrual cycle occurs in females.
• Evolution of man takes place in Pleistocene period. Dryopithecus was the common ancestor
of humans and apes that lived an arboreal life in Asia as well as in Africa.
(i) Australopithecus (The first man-ape) : Its fossils were described by Raymond Dart in 1925
from South Africa.
(ii) Homo Erectus : Middle Pleistocene Man : Java and Peking man collectively named as
Homo erectus by Mayer
(iii) Neanderthal Man (Neanderthalensis) :
(iv) Cro-magnon Man (Homo Sapiens Fossilis) :
(v) Modern Man (Homo Sapiens Sapiens) : Developed after last glacial period i.e., about 10,
000 years ago. Cranial capacity is about 1450-1600 cc. These were the first settlers who
started living a settled life. Modern man undergoes cultural evolution, primarily fabrication and
use of tools.

Knowledge Booster
(1) Dryopithecus - Arose about 15 Million ago, more ape-like, walked like Chimpanzee and Gorilla. It is
supposed as common ancestor of Ape and man.
(2) Ramapithecus - Arose about 15 million yr ago, walked like apes. It was more man - like hence called oldest
human ancestor and direct line towards human evolution.
(3) Few Hominids fossils of Ethiopia and Tanzania – Few fossils of man like bones have been discovered
(excavated) in Ethiopia and Tanzania. These revealed hominid features leading to the belief that about 3-4
million yr ago, man like primates walked in eastern Africa.Similarity and difference in fossil bones, possibly
they were two types.
1st type – Australopithecines
2 nd type – Homo habilis
(4) Australopithecines -
• They were Man like primates walked in east African grassland about 2 million yr ago.
• They were probably not taller than 4 feet but walked up right.
• Many evidences reflects that they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit mean hunting was
their way to entertain and amusement but they actually were veg etarian.
(5) Homo habilis - It was first human being the hominid with 650-800 cc brain capacity. It was first tool
maker or Handy man but after being hunter it probably did not eat meat.
(6) Homo erectus -
• Arose about 1.5 million yr ago with cranial capacity 900 - 950 cc (Java ape man).
• Homo erectus used fire and probably eat meat.
(7) Neanderthal-
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• Arose about 1, 00,000 - 400000 year back, near east and central Asia.
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• Cranial capacity-1400 cc
• Neanderthal used hides to protect their domestic animals and himself.
• First burial funeral of their dead started by Neanderthal.
(8) Homo sapiens- or
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• Arose during ice age between 75,000-10,000 year back near Caspian Sea.
• Homo sapiens
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• Agriculture and human settlements started about 10,000 year back.

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SECTION (A) : HEREDITY AND VARIATION

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A-1 Define the term genetics.

A-2 What does the science of genetics deals with ?
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A-3 How it was established that genes are located on chromosomes ?

A-4 Only variations that confer an advantage to an individual organism will survive in a population. Do
you agree with this statement ? Why or why not ?
A-5 Explain the importance of variations.
A-6 How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits may be dominant or recessive ?
A-7 Why mendel selected pea plant for his experiment ?
A-8 Who is known as the father of genetics ?
A-9 What does the law of segregation states ?
A-10 Explain the law of dominance.
SECTION (B) : ORIGIN & EVOLUTION
B-1 Who proposed the theory of natural selection ? Why was this theory criticized ?
B-2 Explain Miller and Urey experiment also draw the diagram.
B-3 What are the main postulates of Darwin’s Theory.
B-4 Explain Neo–Darwinism.
B-5 Who gave theory of natural selection ? Give the salient features of this theory.
B-6 What factors could lead to the rise of a new species?
B-7 What is Evolution ?
B-8 What is speciation ?
B-9 What are fossils ? What do they tell about the process of evolution ?

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 When a red flowered homozygous pea plant is crossed with a white flowered plant what colour is
produced in F1 generation ?
(A) Red (B) White (C) Pink (D) Red and white
A-2 Mendel formulated the law of purity of gametes on the basis of
(A) dihybrid cross (B) monohybrid cross (C) back cross (D) test cross
A-3 A cross between AaBB X aa BB yields a genotypic ratio of
(A) 1 AaBB: 1 aaBB (B) 1 AaBB : 3 aaBB (C) 3Aa BB : 1 aa BB (D) All AaBb
A-4 In monohybrid cross, what is the ratio of homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive
individuals in F2 – generation ?
(A) 1 : 2 : 1 (B) 2 : 1 / 1 : 2 (C) 3 : 1 / 1 : 3 (D) 1 : 1
A-5 Back cross is a cross between
(A) F1 × F1 (B) F1 × Recessive (C) F1 × Dominant (D) F1 × any parent
A-6 Mendel conducted his hybridization experiments on
(A) chick pea (B) garden pea (C) pigeon pea (D) wild pea
A-7 Which one carries extra nuclear genetic material ?
(A) Plastids (B) Ribosomes (C) Chromosomes (D) Golgi – complex
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A-8 The ratio of phenotype in F2 generation of a dihybrid cross is
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(A) 3 : 1 (B) 1 : 2 : 1 (C) 2 : 1 (D) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
A-9
(A) Paleontology (B) Evolution
or
Branch of biology which deals with heredity and variation is called
(C) Genetics (D) Ecology
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A-10 The factors which represent the contrasting pairs of characters are called
(A) Dominant (B) Recessive (C) Determinants (D) Alleles
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A-11 The main aim of plant breeding is

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(A) to produce improved varieties (B) to make soil fertile

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(C) to control pollution (D) to become more progressive

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A-12 Plants having similar genotypes produced by plant breeding are called
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(A) clone (B) haploid (C) autopolyploid (D) genome

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A-13 Two allelic genes are located on

(A) the same chromosome (B) two homologous chromosomes
(C) two non – homologous chromosomes (D) any two chromosomes
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A-14 Mendel’s law of segregation is based on separation of alleles during

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(A) gamete formation (B) seed formation

(C) pollination (D) embryonic development
A-15 What is the effect of sexual reproduction ?
(A) Offspring is weak (B) Offspring is like the parent
(C) Offspring is more vigorous (D) Offspring is diseased
A-16 Disease resistant varieties can be produced by
(A) crossing a plant with wild variety (B) treating with colchicine
(C) crossing with hormones (D) treating with low temperature
A-17 Heterozygous tall plants were crossed with dwarf plants, what will be the ratio of dwarf plants in the
progeny
(A) 50% (B) 25% (C) 75% (D) 100%
A-18 A pure tall plant can be differentiated from a hybrid tall plant
(A) by measuring length of plant (B) by spraying gibberellins
(C) if all plants are tall after self – pollination (D) if all plants are dwarf after self – pollination
A-19 Allele is the
(A) alternate trait of a gene pair (B) total number of genes for a trait
(C) total number of chromosomes of a haploid set (D) total number of genes present on a chromosome
A-20 In animals sex determination is due to
(A) X – chromosome (B) Y – chromosome (C) A – chromosome (D) B – Chromosome

B-1 Which one of these is likely to have been absent in free form at the time of origin of life ?
(A) Oxygen (B) Hydrogen (C) Ammonia (D) Methane
B-2 Charles Darwin toured in a ship for five years it was
(A) Vikrant (B) Phillips (C) Alexander (D) Beagle
B-3 The theory of Natural selection of Darwin to explain organic evolution was based on
(A) modification in organs through use and disuse
(B) probability of reproduction, struggle for existence and survival of the fittest
(C) Inheritance of acquired characters
(D) appearance of sudden large variations, then inheritance and survival of those having these
variations
B-4 The phrase “Survival of fittest” was given by:
(A) Mendel (B) Herbert Spencer (C) Lamarck (D) Devries
B-5 Who wrote the “Origin of species” ?
(A) G.J. Mendel (B) Lamarck (C) De–Vries (D) Charles Darwin
B-6 When an organ is used it will develop and if it is not used, it weakens to become vestigial. Who
could have said this theory ?
(A) Darwin (B) De–Vries (C) Lamarck (D) Mendel
B-7 An experiment to prove that organic compounds were the basis of life, was performed by
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(A) Oparin (B) Miller (C) Melvin (D) Fox
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B-8 According to the Neo–Darwinian theory which of the following is responsible for the origin of new
species ?
(A) Mutations
(C) Mutations together with natural selection
or
(B) Useful variations
(D) Hybridization
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B-9 Nucleoprotein gave most probably the first sign of
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(A) life (B) amino acid (C) soil (D) sugar

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B-10 Which of the following is a vestigial structure in python :

(A) Teeth (B) Scales (C) Hind limbs (D) Poison glands
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B11 Which of the following can you call atavism :

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(A) Wings of bat (B) Fins of fish (C) Cervical fistula of man(D) Flippers of whale
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B-12 Analogous organs have a :

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(A) Common embryonic origin but perform different functions

(B) Different embryonic origin and perform different functions
(C) Common embryonic origin and perform similar functions
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(D) Different embryonic origin but perform similar functions

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B-13 Which of the following is a pair of homologous organs :

(A) Lungs of rabbit and gills of rohu (B) Wings of bat and wings of butterfly
(C) Pectoral fin of whale and fore limb of horse (D) Wings of grasshopper and wings of crow
B-14 The character that proves that frogs have evolved from fishes is :
(A) The ability to swim in water
(B) The tadpole larva in frogs which resembles the fishes in many characters
(C) Similarity in the shape of the head
(D) None of these
B-15 The evidence of evolution is based on
(A) paleontology (B) embryology (C) anatomically (D) all of these
B-16 The term for similarity in organ structure seen in great diversity is :
(A) Homology (B) Identical (C) Analogy (D) Symmetridal
B-17 Which of the following is used for dating the bones :
(A) C14 (B) I121 (C) K32 (D) All of these
B-18 Analogous structures are :
(A) Structurally similar (B) Functionally similar
(C) Structurally and functionally similar (D) Normally non-functional
B-19 The term evolution in Biology means that
(A) fossils are old (B) life began in Sea
(C) living things constantly change (D) none of the above

B-20 Homologous structures have
(A) similar origin & dissimilar functions (B) dissimilar origin but similar functions
(C) similar origin & similar functions (D) dissimilar origin and dissimilar structures
B-21 Evolution is the best defined by
(A) inheritance of acquired characters (B) descent with modifications
(C) spontaneous generation (D) struggle for existence
B-22 Which one is not a vestigial organ in man ?
(A) Vermiform appendix (B) Plica semilunaris (C) Ear muscles (D) Epiglottis
B-23 Fossils are
(A) fovea in the retina of vertebrate eye (B) remains of organisms presents in the rocks
(C) the fossa present in the bones (D) foramens through which nerves pass
B-24 Connecting link between Reptiles and Birds is
(A) Dimetrodon (B) Dodo (C) Archaeopteryx (D) Sphenodon
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Mendel’s Experiment and Laws of inheritance
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1. The haploid set of chromosomes or genes of an organism is called :
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(A) Genome (B) Karyotype (C) Chromosome (D) None of the above
2. Second division of meiosis is :
(A) Reductional division (B) Multiplied division
or
(C) Equational division (D) None of these
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3. Which of the following statements is false :
(A) Recessive allele is unable to express it’s effect in heterozygous state
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(B) Dominant allele express itself in heterozygous state

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(C) Homozygous individual produces two types of gametes

(D) Heterozygous individual show hybrid vigour
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4. Mendel’s laws of heredity can be explained with the help of :

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(A) Mutation (B) Meiosis (C) Cloning (D) Both A and B

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5. A recessive trait in Garden Pea is :

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(A) Wrinkled seeds (B) Tall stem (C) Round seeds (D) Coloured seed coat
6. How many types of gametes are expected from the organism with AABBCC :
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(A) One (B) Two (C) Four (D) Eight

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7. Mendel’s primary contribution to our understanding of genetic inheritance was :

(A) The idea that genes are found on chromosomes
(B) Providing a mechanism that explains patterns of inheritance
(C) Describing how genes are influenced by the environment.
(D) The discovery of alleles.
8. Marriage between close relatives should be avoided because it induces more :
(A) Recessive alleles to come together (B) Mutations
(C) Multiple births (D) Blood group abnormalities
9. A woman has a rare abnormality of eye that has been found to be dependent on a single dominant
gene P. The woman’s father had abnormal eyes but mother had normal eyes : If woman marries a
man with normal eyes what proportion of her children will have abnormal eyes.
(A) 25% (B) 50% (C) 75% (D) 100%
10. Eukaryotic chromosome is made of :
(A) DNA (B) DNA + proteins (C) DNA + lipids (D) RNA
11. Genes are formed of :
(A) RNA (B) DNA (C) DNA & RNA (D) DNA & proteins
12. Segment of DNA which can shift positions are :
(A) Transposons (B) Jumping genes (C) Introns (D) Both (A) & (B)
13. DNA is associated with basic protein :
(A) Albumin (B) Nonhistone (C) Histone (D) Both (A) and (C)

14. Flow of information during translation is :
(A) mRNA Protein (B) DNA mRNA (C) mRNA DNA (D) DNA Protein
15. Mutations are commonly :
(A) Dominant (B) Codominant (C) Recessive (D) Incomplete
16. Mark the correct match :
(A) Haemophilia – Lack of chromosome
(B) Turner syndrome – Lack of X – chromosome (XO)
(C) Down’s syndrome – Extra X chromosome (XXY)
(D) Klinefelter’s syndrome – Extra X-chromosome (XXY)
17. A girl has blood group A and her brother has blood group B. Which combination of genotypes
cannot belong to their parents
(A) IAIB, IA IA (B) IAIB, IAIB (C) IOIO, IAIB (D) IBIO, IAIO
18. Which one of the following phenotypic features of man can be affected only by the genotype ?
(A) Height (B) Intelligence
(C) Skin colour (D) Number of different blood group antigens
19. From the pedigree chart find out the correct one.
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(A) Parents are homozygous
or
(B) Parents are heterozygous
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(C) Parents are homozygous recessive (D) Trait is Y-linked.
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20. Genes located on Y-chromosomes are :

(A) Mutant genes (B) Sex-linked gene (C) Autosomal genes (D) Holoandric genes
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21. What is the pattern of inheritance for a sex-linked allele ?

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(A) Every affected person has an affected parent.

(B) Unaffected parents can produce children who are affected.
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(C) Unaffected mothers have affected sons and daughters who are carriers.
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(D) None of the above

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1. The allele for red flower colour (R) in a certain plant is co-dominant with the allele for white flowers
(R’). Thus a plant with the genotype RR’ has pink flowers. Tall (D) is dominant to dwarf (d). What
would be the expected phenotypic ratio from a cross of RR’ dd plants with R’R’Dd plants ?
(A) 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 (IJSO/stage I/2009)
(B) 50 % pink 50% white, and all tall
(C) 1 : 1 : 1 : 1, in which 50% are tall, 50% dwarf, 50% pink and 50% white
(D) 3 : 1
2. If the distance between genes - W. X. Y, and Z on a chromosome are as follows : from W-Y is 18
units, W-X is 26 units, W-Z is 40 units, X-Y is 8 units and X-Z is 14 units, the sequence of W, X, Y, Z
genes on the chromosome would be : (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) W, Y, X, Z (B) X, Y, W, Z (C) Y, W, X, Z (D) W, X, Y, Z
3. The family pedigree of Queen Victoria shows a number of haemophilic descendents as
(A) she herself was haemophilic (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(B) haemophilia is autosomal recessive disorder.
(C) haemophilia is sex linked recessive disorder and Queen Victoria was a carrier.
(D) haemophilia is caused by contact and therefore it was seen it the royal family descendents.

4. Heterosis is the (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) superiority of male percent over the hybrid. (B) superiority of female parent over the hybrid.
(C) superiority of hybrid over the parents. (D) superiority of both the parents over the hybrid.
5. Genome of a sexually reproducing organism is (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) all the chromosomes present in the diploid cell.
(B) total number of chromosomes present in the haploid cell.
(C) total number of genes present in a cell.
(D) totality of DNA present in the haploid cell.
6. In usual course, the progeny varies from its parents due to (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) mutation (B) pleiotropic effect
(C) chromosomal recombination (D) independent assortment.
7. Down’s syndrome is a result of (IJSO-Stage-I/2012)
(A) XO genotype (B) XXY genotype
(C) Trisomy (chromosome 12) (D) Trisomy (chromosome 21)
8. A lady has 4 kids with blood group AB and 1 kid with blood group O. If the father of these kids have
blood group B, what is the possible genotype of the lady ? (IJSO-Stage-I/2013)
(A) IAIB (B) IAIO (C) IAlA (D) IBIB
9. Given here is a phylogenetic tree (family tree) of greater apes.Which of the following statements
cannot be true from the tree ? (mya-million years ago) (IJSO/Stage-1/2013)
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(A) Humans did not evolve from chimpanzees.

(B) Humans and chimpanzees are evolutionary cousins.
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(C) Orangutans evolved much earlier then Humans.

(D) Humans are highly evolved among great apes.
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10. The following technique that can be used for deciphering the arrangement of nucleotides in genes.
(A) karyotyping (B) DNA finger printing (IJSO/Stage-1/2015)
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(C) nucleic acid sequencing (D) transcription

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11. Which of the following feature indicates omnivorous feeding of human species?
(A) Presence of 11th and 12th pair of ribs (IJSO/Stage-1/2017)
(B) Presence of appendix
(C) Presence of canines as well as premolars and molars
(D) Presence of opposable thumb
12. In a dihybrid cross, what is the proportion of organisms with dihybrid genotype ?
(IJSO/Stage-1/2017)
(A) 2/16 (B) 6/16 (C) 4/16 (D) 9/6
13. A geneticist was studying the pathway of synthesis of an amino acid `X' in an organism. The
presence (either synthesized de novo or externally added) of `X' is a must for the survival of that
organism. She isolated several mutants that require `X' to grow. She tested whether each mutant
would grow when different additives, P, Q, R, S and T were used. ‘+’ indicates growth and `-'
indicates the inability to grow in the mutants tested. Find out the correct sequence of additives in the
biosynthetic pathway of `X'. (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
(A) P Q R S T (B) P R S Q T
(C) T P Q S R (D) P S Q R T

14. In a case of mammalian coat color, the principal gene identified is `C' which codes for a tyrosinase
enzyme.In case of rabbits four different phenotypes are observed Full Color > Chinchilla >
Himalayan > Albino (in order of the expression of gene `C' and its alleles). In a progeny obtained
after crossing two rabbits, the percentages of Chinchilla, Himalayan and Albino rabbits were 50, 25
and 25 respectively. What must have been the genotypes of the parent rabbits ?
(IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
(A) CchCch X Cchc (B) CchCh X Cchc (C) Cchc X Chc (D) ChCh X CchCch
15. A bacterial dsDNA molecule, 2988 bp in length, was found to have the following composition:
(IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
T C A G
Strand I 348 X 1400
Strand II 650 Y
The respective values of X and Y are:
(A) 1400 and 590 (B) 590 and 1400 (C) 590 and 590 (D) None of the above
16. What would be the length of a polypeptide translated from mRNA which is encoded by 2988 bp of a
bacterial gene? (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
(A) 989 (B) 992 (C) 995 (D) 998
17. The blood grouping system is an example of `multiple allelism'. In order to find out the gene
products of various gene variants, different enzymes (codes used for the purpose of experimentation
are X and Y) from four blood samples were assayed. The enzymes were quantified and the
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information obtained from these experiments is given in percentages in the following table. `+'
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indicates presence of an enzyme and `-' indicates the absence of that enzyme from the blood
sample. The standard codes for dominant and recessive alleles are considered. Identify the blood
means present, A means absent)

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groups of subjects and choose the correct option of their genotypes from given options. (In table: P
(IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
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Subjects Ramesh Ali Sophia Balwinder
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Enzymes P/A % P/A % P/A % P/A %

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X + 50 + 50 + 100 - -
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Y - - + 50 - - + 100
(a) IAi, ii, IBi, IAIB (b) IA i, IAIB, IA1A, IBIB (c) IBi, IAIB, ii, IBi (d) IBi, ii, IAIB , IAi
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18. In an experiment, a scientist discovered a darkly stained chromatin body on the periphery of nucleus
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of epithelial cells obtained from an eight year old boy. This is indicative of a particular syndrome.
Find out the best possible chromosome combination of their parents from the options given below;
which have the highest probability of producing the child under investigation. `A' indicates autosome.
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`X' and `Y' represent the sex chromosomes. ? (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)

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(a) 22AA+XY, 22AA+XXX (b) 22AA+XXY, 22AA+XXX

(c) 22AA+XY, 22AA+XX (d) 22AA+XXY, 22AA+XX
19. A millionaire Mr. Jim, died recently. Two women, Mary and Lou, claiming to have a child by Jim
approached the police demanding a share in his wealth. Fortunately Jim's semen sample was
cryopreserved. The scientists used DNA fingerprinting technique to study the three highly variable
chromosome regions. The results obtained are shown in the adjoining figure: ?
(IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
After studying the DNA profile, which of the alleged heirs are children of Jim?
(A) Mary's child (B) both are children of Jim
(C) Lou's child (D) none are children of Jim

A-1 A A-2 B A-3 A A-4 D A-5 D A-6 B A-7 A A-8 D A-9 C A-10 D A-11 A A-12 A A-13 B
A-14 A A-15 C A-16 A A-17 A A-18 C A-19 A A-20 B
B-1 A B-2 D B-3 B B-4 B B-5 D B-6 C B-7 B B-8 C B-9 A B-10 C B-11 C B-12 D
B-13 C B-14 B B-15 D B-16 A B-17 A B-18 B B-19 C B-20 A B-21 B B-22 D B-23 B B-24 C
EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
A. A C C B A A B A B B B D C A C B A D B B B
EXERCISE - 3
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2
A
3
C
4
C
5
D
6
C
7
D
8
B
9
A
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10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
A C C D C C A B A A
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10. ECOLOGY & ADAPTATION
A. ECOLOGY
Ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of interrelationships between
organism and its environment.
Term ecology was proposed by Haeckel.
Habitat: A specific place where an organism usually lives. It is the sum total of the abiotic
factors to which a species or a group of species is exposed.
Ecological Niche: It represents the functional role and status of a species in the environment.
Father of ecology – Reiter
(a) Ecosystem :
It is the sum total of interacting biotic & abiotic factors that are capable of independent existence.
The term ecosystem coined by Tansley (1935).
(i) Types of Ecosystem :
(I) Ecosystems are of two types :
Terrestrial ecosystem : e.g : Forest, Grassland, Desert.
Aquatic ecosystem : e.g : Sea, freshwater ecosystem.
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(II) On the basis of development, ecosystem involves two types :
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Natural ecosystem : It is formed naturally with out human interferance : Ex: forest, ocean.
Anthropogenic or man made ecosystem or Artificial–ecosystem : It is formed by human
activities. e.g : Agriculture land, Garden, Aquarium. or
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(III) Ecosystems are of four types on the basis of size :
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Megaecosystem : Large sized – Ex: sea.

Mesoecosystem (Macroecosystem) : Medium sized Ex: forest Grassland, Desert.
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Microecosystem : Small sized Ex: Pond, Lake.

Nano ecosystem : Very small sized–Ex: Kitchen graden, Log of wood, Aquarium
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(ii) Components of Ecosystem :

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I. Abiotic II. Biotic

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I. Abiotic components : Includes.

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1. Temperature 2. Light 3. Water 4. Soil

1. Light : Main source of light is Sun.Sun light = Light + Heat
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34% - Reflected back

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Sunlight 10% - Held in O3 layer & H2O Vapour
56% - Reaches to the earth surface.
1-5% of this is used by green plants

(means .02% of total sun light)
Effect of light on Plants :
• Increase transpiration rate
• Regulate opening & closing of stomata
• Increase photosynthesis rate
• Chlorophyll production
• Photoperiodism
Effect of light on Animals :
• Increase metobolic rate • Effect on reproduction of animals
• Development of animal • Pigmentation
2. Temperature : Effect of temperature on plants and animals :
• On Metabolism • On reproduction (thermoperiodism)
• Effect of growth & development. • Effect on colouration
• Effect on BMR

Some Rules :
• Bergman’s rule : Applicable to aves and mammals.
Warmer area Colder area
Small body size Large body size
It get reversed for poikilotherms
Large body size Small body size

• Allen’s rule :
length of appendages Vs Temp.
Tail, Limbs, Snout Cause heat loss

Long appendages Short appendages
More heat loss Less heat loss

Types of animal according to temperature :
Homoiotherm or They maintain Mammals
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Endotherm or their body aves s ome
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Warm blooded temperature reptiles.
cons tant respect
Poikilotherm or
to environment
Amphibian
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Ectotherm or They can change fishes some
Cold blooded or their body reptiles.
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Heterotherm temperature
accoding to
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surrounding
environmental
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temperature.
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Knowledge Booster
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Steno - Narrow range Stenothermal (for temperature),

Stenohaline (range of salinities)
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Eury - Wide range : Eury thermal.
3. Soil : Soil is the mixture of Organic & Inorganic content that can support plant growth living
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form. Organic content of soil are humus microflora other biomolecule. Inorganic content of soil
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comes from mineralization of rock. On the basis of transportation

Rock
Mineralization or Weathering
Minerals
If it is transported to other If they

place and then change into soil
change in to soil at the same place
Meaning Then soil is

Than soil is called of it addition called
transported soil of organic Residual soil
content
On the basis of transportation types of soil
4. Water : Water is the most important factor influencing the life of organisms. In fact, life on
earth originated in water and is unsustainable without water. Its availability is so limited in
deserts that only special adaptations make it possible to live there. The productivity and
distribution of plants is also heavily dependent on water.

II. Biotic components : It involves living beings that can be differentiated into three categories.
1. Producers (Autotrophs) : They are able to synthesize their own food by photosynthesis in
the presence of sunlight. Ex: Green plant, photosynthetic bacteria, Blue green algae,
Phytoplanktons are main producers in aquatic ecosystems whereas rooted plants in
terrestrial ecosystem. Rooted plants of shallow water are called macrophytes.
2. Consumers (Heterotrophs) :
• They are unable to synthesize their own food directly or indirectly.
• They depend upon producers for obtaining nourishment.
• Consumers can be differentiated into following catagories.
Primary consumers / Herbivores :
• They obtain their nutrition from producers. Ex: Cow, Goat, Sheep, Horse, Deer, Rat, Rabbit,
Grasshopper, Buffalo, Zebra, Elephant, Zooplanktons.
• They are also known as key industry animals because they convert plant material into
animal material.
Secondary consumers / Primary carnivores : They obtain their nutrition from primary
consumers. Ex: Frog, Fox, jackel, Hyaena, Wolf, Wild cat, Snake, Small fishes.
Tertiary consumers / secondary carnivores : They obtain their nutrition from secondary
consumers or primary consumers.
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• They can not be preyed by other animals hence they are also called top consumers Ex:
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Eagle (hawk), Kite, Vulture, Peacock, Lion, Tiger, Crocodile shark.
3. Decomposers : These are microscopic organisms like Bacteria and fungi that degrade or
or
decompose dead organic matter or dead parts of animals and plants they are also called
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reducers.
• They are also called microconsumers. They are also called osmotrophs.
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B. FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB

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(a) Food Chain :

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It is straight single system of individuals through which food energy travels in the ecosystem. It is a
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sequence of individuals of an ecosystem through which food and its contained energy pass with
each member becoming food of the next member of the sequence.
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(i) Types of food chain : Food chains are of three types:

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(I) Parasitic food chain : It starts from large organisms and ended on parasite/small organism.
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Tree Birds Parasite

(II) Detritus food Chain : It starts from dead organic matter that is eaten by detrivores (Ex:
earthworm) the later is prayed by primary carnivores that is captured by secondary carnivores.
Detritus Earthworm frog snake Peacock
Sparrow Falcon / Hawk
Falcon
(III) Grazing food chain or predatory food Chain : It starts from producers
(i) Food chains in different ecosystems
(I) Terrestrial ecosystem :
• Grass Grasshopper frog Snake Peacock / hawk
• Grass Deer Wolf Lion / Tiger
• Grass Rabbit Fox Wolf lion / Tiger
• Grass Rat Fox lion / Tiger,
• Grass Deer Tiger / lion,
• Grass Elephant.

(II) Aquatic ecosystem :
• Phytoplanktons zooplanktons small fishes Large fishes.
• Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons Crustaceans
Predatory insects
Small fishes
Large fishes
Crocodile
• Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons Crustaceans
Small fishes
Birds – kingfisher
(B) Food Web :
• It is a network of food chains which are interconnected at various trophic levels as to form
various feeding connections among member of biotic community.
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Fig.10.1 : A terrestrial food web.
C. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
(a) Pyramid of Number :
• It is graphical representation of number of organisms in different trophic levels of food chain.
Lion Large Fish
Fox Small Fish
Rabbit Zoo Plankton

Grass Phyto Plankton
Grass land Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem
Parasites
Birds
Tree
Tree Ecosystem
Fig.10.2 : Grass land Ecosystem , Aquatic Ecosystem, Three Ecosystem.

(B) Pyramid of Biomass :
• It is graphical representation of amount of biomass per unit area in different trophic levels of
food chain.
Lion
Parasites Fox
Birds Rabbit
Tree Grass
Tree ecosystem Grass land ecosystem

T4 Large fishes (Top consumers)
T3 Small fishes (Sec. consumers)
T2 Zooplanktons (Pri. consumers)
T1 Phytoplanktons (producers)
Fig.10.3 : Tree ecosystem,Grassland ecosystem,Aquatic ecosystem
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(C) Pyramid of energy :
• It is graphic representation of amount of energy trapped per unit area and time in different
or
trophic levels of a food chain. It is always upright in all the ecosystems.
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Fig.10.4 : Pyramid of energy - Always upright

Energy flow :
• It is unidirectional in an ecosystem sunlight producers consumers Decomposers.
• Sun is then only source of energy for all ecosystems on earth the incident solar radiation
less than 50% of it is PAR (Photosynthetically Active Radiations) -
• 1– 5% Incident solar radiations or 2 – 10% PAR is trapped by photosynthetic organisms
to form organic food during photosynthesis.
• The loss of energy by respiration is 20% in producers therefore the net primary productivity is
0·8-4% of incident solar radiation or 1·6 – 8% of PAR.
D. NUTRIENT CYCLING
• They are exchanges, storage and transfers of Biogenetic nutrients so they can utilize again
and again.
• Biochemical cycling is circulation or transportation of biogenetic nutrients between abiotic and
biotic components of Biosphere.
• Biogenetic nutrients are essential elements required to organisms for their body building and
metabolism.
• Organisms obtain them from earth and after their death they return back to the earth.
• According to Odum, (1963) three types of cycles are operating in an ecosystem. These are

(a) Biogeochemical cycles Ex : carbon & nitrogen cycles.
(b) Sedimentary cycles such as those of sulphur, Phosphorus etc.
(c) Hydrological cycle i.e water cycle
(a) Biogeochemical cycles :
• Biogenetic elements (Macro,micro,& other element) flow from the environment into and out of
the plant in a cyclic manner. This flow of nutrients from abiotic to biotic components of the
ecosystem and vice-versa constitute the biogeochemical cycles.
(i) Carbon cycle : The concentration of CO2 is 0.03% in atmosphere, which is utilized by
producers in photosynthesis for making food. It has been estimated that about 4× 1013 CO2 is
annually fixed by producers during photosynthesis
• From producers, it is shifted to consumers and then through decomposers into atmosphere.
• After death, the producers, consumers and decomposers are converted into fossil fuel (coal,
petrol).
• Living organisms release CO2 in atmosphere during respiration.
• CO2 may get dissolved in water. The lime rocks also contribute to CO2 in water. The aquatic
producer use this CO2 for photosynthesis and return it by respiration.
• CO2 is returned to the atmosphere by combustion of fossil fuel & also by volcanic activity.
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CO2 in atmosphere
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Photosynthesis Burning of forests fuels for vehicles,
(terrestrial food chains) fuelwood and electricity and heat
organic debris
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Respiration and
decomposition
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Photosynthesis
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Plankton Detritus food chain Coal

(terrestrial food
chains)
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CO2 in Oil and Gas

water Organic
sediments
Decay of Limestone and Dolomite

organisms
Calcareous
sediments
Fig.10.5 : Simplified model of carbon cycle in land
(ii) Nitrogen Cycle : Nitrogen is an essential component of amino acids, proteins, enzymes and
nucleic acids of the protoplasm.Reservoir pool of nitrogen is atmosphere which contains about
78.08% of nitrogen in gaseous state. But it cannot be used directly and is changed into nitrites
and nitrates and then utilized.
Steps of nitrogen cycle are :
I. Nitrogen fixation : It involves the conversion of free diatomic nitrogen (N2) into nitrites and
nitrates. t occurs in two ways :
1. Physical nitrogen fixation :
• Atmospheric nitrogen fixation in the presence of photochemical and electrochemical reactions
induced by thundering and lightening.
• Industrial nitrogen fixation in the industries at high temperature and high pressure.

2. Biological nitrogen fixation :
• Biological nitrogen fixation occurs in the presence of certain living organisms such as.
• Rhizobium bacterium in the root nodules of legumes.
• Azotobacter bacterium in the soil.
• Anabaena (blue green algae) in water in the paddy fields.
• Azospirillum bacterium in loose association with the roots of maize, sorghum etc.
II. Ammonification : t involves the decomposition of proteins of dead plants and animals to
ammonia in the presence of ammonifying bacteria like Bacillus ramosus
III. Nitrification : It involves the oxidation of ammonia to nitrites (NO2–) and nitrates (NO3–) in the
presence of nitrifying bacteria like Nitrosomonas (Ammonia to nitrite), Nitrobacter (Nitrite to
nitrate) etc. Plants absorb the nitrites and nitrates from the soil through their roots and convert
them into organic compounds (e.g. proteins) of protoplasm by the process called nitrogen
assimilation.
IV. Denitrification : t involves reduction of ammonium compounds, nitrites and nitrates to
molecular nitrogen in the presence of denitrifying bacteria like Thiobacillus denitrificans.
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Fig.10.6 : Nitrogen cycle in nature

(b) Sedimentary cycles:
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(i) Phosphorus Cycle :

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• The producers absorbs soluble phosphate from soil which is transferred to consumers by
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herbivores and then to decomposer as organic phosphate by death & decay of producers &
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Consumers.
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• The phosphorus in lakes appear in three forms - inorganic, particulate organic & dissolved
organic form.
• In soil, there are two main supply pools of phosphorus-inorganic & insoluble organic, The
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dissolved phosphate are very less.

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• The inorganic phosphate are lost in erosion & the soluble by leaching. The phosphorus in
ocean basin is lost by sedimentation.
• The ocean phosphate is recovered by geological process when these sediments are exposed
to newly elevated surface.
Fig.10.7 : Phosphorus cycle-A simplified model

• Mining process also recovers phosphates. As a result of weathering of these exposed rocks,
inorganic phosphorus is added to soil.

E. POLLUTION :
• Any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biolgical features of air, land and water is
called pollution Any physical, chemical or biotic components/agents or nonliving substance
that are responsible to bring about an undesirable change in the environment is called
pollutant. Eg: heat, noise, SO2 etc.
(a) Types of pollutants :
(i) On the basis of persistence or form of occurrence :
I. Primary pollutants : They remain in the environment in the same form in which they are
released e.g. : CO, Glasses, Plastic, DDT.
II. Secondary pollutants : These are synthesized by the reaction amongst the primary
pollutants.
Eg: PAN (peroxyacyl nitrates), O3 .
(ii) On the basis of natural degradation :
I. Biodegradable : These are decomposed by natural action or micro organisms. Eg: Sewage,
Livestock, Garbage.
II. Non biodegradable : They do not decompose naturally or their degradation is quite slow. Eg:
plastics, broken glass, DDT, cans, phenolic compounds.
(b) Types of pollution :
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(i) Air pollution :
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• It is any undesirable change in the quality of air due to addition of foreign particles or gases or
or
pollutants in the air is called air pollution that have adverse effect on man, animals and
vegetation.
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Causes of Air Pollution : There are two main categories of air pollutants
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I. Gases
II. Particulate matter
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III. Secondary Air pollutants

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• 52% pollution takes place through CO, 18% by SO2, 12% by Hydrocarbons, 10% by
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Particulate matter, 6% by Nitrogen oxides and 2% by others.

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I. Gases :
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1. CO :
• Source : Incomplete combustion of fossil fuel, metallurgical operation plants as well as
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animals. Other sources are cigaratte, 50% CO emission by Automobiles.

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• In human CO combines with haemoglobin in blood and form carboxyhaemoglobin that

reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
• CO causes headache, Giddiness, cardiovascular malfunctioning, Asphyxia.
2. Hydrocarbons or VOC, (Volatile organic carbons) :
• Source : Released by combustion of fossil fuel or by naturally.
• Benzene is carcinogenic.
• PAH (Polynuclear aromatic Hydrocarbons) and formaldehyde cause irritation of eyes,
burning in mucous membrane, bronchial constriction, excessive secretion of mucus, tearing of
alveoli.
• Methane is released in atmosphere by paddy field (40%), Cattles or by combustion of fossil
fuel in vehicles, industries, kitchen etc. In atmosphere methane is converted in to CO2 so,
Methane is green house gas.
3. SO2::
• Source : It is released by melting of metallic ores containing sulphur, paper making, refining of
petroleum volcanic eruption, burning of petroleum, coal industries, motor vehicles thermal
plants. In the atmosphere SO2 oxidises to SO3 and combines with water to form H2SO3 and
H2SO4. It is the cause of acid rain.
• It causes chlorosis and necrosis of vegetation, in human it causes irritation to eyes and injury
to mucous membrane and respiratory tract (asthma, bronchitis, emphysema). It is also
responsible for discoluration and deterioration of buildings, sculptures, painted surfaces,
fabrics, paper, leather.

Knowledge Booster
• Lichen is indicator of SO pollution.

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• The reported threat toTajmahal of Agra from nearby oil refinery of Mathura is on account of SO .
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(4) Oxides of Nitrogen (NOX) :

• Source : Formed naturally by biological and nonbiolgical activities from nitrates, nitrites,
electric storms, high energy radiations and solar flares. Combustion process of industries,
automobiles, incinerators, forest fire, denitrifying bacteria and nitrogen fertilizers.
• Nitrogen oxides produce necrosis, defoliation, lesions, die back and death of many plants.
They form photochemical smog along with Hydrocarbons in the presence of sun light.
They form HNO3 that causes acid rain. In human it causes eye irritation, blood congestion,
respiratory troubles, lung edema. They form brown air in traffic congested city.
II. Particulate matter : It involves following types
1. Settleable : It is larger than 10 m, persist in air for less than one day.
2. Suspended : Diameter is less than 10 m remain suspended for weeks Eg: dust (more than
1 m), aerosol (less than 1 m), mist (liquid, more than 1 m), flyash, soot, smoke,
spores, fibres, pollen grains. Suspended particulate matter (SPM) of 2.5 m or less in
troposphere cause breathing problems like chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma & even death.
III. Secondary Air pollutants :
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• These are produced by reaction amongst the primary pollutants.
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1. Smog (smoke + fog) : It is opaque or dark fog containing condensed water vapours, smoke,
gases (SO2, H2S, NO2 etc.) dust. The term smog coined by Des voeux, (1911). Smog is of
two types. or
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Classical smog (London smog) : It is dark brown and opaque formed in reducing
atmosphere. It requires low temperature, oxides of sulphur, smoke, dust particles, H2S
fuel combustion of coal.
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• It was first reported in London in 1952. About 4000 people died in London in 1952 due to
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inhalation of H2SO4 vapour with fog.

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Photochemical smog(Los Angeles smog) : It is grey / yellowish brown and opaque formed
in oxidising atmosphere. It is light induced smog.
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• It requires high temperature, solar energy, oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons

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combining from automobile exhausts. It forms around mid day of summer months in congested
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metropolitan cities. It has O3, PAN, oxides of nitrogen (NOX).

• PAN inhibits the photosystem II, spoil enzyme systems, inhibit the chlorophyll formation in
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plants. Irritation in eyes & respiratory distress in human.

• O3 corrodes the heritage building surface and damages marble statue.
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2. Acid Rain :
• Term acid rain was coined by Robert August.
• It is other form of precipitation with a pH of less 5. (pH of Normal rain is 5·6 – 6·5).
• Acids of Atm is deposited over earth in two forms.
–Wet deposition –Dry deposition
• Causes of acid rain : Large scale emission of Acidic gases in to the atmosphere from thermal
power plants, industries & automobiles. The common emissions are SO2, NOX. volatile organic
carbons (VOCS) and Hydrogen chloride, NOX are also formed in atmosphere through
lightening.
• SO2 & NOX are converted into sulphuric acid & Nitric acid by combining with O2 & water in
atmosphere.
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
2NO + [0] N2O5
N2O5 + H2O 2HNO3
• Acid rain demages plants by direct effect on foliage and growing points-Chlorosis, Necrosis,
Defoliation, Dieback.
• Acid rain corrodes metals, marble, Painted surfaces slate, stone,The phenomenon is called
‘stone leprosy’

3. Ozone Depletion :
• Ozone layer is found in stratosphere as ozonosphere at altitude of 23-25km over equator.
• ‘Bad ozone’ lies in troposphere that harms plants & animals ‘Good ozone’ is formed in
upper part of atmosphere called the stratosphere.
• It absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
• UV rays are injurious to living organisms. These rays are absorbed by DNA & proteins of living
beings and high energy of UV rays breaks the chemical bonds with in these molecules. Ozone
is continuously formed by the action of UV rays on molecular oxygen, and also degraded in to
molecular oxygen in the stratosphere. The balance between production & degradation of
ozone has been disrupted due to enhancements of ozone degradation by CFCs (chlorofluoro
carbons).
4. Ozone Hole :
• Depletion in the concentration of ozone over a restricted area as spring time decline over
Antarctica is called ozone hole.
• Ozone hole discovered over antarctica by Farmen at 1985 & also coined this term. It is quite
large (23 million square km in 1992 and 28·3 million square km in 2000).
• These substance are responsible to destroy ozone present in the stratosphere.
• The major ODS are CFCs (14% of total depletion), Nitrogen oxides (3·5% depletion),
Sulphur dioxide, Halon, Carbon Tetra Chloride, Methyl Chloroform, Chlorine etc, some of
them are released by jets flying in the stratosphere & rockets being fired into space.
• Maximum ozone depleting potential or ODP is of CFCs due to release of chlorine by it. A
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single chlorine atom converts 1 lakh molecules of ozone into oxygen (reaction discovered by
Molina and Rowland ), chlorine action over ozone is chainmictic.
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• Consequently, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are being replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCIFC5), CCl4, halon & methyl chloroform also deplete ozone
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by a similar method. Nitric oxide (NO) and other gases released by jets directly react with
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ozone to form oxygen.
• CFCl3 –––––––– CFCl2 + Cl
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• CFCl2 –––––––– CFCl + Cl

• Cl+O3 –––––––– ClO +O2
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• ClO+O3 –––––––– Cl +2O2

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Effects of ozone depletion :

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• It causes skin cancers.

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• Cornea absorbs UV-B radiations and produce snow blindness (cornea becomes inflamed),
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cataract
• Many land animals would become blind.
• Damage to nucleic acids will increase resulting in higher number of mutations.
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5. Global Environmental Changes :

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• In addition of green house gases and pollutants in the atmosphere are responsible for the
global climate change.
Green house effect : Warming effect for keeping earth warm due to presence of certain
radiatively active gases in the atmosphere is called green house effect. It was reported by
Fourier (1827) & the term green house effect coined by Arrhenius.
• The gases which are transparent to solar radiation, but retain and partially reflect back long
wave heat radiations are called green house gases (GHGs). Eg : CO2 , CH4, CFCs, N2O
• They inhibit a part of long radiations emitted by earth to escape into space. Although green
house gases radiate a part of this energy back to the earth.The phenomenon is called green
house flux.The latter maintains mean annual temperature of earth at 15ºC.
In its absence it will fall to –18º C.
• The concentration of green house gases has started rising that causes enhanced green house
effect followed by increasing the mean global temperature. It is called global warming.
Global Warming : Increasing concentration of green house gases causes rise in atmospheric
temperature that was about some 2.5ºC since industrial revolution and 0.6ºC in the twentieth
century. there will be melting of polar ice caps and mountain snow caps. The effect of global
warming are as follow.
• Change in Sea Level : Rise in temperature will increase sea level due to thermal expansion
of sea water, melting of glaciers and Greenland ice sheet. The whole of Maldives, several
thousands of other islands, 11.5% of Bangladesh and several important cities of the world will
be submerged.

• Effect on Weather and Climate : Frequency of droughts and floods will increase.Odd climate
changes would become common. Change in rainfall pattern.
• Effect on Atmosphere : Warming of troposphere and cooling of stratosphere and
thermosphere.We can control global warming by cutting down use of fossil fuel, reducing
deforestation, planting trees. improving efficiency of energy usage, slowing down the growth of
human population.
International efforts for mitigating global change:
• Montreal protocol : Montreal (canada ; 16 september) 27 industrialised countries agreed to
limit use and production of ozone depleting substances like chlorofluorocarbonds to half the
level of 1986 with an aim to protect ozone layer.
• Kyoto Protocol (Dec. 1997) : International conference held in Kyoto (Least polluted city of
world), japan concerning with mitigation of climate changes caused by green house gases
obtained commitments from different countries for reducing overall greenhouse gas emission
at a level 5% below 1990 level by 2008-2012. Kyoto Protocol was endorsed at CoP - 3)
• World earth Summit 2002 : At Johannesburg (S. Africa) on sustainable development without
depletion of Biodiversity.
(ii) Water Pollution :
• The water pollution is caused by the addition of organic and inorganic chemicals as well as the
biological materials which change the physical and chemical properties of water. This harmful
process is called as water pollution.
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• The water pollution is caused by many sources such as sewage matter, industrial wastage,
agricultural wastage, domestic wastage, hot water of thermal plants and nuclear reactors etc.
I.
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Water pollution can be caused by the following man made sources :
Household detergents : The household detergents include the compounds of phosphate,
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nitrate, ammonium and alkylbenzene sulphonate etc. harmful substances which are gathered
in water. Alkyl benzene sulphonate (ABS) is not degradable, so that its concentration
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increases which is harmful for aquatic life.

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II. Domestic sewage & its effects :

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• It contains Human and animal wastes, industrial effluents, Detergents. Raw sewage has
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variety of pathogen and Micro-organisms. The former initiates growth of micro-organism that
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represent sewage fungus.

• The decomposition of organic waste by microbial activity is called putrescibility. Degree of
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impurity of water due to organic matter is measured in terms of BOD.

• BOD (Biochemical oxygen Demand) : Amount of oxygen in milligrams required for five days
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in one litre water at 20Cº for micro-organisms to metabolise organic waste.

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• COD (Chemical oxygen Demand) : It is amount of oxygen required to oxidized all the
reducing substances present in water BOD also involves in COD. Both BOD and COD
decrease the amount of dissolved oxygen or DO in water, The value of DO in less polluted
water is 8 mg/L and < 4 mg / L in highly polluted water.
III. Eutrophication :
• Nutrient enrichment of a water body due to natural aging is called eutrophication. Nutrients
present in sewage, agriculture wastes and fertilizers cause dense growth of plants and
planktonic algae. It is called algal bloom.
• Algal blooms and floating plants cut off light from submerged plants. The latter die, there is
drastic decrease in oxygen replenishment inside water. It causes organic loading of water,
decreased oxygen level also kills aquatic animals, further adding to organic loading.
Note : World’s most problematic aquatic weed Eichornia crassipes ( Terror of Bengal) is the
another example of eutrophication.
IV. Biomagnification/Biological magnification : Persistent pesticides like DDT and Heavy
metals like Hg are accumulated in tissue in increasing concentration along the food chain is
called Biological/Biological amplification. The highest level is found in top consumer.
(iii) Soil Pollution :
• It is change in soil due to removal or addition of substances and factors that decreases its
productivity, quality of plants and ground water. It involves following types.

I. Positive soil pollution : The quality of soil is decreased due to addition of undesirable
substances e.g. : industrial wastes, agrochemicals.
II. Negative soil pollution : Reduction in soil productivity is caused by erosion and over-use.
III. Landscape/third pollution : It is conversion of fertile land into barren one by dumping wastes
(Eg: ash, sludge, garbage, rubbish, industrial wastes, broken cans, bottles, etc) over it.
• Polyethylene carry-bags, petbottles, waste plastic sheets are non-biodegradable materials that
persist in soil for long periods. Soil deterioration and decrease the natural microflora occur due
to Excessive use of fertilizers. Flyash from thermal power plants pollute the surrounding land.
Mine dust deteriorates top soil and contaminates the area with toxic metals and chemicals.
(iv) Noise pollution :
• Unwanted / unpleasant loud sound of 80 dB or more is called noise pollution. Frequency of
sound is measured in Hz and unit of sound level is deciBel (dB). Range of human hearing is
50 Hz to 15000 Hz.
• Moderate conversation produces 60 dB sound, loud conversation 70 dB, scooter 80 dB,
truck/bus 90 dB, jet aeroplane 150 dB, rocket 180 dB.
Effect of Noise pollution :
• It causes anxiety, stress and emotional disturbances.
• A sudden loud sound may permanently damage ear drum or dislocates ear ossicles.
• It may cause insomnia or sleeplessness.
• In causes headache by dilating blood vessels of the brain, dilating the pupil of eye, high blood
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pressure by increasing cholesterol level in the blood.
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• It can impair the development of nervous system of unborn babies which leads to abnormal
behaviour in their life.
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Radioactive pollution : Initially, nuclear energy was used for generating electricity. The use
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of nuclear energy has two very serious inherent problems. The first is accidental leakage. Eg:
Three Mile Island and Chernobyl incidents, second is safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
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Radiation, that are released by nuclear waste, is extremely damaging to biological organisms
& cause mutations. After sufficient pre-treatment, nuclear waste are stored in shielded
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containers and buried within the rocks, about 500 m deep below the earth’s surface.
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Knowledge Booster
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Succession : Development of plant community on barren area is called ecological succession or

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Biotic succession. The replacement of existing community by new ones, in an orderly sequence in
barren area with time due to change in environmental conditions.
• Biotic communities are never stable. They are changing more or less over period and space, due
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to presence of different types of climatic & environmental conditions. (So a continuous interaction
is going on between the community and environment till state of stability.
• The action of each seral community (interaction with it's environment) makes the area less
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favourable for itself and more favourable for next seral community in the succession.
Term for community in succession
• Pioneer community – The first community to inhabit an area is called Pioneer community.
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• Climax community – The last and stable community in an area is called climax community.This
is more stable. Usually mesophytes are present in climax community.
• An important characteristic of all communities is that composition and structure constantly
change in response to the changing environmental conditions. This change is orderly and
sequential, parallel with the changes in the physical environment. These changes lead finally t o
a community that is in near equilibrium with the environment and that is called a climax
community .
• Seral communities or seral stage – In succession, communities or stages which comes in
between pioneer community and climax community is called transitional or seral
communities.
• Sere – The entire series of communities is called sere
• Succession in fresh water Hydrosere
• Succession at dry Region Xerosere
• Succession on rocks Lithosere
Types of succession –
1. Primary succession – Occurs in the barren area where there was no previously any type of
living matter. e.g. volcanic lava, igneous rock, sand dunes.
2. Secondary succession – This type of succession occur where vegetation was present
previously but vegetation was destroyed due to natural or artificial causes i.e. fire, flood,
sudden changes in climate, land slide.
Hydrosere :
Stages of hydrosere or hydrarch succession in the newly formed pond or lake
1. Phytoplankton stage – It is pioneer community, first coming minute autotrophic organism.
These produce organic matter e.g. Diatoms, B.G.A.
2. Rooted submerged stages – eg. Vallisneria
3. Free floating stages – eg. Eichhorhia
4. Reed swamp stage – Most part of these rooted plants remain exposed to air eg. Typha,
Azolla
5. Marsh meadow stage – Muddy plants
6. Scrub stage – woody shrubs, tolerates water logging
7. Forest stage – e.g. Trees (Oak, Salix)

G. ADAPTATIONS
• Adaptations may be defined as the characteristics of living forms to develop, over a period of
time with certain morphological, anatomical, physiological, and ecological features which
enable them to survive and reproduce within the limits of a particular environment, e.g. fish,
whales, aquatic plants are adapted to live in water, birds and bats in air and camels in deserts.
(a) Aquatic Adaptations :
Aquatic adaptations are shown by those organisms that live in water. Various water bodies are
ponds, lakes, rivers, streams and oceans. The abiotic factors that organisms experience in water are
the availability of light and oxygen, pressure fluctuations, resistance to movements, salt
concentrations and so on. Accordingly plants and animals adapt to these physical factors.
Some plants and animals live in fresh water while others are seen in sea water. Organisms living in
a particular habitat are adapted only for that habitat. Organisms get their mineral requirements from
the type of water in which they live. That is why plants occurring in fresh water are not seen in sea
water.
Hydrophytic adaptations: Typical hydrophytes grow in water or water rich substratum. Since
the aquatic environment remains uniform, the hydrophytes, particularly the sub-merged and
floating forms have less adaptations than xerophytic plants. Their adaptations are chiefly in
response to excess water, decreased oxygen supply and low temperatures. On morpho-
ecological basis hydrophytes have been divided into following groups :
(i) Free-floating hydrophytes : These are not rooted below.They remain in contact with water
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and air but not soil.They float freely on the surface of water. Root system is not developed.
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Root pockets are found in many species. Some air-storing region is present in larger species.
• Examples. Lemna, Wolffia, Salvinia, Azolla, Pistia , Trapa etc.
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Fig.10.8 : Pistia, Lemna

(ii) Floating leaved, rooted hydrophytes : These are anchored at the bottom, but their leaves float on
the surface of water. The leaves have long petioles. Leaves have cuticle, stomata and waxy coating
on the upper surface. Some plants show heterophily.
• e.g. Eichhornia,Victoria, Marsilea etc.
Fig.10.9 :Eichhornia

(iii) Submerged floating hydrophytes.These plants are though completely sub-merged in water
but not anchored in the mud. They are devoid of roots. Examples-Utricularia,Ceratophyllum.
Fig.10.10 : Ceratophyllum sp.

(iv) Sub-merged rooted hydrophytes.They remain completely sub-merged in water and are
anchored at the bottom.The leaves are either ribbon-shaped or greatly dissected.The stems
are with long internodes soft and spongy, Examples- Vallisneria, Potamogeton, Hydrilla, Chara
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etc.
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Fig.10.11 : Potamogeton
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Characteristics of Hydrophytes:
• Morphological characters:
• Roots either absent (Wolffia, Utricularia) or poorly developed (Hydrilla)
• Root caps are replaced by root-pockets (Eichhornia, Pistia).
• In some cases floating roots may develop in addition to normal roots (Jussiaea).
• The submerged parts are generally surrounded by mucilage for protection.
• The submerged leaves are either ribbon-like or finely dissected.
• Floating leaves are generally large, broad and thick.
• Heterophily is common in partially submerged plants (Ranunculus).
• In some hydrophytes, the petioles of leaves are spongy due to the presence of air cavities.
• Anatomical Characters:
• The cuticle is either absent or poorly developed.
• Epidermis in hydrophytes is meant for absorption not for protection.
• The cortex is wide and bear large air spaces.
• Lack of sclerenchyma (reduction in mechanical tissue).
• Vascular tissue is poorly developed.
• Stomata are generally absent in the submerge organs. If present they are functionless.In the
floating leaves stomata are usually restricted to upper surface.
• In amphibian plants, dimorphism is exhibited by the leaves that diverge from the stem below
the water level, composed do those that diverge above water.

Fig.10.12 : T.S.Stem of Hydrilla.

Aquatic adaptations in animals : These adaptations are shown by those animals which live
in water i.e., water is their home or habitat. Animals may live in water primarily or they have
shifted to water habitat later on as a secondary adaptation. Accordingly, these animals show
the following modifications :
• They have a streamlined body that helps in swimming in water e.g. fish. Streamlined body
gives least resistance to swim in water.
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• Locomotion is either by webbed feet e.g. ducks, frogs or by fins e.g. fish. The fins at the
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sides helps in acquiring speed and in changing direction.
• Respiration occurs with the help of gills. Gills are the organs that help the animal to get oxygen
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from water. Gills have a large surface area that helps in this process by providing a layer of
contact.
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• Some fish and water insects carry air bladder as a hydrostatic organ in their bodies that help
in providing the buoyancy to the animal in water.
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• Hair and skin glands like sweat & oil-glands are absent eg. in whales.
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Fig.10.13 : Fish
(b) Terrestrial Adaptations :
Terrestrial adaptations are shown by those organisms that live on land. Land provides a vast
variety of physical factors such as soil, temperature, humidity, wind, light etc. Unlike water bodies,
habitat on land becomes discontinuous as it is interrupted by streams, rivers, oceans, mountain etc.
Organisms that live on land get enough amounts of light and oxygen. But they get wide
fluctuations in temperature on land. The availability of water is also not uniform on land. On the
basis of availability of water and temperature, these regions are categorised on land :
Xeric adaptations :
(i) Xeric adaptations in plants : Plants that live in xeric conditions or scarcity of water are
known as xerophytic plants.
• The xerophytes can be grouped into three categories.
(I) Ephemerals : They are drought esscapers or drought evaders found in the habitats of
prolonged dry season. They live only for a few weeks in the wet season of the year.They
emerge during the early spring or rainy season, grow, flower and produce seeds in a short
span of wet conditions.The dry season of the year is tide over in the form of seeds which are
resistant to drought. So these plants are drought escaping rather than drought-resistant. e.g.
Argemone mexicana, Solanum xanthocarpum etc.

(II) Succulents : Such plants are called as drought resisting plants. The succulents are able to
store large amounts of water in their bodies. Succulance results from the proliferation of
parenchymatous cells accompanied by an enlargement of vacuoles, and reduction in the size
of intercellular spaces. It may occur in stem, leaves, or roots.The plants store water in
considerable amounts during the short rainy season in their enlarged cells which is then
utilized economically during drought period. Stomata remain closed during day time checking
the loss of water.The CO2 released in respiration is utilized in photosynthesis internally. e.g.-
opuntia, Euphorbia etc.
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Fig.10.14 : Opuntia sp. , Euphorbia royleana.
(III) Non-succulents : These are the true xerophytes because they experience dryness both
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internal and external.They are perennials and are characterised by many morphological and
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biological modification, which enable them to withstand dry condition.They have extensive root
system and many characteristics to reduce transpiration like waxy coatings on leaves, sunken
stomata, leaf blades reduced, thin rigid, leathery or scaly, rolling and folding of leaves etc.
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e.g.Nerium etc.
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Fig.10.15 : Nerium sp.

Characteristics of Xerophytes
• Morphological characters:
• The root system is extensive, penetrating very deep. Root hairs and root caps are very well
developed.
• The leaves are reduced in area to check transpiration .The leaves may be modified into
phyllodes (Acacia sp.) or succulent (Aloe).
• The stems are usually stunted, hard, rigid and covered with thick bark.
• The stem may be modified into phylloclades (Opuntia, Euphorbia).
• Anatomical Characters:
• The plant parts are covered with wax or hairs.
• Plant parts are covered with thick cuticle.
• Stomata are sunken.They may be further covered with hairs e.g. Nerium and Capparis.
• Stomata are restricted only to lower side of leaf.
• Hypodermis is sclerenchymatous.
• Mucilage cells may be present e.g. Bryophyllum.
• Epidermal cells may have silica crystals.
• Upper surface of leaf is shining.
• Osmotic pressure of cell sap in high.

• The xerophytes which contain fleshy leaves and stems are called malacophyllous.
• In xerophytes like Calotropis, Euphorbia, Asclepias etc., latex producing tubes (laticiferous
canals) are present.
• Vascular tissue is very well developed.
(ii) Xeric adaptation in animals : Animals that live in deserts show xeric adaptations. Some of
these adaptations are given below : Since these animals live in excessive heat, so they
developed a protective covering around the body to check dessication or water loss by
evaporation. Moloch, the desert lizard has hygroscopic skin to absorb water.
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Fig.10.16 : The spiny toad.
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• It’s body is covered with spines to avoid loss of water
• They may have water sacs in their stomach wall e.g. camel.
• or
Most of these animals are nocturnal (active during night) so they avoid the day temperature.
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• For defence, they have poisons or some other mechanism. Snakes, spiders, scorpions have
poison glands or stings.
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• Some of the desert insects can make use of metabolic water.

• Some of the desert animals like rats and snakes dig holes and burrows in the sand and live
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within. In holes and burrows the temperature is less and it is moist also. These animals come
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out at night only when the deserts are cooler. So these animals avoid the excessive heat of
the day.
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• These animals, either become active when water is available and remain dormant for rest of
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the time or adapt for water storage and water conservation.

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• Certain animals like desert rabbit and wood rat derive water by eating succulent plants.
• Body temperature of certain animals, e.g. Camel, fluctuates with the atmosphere which
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reduces the water loss through sweating.

• Some undergo aestivation (summer sleep).
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Mesophytes : Mesophytes are the plants growing in the habitats of moderate climatic
conditions.
• The root system of mesophytes is well developed, branched and provided with root cap.
• Shoot system is well organised. The stem is generally aerial, branched, straight, thick and
hard.
• Leaves are thin, broad in middle, dark green and of variable shape and measurement.
Polar–Region Adaptations : Polar regions are characterized by heavy and snowy winters.
The plants found here are of short height. The animals seen here are white or light in colour.
This enables them to match the colour of the background (camouflage) ; and also to regulate
the temperature of the body (thermal regulation). The animals can store fat in their body in
summers so that it can be consumed in winter months. During winter months, animals also
hibernate. This reduces their metabolic activities to the minimum.
(c) Amphibious Animals :
There is yet another category of animals which live on land but they go to water for laying eggs or
they live in water and come to land for reproduction. Their life-cycle is not completed in one habitat
alone, e.g. in the life cycle of frog or toad water is essential to lay eggs and for the larvae (tadpoles)
to develop. Similarly, the life cycle of mosquito requires both water and land. Such animals are
known as amphibious animals ( animals showing two modes of habitats). Their different stages
show characteristics particular to the habitat in which they are found.

(d) Adaptations in Halophytes :
The plants which grow in saline habitats are called halophytes.These habitats show the presence of
high concentration of salts like NaCl, MgCl2 and MgSO4etc. High salt concentration changes the
chemical properties of soil solution and the plants are unable to absorb the water. Thus, the habitat
is physiologically dry. The littoral swamp forest is more common and extensive form of halophytic
habitat occuring in all tropical seas.The halophytes of the temperate regions are mostly herbs but in
tropical and sub-tropical regions, the sea shore occupies a dense woodland of trees comprising of
halophytes forming mangroove forests.The common species found in these forests are Avicennia,
Rhizophora etc.
Characteristics of mangrooves :
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Fig.10.17 : Rhizophora sp.
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(i) Pneumatophores.These are negatively geotropic lateral roots.They arise from the submerged
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horizontal roots. These roots are respiratory in function.They are provided with numerous
pores or respiratory spaces in their upper part, through which exchange of gases takes place
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(Avicennia, Sonneratia).
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(ii) Vivipary : It is a phenomenon shown by mangroove plants. The seed germinates inside the
fruit while the latter is still on the parental tree and its nourished by it. The radicle elongates to
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a certain length and swells up at the lower end. The seedling at this stage separates from the
parent plant and falls vertically down, in such a way that the radicle presses into the mud
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keeping the plumule and cotyledons above the saline water (Rhizophora).
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(iii) Succulency : Most of the halophytes are succulent. They store water and mucilage. Leaves
are highly cutinised and palisade tissue is well-developed. The other type of halophytes are
found in salt deserts. These habitats possess sandy and heavy soils having excess of salts.
Usually the plants are shallow rooted because the saline soils remain water-logged for most of
the year and small amount of air is present in the upper portion only. In sandy soils, however,
the root system is deep.The plants appear during rainy season when the salt concentration is
relatively lower. e.g.-Salsola.
(e) Adaptations in Birds :
Birds include a variety of forms which can be divided into the following two main groups :
(i) Flightless birds : These are usually large and have strong legs. They have reduced wings
and curly feathers. Ostrich is a huge bird with only two toes in each foot. It is one of the
fastest runner. On an average the ostrich weighs about 125 kg and its egg is the largest cell.
Emu of Australia has three toes in each foot. Penguins have their wings modified into
swimming paddles. They live in the cold sea water of southern pole. Most penguins do not
build nests but incubate their eggs in fold of skin between their feet.

Fig.10.18 : (a) Penguin (B) Ostrich

(ii) Flying birds : They are most of the modern birds and are found in all the parts of the world.
These animals are adapted for the aerial mode of life. They have a streamlined body covered
with feathers. Forelimbs are modified into wings. The bones are light, hollow, spongy and
contain many air cavities. They have lungs for breathing. Nervous system and sense organs
are well developed. Examples : bat, eagle, sparrow, penguin. Some common flying birds are
pigeon, kite, cuckoo, house sparrow, crow, parrot, dove, sunbird, cattle egret, swifts,
kingfisher, bulbul etc. The humming bird is the smallest flying bird.
Some Important Points :
• The vegetation growing in tundra and on the ice covered high hill tops is known as
cryophytes. Cryophytes are generally grasses , herbs, mosses and lichens. Trees are almost
absent. They reproduce during summer seasons only.
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• Oxylophytes are plants growing on acidic soil.
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• Chasmophytes are plants growing in rock crevices.
• Hibernation (winter-sleep) is the period of dormancy during winter.
• or
Aestivation (summer sleep) is the period of dormancy during summer months so as to
escape from scorching heat of sun.
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• Plants growing on burnt soil are called as pyrophilous.
• Plants growing on rocks are called as lithophytes.
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• Plants growing in bright light are called sun plants or heliophytes, while plants growing in
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partial shade or low intensity light are called shade plants or sciophytes.
• Camouflage (Cryptic appearance) is the ability to blend with the surrounding or background.
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Examples of camouflage are Praying Mantis, Dead Leaf Butterfly etc.

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Fig.10.19 : Stick insect Chitarchus hookeri by its shape and colour as well as by its habit of
remaining still, deceptively looks like twig
• Mimicry is the resemblance of one species with another in order to obtain advantage,
especially against predation. e.g. Several palatable butterfly mimic as non - palatable butterfly
to fool their predators
• The animals living on trees are called arboreal e.g. Monkey.
Knowledge Booster
Egg
Knowledge Booster
Neoteny : An evolutionary trend to be born earlier so Adult Larva
(Butterfly) Life cycle (caterpillar)
that development is cut off at an earlier stage and of
juvenile characteristics are retained in adults of the Butterfly
species. e.g.The adult axolotl, a salamander, retains
larval external gills. Pupa
Larva : (Camouflaged)
Caterpillar
• Larva may be given shelter from predators. eats &
• Reduce competition for resources with the adult grows a
population. termendous
amount.

SECTION (A) : ECOLOGY
A-1 Explain the different components of ecosystem.
A-2 Classify ecosystem on the basis of its size.
A-3 Define
(a) Ecology (B) Ecosystem (C) Habitat (D) Ecological niche
SECTION (B) : FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB
B-1 Define:
(a) Food chain (B) Food web (C) Trophic levels
B-2 Explain in detail, different types of food chains
B-3 “Food web is more stable than food chain”. Comment.
SECTION (C) : ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
C-1 Explain number pyramid in tree ecosystem.
C-2 Why pyramids of energy are always erect.
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C-3 Why is the pyramid of biomass inverted in case of aquatic ecosystem
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SECTION (D) : NUTRIENT CYCLING
D-1 Explain nitrogen cycle in detail.
D-2 or
What is the difference between sedimentary cycle and gaseous cycle.
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SECTION (E) : POLLUTION
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E-1 What is the function of ozone layer ?

E-2 Which compounds are responsible for the depletion of ozone layer ?
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E-3 Explain the effects of acid rain.

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SECTION (F) : ADAPTATION

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F-1 Why submerged hydrophytes do not required developed roots.

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F-2 Why animals of tropical rain forest. Have different adaptation ?

F-3 Which type of fish need to swim continuously for respiration ?
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F-4 What do you understand by xerophytic conditions ?

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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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A-1 Ecosystem consists of
(A) producers (B) consumers (C) decomposers (D) all of these
A-2 Decomposers of an ecosystem include
(A) Microscopic animals (B) Bacteria, fungi and microscopic organism
(C) Algae and virus (D) Bacteria, fungi and cyanobacteria
A-3 In an ecosystem
(A) Primary producers are more than that of primary consumers
(B) Secondary consumers are largest, because they are powerful
(C) Primary consumers are out of number
(D) Primary consumers are least dependent upon primary producers
B-1 What will happen, if all the green plants disappear from the earth ?
(A) all animals will die (B) only carnivores will die
(C) only herbivores will die (D) it will have no effect on animals
B-2 Primary consumers in detritus food chain are
(A) Herbivores (B) Bacteria and fungi
(C) Insect larvae, nematodes (D) Carnivoroes
B-3 A food chain starts with
(A) decay (B) respiration (C) photosynthesis (D) nitrogen fixation

C-1 The pyramid of number in tree ecosystem in parasitic food chain-
(A) Inverted (B) Upright (C) Both (D) None
C-2 Which one of the following pyramid is upright always ?
(A) Pyramid of number (B) Pyramid of energy (C) Pyramid of biomass (D) All of the above
C-3 In terrestrial ecosystem , maximum energy is present in
(A) T3 (B) T2 (C) T1 (D) T4
C-4 In grassland ecosystem the pyramid of biomass is
(A) Linear (B) upright (C) inverted (D) inverted upright
D-1 Which is not a gaseous cycle -
(A) Carbon (B) Nitrogen (C) Oxygen (D) Calcium
D-2 Nitrobacter bacteria convert -
(A) Ammonia to nitrite (B) Nitrate to nitrite (C) Nitrite to Nitrate (D) Nitrite to ammonia
D-3 Azospirillum bacteria present in -
(A) Roots of maize (B) Roots of sorghum (C) Roots of babool (D) Both (A) and (B)
D-4 Percentage of nitrogen in air is –
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(A) 77.02 % (B) 78.08 % (C) 76.08% (D) 74.09%
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D-5 Nodules in the roots of legume plants contain
(A) nitrogen fixing bacteria (B) sulphur fixing bacteria
(C) potassium fixing bacteria or
(D) none of the above
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D-6 Free living bacteria involve in nitrogen fixation –
(A) Rhizobium (B) Azotobacter (C) Anabaena (D) Azospirillum
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D-7 Biogeochemical cycles are also known as

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(A) sedimentary cycles (B) gaseous cycles (C) material cycles (D) Both (A) and (B)
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D-8 Nitrogen fixation is -

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(A) Nitrogen Nitrite (B) Nitrogen nitrates (C) Nitrogen Amino acid (D) Both A and B
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E-1 Eutrophication is caused due to -

(A) water pollution (B) air pollution (C) soil pollution (D) noise pollution
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E-2 Which of the following is the green house gas ?

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(A) H2S (B) CO2 (C) CO (D) H2

E-3 Main acid present in acid rain is -
(A) H2SO4 (B) HNO3 (C) CH3COOH (D) Both (A) & (B)
E-4 Which of the following hampers the transportation of O2 within the body ?
(A) CO2 (B) CH4 (C) CO (D) H2
E-5 Water pollution is caused by -
(A) chlorofluoro carbon (B) SO2
(C) CO2 (D) wastes being dumped in water bodies
E-6 Incomplete combustion of carbon forms-
(A) CO2 (B) H2O vapours (C) carbon (D) CO
E-7 Threat to famous monument Tajmahal is due to -
(A) water pollution (B) air pollution (C) noise pollution (D) none of above
E-8 Acid rain is formed from water vapour reacting with
(A) CO2 and SO2 (B) SO2 and Nitrogen oxide
(C) CO2 and Nitrogen oxide (D) Sulphuric acid

F-1 Characterstic of a Living organism to develop, over a period of time with certain features that enable
them to survive are termed as
(A) Camouflage (B) Adaptation (C) Variation (D) Speciation
F-2 Heterophylly is shown by
(A) Hydrophytes (B) Xerophytes (C) heliophytes (D) All of these
F-3 Which of following is an example of free floating hydrophytes
(A) Salvinia (B) Azolla (C) Trapa (D) All of these
F-4 Animal with defence mechanisms like poison gland or sting found in
(A) Aquatic animals (B) Aerial animals (C) Xeric Animals (D) None of these
F-5 Pneumatophores are found in-
(A) Plants of marshy or saline lake (B) Xerophytes
(C) Epiphytes (D) Hydrophytes
F-6 Which of following plant have sunken stomata
(A) Nerium (B) Hydrilla (C) Mango (D) Guava
F-7 Dimorphism exhibited by
(A) Succulents (B) Ephemerals (C) Amphibian plant (D) Rooted hydrophytes
F-8 Plant growing in the habitat of moderate climatic condition are-
(A) Mesophyte (B) Hydrophytes (C) Xerophyte (D) Halophytes
F-9 Plant growing on rock are known as
(A) Pyrophilous (B) Lithophytes (C) Sciophytes (D) Heliophytes
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F-10 Bird that incubate its egg in a pouch found between their legs (Fold of skin)
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(A) Emu (B) Ostrich (C) Penguin (D) Siberian Crane
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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1. The ecosystem of earth is known as

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(A) Biome (B) Community (C) Biosphere (D) Association

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2. The best arrangement of an energy system consisting of hawks, mice snakes and grasses is
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(A) Grass mice snake hawk (B) Grass snake hawk snake
(C) Grass snake hawk snake (D) Mice snake hawk grass
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3. Energy flow in ecosystem is

(A) Unidirectional (B) Bidirectional (C) Multidirectional (D) None of the above
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4. The pyramid of number for forest ecosystem is

(A) Upright (B) Inverted (C) Both of above (D) None of above
5. A food chain consists of -
(A) Producers, carnivores and decomposers (B) Producers, herbivores and carnivores
(C) Producers and primary consumers (D) Producers and decomposers
6. Pyramid of energy is always
(A) Inverted (B) Upright (C) Spindle shaped (D) None
7. Decomposers are
(A) Autotrophs (B) Heterotrophs (C) Autoheterotrops (D) Lithotrophs
8. Pyramid of biomass in forest is
(A) Inverted (B) Always upright (C) Irregular (D) Regular
9. Nitrogen is a critical element in an ecosystem because
(A) It is labile element
(B) Its abundant amount present in atmosphere
(C) Nitrogen fixation takes place through microorganisms
(D) It is an essential plant element.
10. Most hazardous metal pollutant of automobile exhaust is
(A) mercury (B) copper (C) cadmium (D) lead

11. Increase skin cancer and higher mutation rates are generally the consequence of
(A) CO2 (B) ozone depletion (C) biomagnification (D) acid rain
12. Carbon monoxide is a major pollutant of
(A) water (B) air (C) noise (D) soil
13. As compared to tap water, the BOD of a water body polluted with sewage would be
(A) high (B) low (C) normal (D) nil
14. One of them is an indicator for water quality
(A) Escherichia coli (B) Beggiatoa (C) Cladothrix (D) Azospirillum
15. DDT spraying on the crops results in the pollution of
(A) soil and water (B) air and soil (C) crops and air (D) air and water
16. Major pollutant present in the jet plane emission is
(A) CCl4 (B) SO2 (C) SO3 (D) fluorocarbon
17. Montreal Protocol was aimed to
(A) To reduce green house gases (B) Limit the production and use of ODS
(C) Mitigate climatic change (D) To reduce CFCs
18. Arrange CFC, CH4, N2O and CO2 in decreasing order according to their contribution in green house
effect
(A) CO2>N2O>CFC>CH4 (B) CFC>CO2>CH4>N4O
(C) CH4>CFC>N2O>CO2 (D) CO2 > CH4>CFC>N2O
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19. Which of the following conference obtained commitments from different countries for reducing
overall green house gas emission at a level 5% below 1990 level by 2008-2012.
(A) Kyoto Protocol, 1997
(C) Montreal Protocol, 1987
or
(B) Earth Summit, Rio-de-janeiro, 1992
(D) Helsinki Declaratio, 1989
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20. Some reliable indicators of air pollutants (SO4and noxious gases) are
(A) Lichens and mosses (B) Ferns and Cycas
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(C) ‘Neem’ tree and Eichhornia (D) Green algae and aquatic liverworts
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21. What is B.O.D

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(A) The amount of O2 utilised by organisms in water

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(B) The amount of O2 utilized by micro organisms for decomposition

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(C) The total amount of O2 present in water

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Passage for Q (1–3) : In a field, on a summer day a Grasshopper was hopping about, chirping and
singing to its hearts’s content. An Ant passed by, bearing along with great toil an ear of pea he was
taking to the nest. “Why not come and chat with me, “ said the Grasshopper, “instead of to toiling
and moliing in that way ? ” “I am helping to lay up food for the winter,” said the Ant, “and recommend
you to do the same.” “Why bother about winter?” said the Grasshopper ; “We have got plenty of food
at present.” But the Ant went on its way and continued its toil. When the winter came the
Grasshopper had no food an found itself dying of hunger - while it saw the ants distributing every
day corn and grain from the stores they had collected in the summer. Then the Grasshopper knew, it
is best to prepare for days of need.
1. In the passage given above there seems to be a factual error with respect to the ant carrying the
food to the nest.The most probable reason for this mistake would be
(A) Pea pod is too heavy for an ant to carry to its nest.
(B) Pea cannot be carried by an ant in the summer because it is a Rabi crop.
(C) Ant couldn’t have passed by easily since it is the favourite food of grasshoppers.
(D) Grasshoppers avoid coming out in summer and thus there cannot be grasshopper in the story.

2. What could be the most plausible reason that all the ants that toiled and moiled in the summer were
happy and content in the winter ?
(A) Ants were probably happy since their food was not shared with Grasshopper.
(B) Ants need not worry to work anymore since they had food stocked.
(C) Ants were happy since they enjoyed working together in summer.
(D) Food that was procured was efficiently distributed and managed so that all the ants were fed
equality.
3. Grasshopper was at fault in this story mostly because
(A) Of its attitude towards ants who were working tirelessly.
(B) Of not having a forethought to store food for the upcoming winter season.
(C) Of chirping and singing to its heart’s content in the summer.
(D) It should have asked ants for the food and managed to surpass the winter somehow.
4. A desert room cooler cools better on hot and dry day due to (IJSO Stage-I 2010-11)
(A) increase in the rate of evapouration (B) decrease in the rate of evapouration
(C) decrease in the rate of vapourization (D) increase in the rate of diffusion
Passage Q (5-6) : Diatoms are the most common photosynthetic aquatic microorganisms group of algae
which are unicellular and can exist as colonies inthe shape of filaments or ribbons, fans, zigzags or
stars depending on the quality of the water. Diatom communities are a popular tool for studies of
water quality and pollution management. Karthik from Bangalore recently went on a field trip from
Bangalore to Mysore. On the way he stopped his car at a sewage canal, a lake and a mountain
stream and collected water samples from all the these places for his lab work. After a careful
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analysis of his water samples. he observed that diatoms came with varying size/shape and the
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size/shape increases has/have? something to do with the water quality.
5. Below are the diatoms observed under a microscope by Karthik. Help him to recognise the correct
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order of sample localities (Viz., Canal, Stream and lake).
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(A) A-Mountain stream, B - Sewage Canal, C - Lake

(B) A - Sewage Canal, B - Lake, C - Mountain Stream
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(C) A - Lake , B - Mountain stream, C - Sewage Canal

(D) A - Mountain stream , B - Lake, C - Sewage canal
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6. What is the take home message from the above experiment (IJSO/Stage-1/2013)
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(A) Diatoms come in different sizes and shapes

(B) The difference in size and shapes from different water samples, is suggestive of the intensity of
water pollution.
(C) Karthik enjoyed collecting samples from different locations,
(D) Nothing can be inferred from the above experiment.
7. The term Biodiversity refers to (IJSO/Stage-1/2013)
(A) Species Diversity (B) Genetic diversity (C) Ecosystem diversity (D) All of the above
8. Which of the following places having same number of species is considered most biodiverse ?
(A) species belonging to more taxa (IJSO/Stage-1/2014)
(B) many of the species economically important
(C) many of the species endemic
(D) species adapted to greater number of habitats
9. Greenhouse gases absorb (and trap) outgoing infared rediation (heat) from Earth and contribute to
global warming. A molecule that acts as a greenhouse gas, generally has a permanent dipole
moment and sometimes for other reasons. Going only by the condition of permanent dipole moment,
in the list of gases given below, how many can be potential greenhouse gases ?
Water, Sulphur dioxide, Boron trifluoride, Carbon monoxide, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen, Oxygen,
Methane hydrogen sulphite, ammonia. (IJSO/Stage-1/2015)
(A) Five (B) Six (C) Seven (D) Four

10. Every major city in India has a pollution control board to monitor air and water pollution. The
following data is from three different localities in Bangalore city from the year 2015.
(IJSO/Stage-1/2015)
Locality Annual average of SO2 in the air (volume/volume)
P 16.3 mL/m3
Y 16.3 ppb (m3/ m3)
Z 16.3 ppm (m3/ m3)
ppb stands for parts per billion and ppm stands for parts per million.These are different units to
express.concentration.They are very similar to percentage (which is actually parts per hundred).
Based on the above data, which place will you choose to live in?
(A) All localities are equally polluted, so I have no preference.
(B) P is the more polluted tha Y and Z, hence I will live in either Y or Z.
(C) Locality Y is least polluted , hence I will live in Y.
(D) Z and Y are more polluted than P, hence I will live in P.
11. Endemic species refers to (IJSO/Stage-1/2015)
(A) threatened wild animals and plants which belong to different areas.
(B) species which are capable of inter breeding.
(C) those species of flora and fauna which are found exclusively in a particular area.
(D) all the plants and animals mentioned in the red data book.
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12. A mammal adapted to desert conditions is likely to have large : (IJSO/Stage-1/2017)
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(A) Nostrils (B) Nails (C) Muzzle (D) Pinnae
13. Panting is a means of thermoregulation in dogs. This is due to: (IJSO/Stage-1/2017)
(A) high specific heat of water or
(B) high vapour pressure of water
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(C) high specific gravity of water (D) high latent heat of vapourization
14. To meet the increasing demand for food, there have been several `revolutions'. Which of the
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following revolutions
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is likely to have contributed most to global warming ? (IJSO/Stage-1/2017)

(A) Green (B) White (C) Blue (D) Silver
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15. An environment conservation group performed a survey of some diverse locations in the country
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and represented it as under: (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)

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Which amongst these sites should be included as a biodiversity hotspot ?

(A) Site A (B) Site B (C) Site C (D) Site D

A-1: D A-2: B A-3: A
B-1: A B-2: B B-3: C
C-1: A C-2: B C-3: C C-4: B
D-1: D D-2: C D-3: D D-4: B D-5: A D-6: B D-7: D D-8: D
E-1: A E-2: B E-3: D E-4: C E-5: D E-6: D E-7: B E-8: B
F-1: B F-2: A F-3: D F-4:C F-5: A F-6: A F-7:C F-8: A F-9: B F-10: C
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EXERCISE - 2
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
or
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
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Ans. A A A A B B B B D D B B A A A
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Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21
Ans. D D D A A B
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EXERCISE - 3
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Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B B B A A B D D B C C D D B B
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11. MICROORGANISMS
11. MICROORGANISMS
A. WHY DO WE FALL ILL

(a) Health :
may be defined as state of complete physical, mental and social well being.
(i) Distinction Between Healthy and Disease Free :
The term disease is used when we find a specific and particular cause for discomfort.
We may not be knowing the main cause of the discomfort, but still we can use the term
disease.
A person may not be suffering from any disease but may be in poor health.
This is particularly true for social and mental health, where we can be in poor health without
there being a cause in the form of an actual disease.
This is the reason why, when we think about health, we think about societies and
communities.
On the other hand, when we think about disease, we think about individual sufferers.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HEALTHY AND DISEASE FREE STATE
S.NO. HEALTHY DISEASE FREE
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It is the state of phys ical, mental and It is the s tate of absence of any body
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1.
social well being discomfort.
It depends upon the person and one's
2.
environment including s ociety. or
It depends upon the person alone.
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A person can be unhealthy even in the A pers on would be dis eas e free in the
3.
abs ence of disease. absence of dis comfort.
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(ii) Health can be affected by following factors -

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–Genetic disorders –Infections –Life style

(iii) Factors to maintain Good health-
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–Balance diet –Personal hygiene –Regular Excercise

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(iv) Good health can be achieved by

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• Awareness about diseases and their affect on body functions.

• Vaccination againt infectious disease.
• Control of vectors.
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• Proper disposal of wastes.

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• Use of clean food & drinking water.
B. DISEASES
The condition of improper functioning or any condition which interferes with the normal functioning of
one or more organs or systems of the body and causes disorder of mind is called disease. It is
characterised by various signs and symptoms.
(i) Terms related to diseases :
I. Infection : The entry of the pathogen in the body is called infection.
II. Incubation period :The interval between infection and appearance of first symptom of the
disease is called incubation period.
III. Antibiotic : Antibiotics are chemicals that kill or stop the growth of certain kinds of microbes.
IV. Vaccine : A vaccine is a suspension of disease - producing micro-organisms which is modified
by killing or weakening (attenuated) so that the suspension will not cause disease.
V. Antibodies : These are special chemicals found in the blood which act against the germs or
their secretions.
VI. Antigen : Antigens are proteins or other harmful chemicals that are present on surface of
invaders.
VII. Prophylaxis: Prevention of spread of communicable diseases is called as prophylaxis.
VIII. Pathogen : Disease causing micro organism is called pathogen.

11. MICROORGANISMS
S.No. Type of Pathogens Common diseases caused by them
1. Virus es Comm on cold, Influenza, Measles, Mumps, Polio, Rabies,
Small pox, Chicken pox, Yellow fever, AIDS etc.
2. Bacteria Cholera, Typhoid, Tuberculosis, Tetanus, Diphtheria,
Pneum onia,
3. Rickets Typhus fever, Tick fever etc.
4. Protozoa Malaria, Amoebic dysentery, Sleeping sicknes s etc.
5. Fungi Ringworm, Athlete's foot etc.
6. Worm s Filarias is, Ascariasis, Cysticercosis, Pinworm
7. Mites Scabies
(ii) Manifestation of Diseases :

• Manifestation of disease give rise to various signs and symptoms -
• Symptoms are evidences of the patient's feeling of being wrong. For example, headache,
loose motions or a wound with pus are symptoms which may indicate the occurrence of
discomfort. Headache may be due to examination stress, meningitis.
• The sign give an indication of the presence of a particular disease. The physicians will also get
laboratory tests done to identify the disease further.
(C) TYPES OF DISEASES
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TYPE OF DISEASES
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ON THE BASIS OF DURATION ON THE BASIS OF ORIGIN
Chronic diseases Acute diseases

or
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A. Congenital Diseases B. Acquired
(Haemophilia, Diseases
Colour blindness etc.)
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(i) Communicable (ii) Non-Communicable

or Infectious or Non-Infectious
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Contagious e.g., Degenerative or

Smallpox, Ringworm Organic disease
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e.g., Heart
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Non-Contagious diseases,
e.g., Malaria,etc. Nephritis
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Deficiency
diseases e.g.,
Scurvy,
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Rickets,
Anaemia
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Allergies e.g.,
Hay fever
Cancer
(i) On the basis of Duration :
• The manifestation of diseases are different depending upon a number of factors.
• On the basis of duration a serious disease can be acute or chronic.
I. Acute disease : Acute disease is the one which has a short duration by relatively severe
course.
• Most people with acute illness can expect to return to normal health.
• A case of cough and common cold is an example of an acute illness which lasts only for a few
days.
• Afterwards the patient becomes well without any bad effect, loss of weight, feeling of tiredness
or short of breath, but in some cases acute disease like acute liver abscess can cause death.
II. Chronic disease : Chronic disease is the one which is long lasting is usually slow to develop,
often having a major effect on health, reducing the person's ability to do work efficiently,
learning in school or doing work.
• The patient will also lose weight and feel tired all the time. Examples of chronic diseases
include tuberculosis, diabetes, asthma, hypertension, kidney disease, depression, etc.

11. MICROORGANISMS
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACUTE & CHRONIC DISEASES
S.no. Characters Acute diseases Chronic diseases
1. Duration It is of shorter duration. It is of longer duration
Every person suffers from Only some persons

2. Persons an acute disease at one suffer from chronic
time or the other. diseases.
Being of short duration, it It does damage the
3. Body Damage does not damage any affected organ due to
organ. prolonged duration.
The recovery is generally The recovery is seldom
4. Recovery complete after the complete even after
treatment. treatment.
There is neither loss of There is often a loss of
5. Effect weight nor feeling of weight accompained by
weakness. feeling of tiredness.
Interruption of work and Interruption of work and
loss of efficiency are of loss of efficiency are
6. Loss
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short duration. Example :- prolonged. Example : -
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Diarrhoea, Typhoid. Tuberculosis, Diabetes.
(ii) On the basis of Origin: or

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I. Congenital diseases : Diseases which are present by birth. Eg. Haemophilia,Colourblindness,
Phenylketonuria, etc.
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II. Acquired diseases : Diseases which are acquired during the life time of an organism.
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These are further classifed as:

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1. Communicable Diseases 2. Non-Communicable Diseases

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN COMMUNICABLE AND NON-

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COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
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S.no. Communicable diseases Non-communicable diseases

1. These spread from an These do not spread or
infected person to a transmitted from
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healthy person. infected to a healthy person.

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2. They are caused by pathogens They are caused due to

(e.g., bacteria, deficiency of
viruses, protozoans etc.) nutrients, malfunctioning of
some organs of the
body, allergy, abnormal
growth of tissues etc.
3. Example : Malaria, smallpox, Examples : Cancer, heart
cholera, tuberculosis etc. diseases,
epilepsy, marasmus, etc.

11. MICROORGANISMS
1. Communicable Diseases :
• Categories of Diseases Based On Pathogen :
• Bacterial diseases
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Causative Mode of
Disease Symptoms Cure Prevention
Organisms transmission
Bacteria
1. Cholera Vibrio cholerae Contaminated Watery diarrhoea, Antibiotics, ORS Proper sanitation
food vomiting, or personal
and water dehydration, Salt–Sugar hygiene.
muscle cramp, solution
weight loss.
2. Typhoid Salmonella Contaminated Headache, fever in Antibiotics Use of safe

typhi food afternoon, slow drinking water,
& water pulse, erruption of TAB vaccine,
spots & rashes on Proper sewage
abdomen,diarrhoea. system.
3.Tuberculosis Mycobacteriu Droplet Infection Loss of appetite, Antibiotics, Public
m weakness, typical Antitubercular awareness, BCG
tuberculosis fever pattern, night Therapy (ATT) vaccine.
sweat, chest pain,
breathlessness.
4. Diarrhoea Salmonella, Contaminated Loss of water, Antibiotics like Properly washed

Shigella food vomiting, penicillin & cooked food,
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and water headache, fever, clean
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abdominal pain. surroundings.
5.Syphilis Treponema Sexual contact, Antibiotics Improper and
Painless ulcers,
pallidum from mother to unhygienic
child
swollen lymph
or
glands and joints,
paralysis, heart
sex practices
should be
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avoided.
trouble etc.
6.Gonorrhoea Neisseria Sexual Pus containing Antibiotics Properly cleaned
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gonorrhoeae contact,use of discharge, burning and disinfected

common toilets sensation in sex toilets should be
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organs, arthritis used, improper

sex practices
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should
be avoided
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7. Tetanus Clostridium Through injury Degeneration of Tetanus ATS and DPT

(Lock jaw) tetani motor neurons, antitoxins vaccines
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rigid jaw muscles,

spasm and
paralysis.
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11. MICROORGANISMS
Mode of
Disease Causative Symptoms Cure Prevention
transmission
Virus
1. Hepatitis A Hepatitis .A Contaminated food High temperature. Interferon Use boiled water
(Endemic) virus and water headache, Joint injection. and fresh food,
pains. dark yellow adequate rest Hepatitis vaccine
urine. fatigue. It is
also called jaundice.
2. Hepatitis B Hepatitis B Infected blood, Progressive liver Interferon Hepatitis B vaccine,

(Serum) virus inoculation, from disease, chronic injection. avoiding risky sex
mothers to their active hepatitis, adequate rest practices, injectable
child, sexual route hepatocellular drugs and direct or
carcinoma indirect contact with
(cancer) blood, semen etc.
of infected person
3. Rabies Rabies virus Bite of Dog. High fever , painful A course of 5 anti Pet animals should
Monkey, etc. contraction of rabies vaccines at be vaccinated with
muscles of throat regular intervals anti rabies vaccine
and chest. Patient with in 30 days is
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develops fear of given
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water so it is also
called
hydrophobia or
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4. Influenza Influenza It is spread from Sneezing, fever, Amanatadine and We should try to
virus person to person headache, Rimantidine are keep away from flu
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contact. Droplet muscular Used patients.

Infection. pains. coughing,
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discharge from
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nose
5. AIDS HIV Virus 1. Spreads through Swollen lymph – 1. Disposable
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[Human unprotected nodes, regular syringes

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Immuno sexual contact fever. and needles

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deficiency with an Infected weight loss, loss should be used

virus] persons of immunity.
2. Spreads through 2. Sexual contact
in
the transfusion with unknown

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of blood people should be

contaminated with avoided
AIDS virus 3. Before
3. Spreads through transfusion blood
the use of infected should be tested for
needles for HIV virus
injection
4. AIDS infected
person.
6. Mumps mumps-virus Contagious & Painful Antibiotics. Mumps vaccine.

(DNA-virus) Droplet infection enlargement of isolation
parotid salivary
glands.

11. MICROORGANISMS
Disease CausativeOrganisms Mode of Symptoms Cure Prevention

transmission
Protozoa
1. Malaria Plasmodium It spreads Headache. muscular Quinine should 1. Use proper
through the pain. higher fever, be used arrangement
bite of female feeling cold and to avoid
anopheles shivering, patient feels mosquito
mosquito weak and becomes from our houses.
anaemic 2. Mosquito
larvae
should
be killed
3. We should
not allow the
collection of
water in any
uncovered
1.Eat washed
Contaminated vegetable and
Entamoeba Antiparasitic
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2..Amoebiasis food and Diarrhoea fruit. 2.Wash
histolytica drugs
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water. hands before
taking food.
Helminthes or
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1. Filariasis Wuchereria Biting of Blockage Drug Diethylcar - Culex &.Aedes
bancrofti Aedes or of lymph nodes and bamezine or mosquitoes
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Culex lymph vessels cause Hetragen should be

mosquito swelling in hand, foot, eradicated.
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chest. testis, leg swell

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like foot of an
elephant. fever.
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2. Guinea Dracunculus Contaminated Blister formation Drugs and Filtered and

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worm Disease medinensis. water having on skin, tail of removal of boiled water
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infected worm can be worm from should be used.

cydopes. seen in blister, body bathing &
white secretion surgically. washing
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oozes out from in water bodies

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blister. should be
banned.
Cyclops should
be controlled

11. MICROORGANISMS
Knowledge Booster
Malaria
Pathogen - Plasmodium (protozoan) :
Two Hosts
Female Anopheles Mosquito : ( Sexual phase) Primary host. Female
Anopheles mosquitoes feed on blood, only they can serve as vector
hosts (carrier) of malarial parasites.The parasite do not harm the
mosquito.
• Human beings. (Asexual phase) Intermediate (secondary) host.
Life Cycle of Plasmodium (Digenetic parasite).
• Human Species of Plasmodium and Types of Malaria
1. Plasmodium vivax. (most common in India).
2. Plasmodium falciparum , (common in certain parts of
India)
3. Plasmodium malariae.
Symptoms of Malaria -
– The patient displays symptoms of malaria fever after a period of 14
days from infectious bite. Early restlessness, less appetite and
slight sleeplessness are followed by muscular pains, headache and
a feeling of chilliness.
– In response to chills the body temperature starts rising and may
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reach 106°F at the height of fever. The patient sweats lot and the
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temperature goes down to normal.
Control of Malaria - or
– There is separate antimalaria department of the government which
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controls malaria through National Malaria Eradication Programme
(NMEP).
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– Treatment of the patient. Quinine, the oldest drug for malaria.

– Quinine is extracted from the bark of the cinchona tree. – Other
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anti-malarial drugs are paludrine and Primaquin, Chloroquinine,

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Camoquin and Comoprima.

– Now malaria also being treated with sulpha drugs such as
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sulphadoxin.
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Life cycle of plasmodium

11. MICROORGANISMS
Treatment of infectious Diseases :
The basic concept behind the treatment process is to target the biochemical pathways
occurring inside an organism. For this certain drugs like antibiotics are prepared to alter or
stop the biochemical reaction of the microbes at some stage to stop them to produce
infections, toxins or to kill them or to check their further growth and multiplication.
There are two ways in which these diseases are treated they are :
• Reducing the symptoms : By this, infection is not cured but some of the symptoms like fever,
pain, aches, inflammation can be reduced to make the patient full comfortable. This is done by
medicines like pain killers etc.
• Killing infectious agents : This can be done by targeting the biochemical pathways of
infectious
agents using specific drugs.
• Drugs : Usually medicines are used to kill the microbes. It aims at directing / blocking the
biochemical pathways used by these pathogens.
• Antibiotics : Antibiotics are chemicals that kill or stop the growth of certain kinds of microbes.
They help our body to fight against diseases.
The development of antibiotics began with the
discovery of penicillin by Sir Alexander Flemming in
1928. Flemming noticed that an agar plate
inoculated with bacterium Staphylococcus aureus
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had become contaminated with a mould. He further
noticed the presence of a clear zone in the agar plate
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in which breakdown of the bacterial cells had
occurred. Detailed studies led to the isolation of an
inhibitory substance from the mould. As the mould
or
was identified as Penicillium, Flemming called the
antibiotic penicillin. Soon other antibiotics were
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isolated. Some well known antibiotics are
streptomycin, gramicidin and tetracycline. The
antibiotics have been obtained from either bacteria
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or fungi.
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• Protozoan infections are treated by different types of drugs.

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• Antifungal drugs are useful against all types of fungi.

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• Vermicides are used for overcoming worm infection.

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2. Non Communicable diseases :

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• These diseases which remain confined to a person. They are neither present at birth nor
spread from one person to another. The diseases are caused due to some specific factors.
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• They may be caused due to improper functioning of an organ (short sighted, hypertension,
arthritis), hormonal imbalance (diabetes, dwarfism), allergy, cancer, inadequate diet (anaemia,
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goitre), etc.
These diseases are of following types :
• Deficiency diseases : Caused due to lack of some nutrient materials in our body like
vitamins, minerals, protein etc.
• Degenerative diseases : Caused due to ageing or malfunctioning of any organ or part of
body.
• Allergies : Caused due to hypersensitivity of an organism to certain type of material like pollen
grains, dust etc.
• Cancer / Tumour : This occurs due to uncontrolled growth of cells. Cancer can be cured in
early stages.
• Mental disorders
• Occupational diseases : e.g. Lung cancer in asbestos factory workers.
• Addiction : Caused due to excessive intake of drugs tobacco, alcohol (fatty liver) etc.

11. MICROORGANISMS
NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Cause Name of Disease Symptoms

1. Protein energy (PEM) Marasmus Shrivelled appearance, thinning of limbs ,
(Infants below 1 Year) prominent ribs, retarded physical and mental
growth,diges tive dis order, repeated diarrhoea.
2. Protein (PEM) Kwashiorkar Los s of appetite, stunted growth, bulging eyes,

(1 to 3 year age) enlarged stomach, long thin and curved legs.
3. Iron Anaemia Becom e pale, loos e appetite, feels tired
4. Vitamin B12 Perinicious anaemia Become pale, loose appetite, feels tired, reduced
(Cyanocobalamine) number of RBCs .
5. Folic acid Macrocytic anaemia Become pale, loose appetite, feels tired, reduced
growth of RBCs.
6. Iodine Goitre Abnormal enlargement of thyroid, swelling in the
neck,reduced thyroid function, retarded growth.
7. Vitamin A (Retinol) Xeropthalm ia Night blindness, dryness of cornea

8. Vitamin D (Calciferol) Rickets (children) , Twisted, thin, soft, bent bones, deform ed ribs.
Osteomalacia (adults)
9. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Beri - Beri Muscular dystrophy, Nervous disorder
10. Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Pellagra 4D' syndrome( derm atitis , diarrhoea, dementia,
death).
11. Vitamin - C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy Bleeding gums , loosening and falling of teeth,
los s of weight
12. Degeneration Heart attack , Hypertension, liver m egaly etc.
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liver failure, kidney failure.
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13. Hyper s ensitivity Allergy Sneezing, coughing, watering of eyes, as thm a,
hay fever.
14. Uncontrolled growth of
cells
Cancer and tumour
or
Loss of weight, person becomes weak, can lead
to death or destruction of affected organ
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KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Some common vectors —
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1. Anopheles mosquito (female)– Malaria.

2. Culex – Filariasis, encephalitis.
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3. Aedes mosquito – Dengue.

4. Phlebotomus (Sandfly) – Leishmaniasis
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5. Glossina (Tse-tse fly) – Sleeping sickness.

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6. Housefly – Cholerae, amoebic dysentry.

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B. MICROBES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

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(a) Microbes :
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Are the organisms which are microscopic it can be seen only under microscope. They are diverse in
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form - Protozoa, bacteria, fungi and microscopic plant viruses, viroids and also prions that are
proteinacious infectious agents.
Fig. 11.1 : Viruses : Bacteriophage, Adenovirus

· Microbes like bacteria and many fungi can be grown on nutritive media to form colonies, that can be
seen with the naked eyes. Such cultures are useful in studies on micro-organisms.
(b) Microbes in Household Products :
• Curd is produced by Lactobacillus and other lactic acid bacteria (LAB). LAB produce acid that
coagulate & partially digest milk protein & also increases nutritional quality by elevating the
content of vit B12.

11. MICROORGANISMS
• In dough used for making Idli & Dosa which has puffy appearance due to CO2 produced in
fermentation.
• Dough for bread is fermented by Baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).
• ‘Toddy’ a traditional drink is made by fermenting palm sap.
• Cheese of different texture, flavour is produced by action of different microbes
• Swiss cheese - Propionibacterium sharmanii.
• Roquefort cheese is ripened by a specific fungus.
(c) Microbes in industrial products :
• Even in industry, microbes are used to synthesise a number of products valuable to human
beings. Beverages and antibiotics are some examples. Production on an industrial scale,
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requires growing microbes in very large vessels called fermentors.
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(i) Fermented Beverages - Microbes especially yeasts have been used from time immemorial
or
for the production of beverages like wine, beer, whisky, brandy or rum. For this purpose the
same yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae used for bread-making and commonly called brewer’s
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yeast, is used for fermenting malted cereals and fruit juices, to produce ethanol.
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(ii) Antibiotic :
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• Antibiotics are defined as chemical substances produced by microorganisms which inhibit the
growth of other microorganisms.
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• Penicillin is the 1st antibiotic to be discovered by Alexander Fleming while working on

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staphylococci bacteria, but is made effective by Ernst Chain & Howard Florey.
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• Penicillin is obtained from fungus (a mould) Penicillnium notatum.

• Flemming, Chain & Floret’ were awareded Nober prize in 1945 for discovery of penicillin.
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• Antibiotics are used to treat number of diseases like diptheria, leprosy, pertussis etc.
(iii) Organic acid & alcohol :
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• Citric acid — Aspergillus niger (fungus)

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• Acetic acid — Acetobacter aceti (Bacterium)

• Butyric acid — Clostridium butylicum (Bacterium)
• Lactic acid — Lactobacillus delbrueckii (Bacterium)
• Ethanol — Sacchromyces cerevisiae (Fungus)
(iv) Enzymes :
• Lipases, proteases, pectinases are some enzymes produced by microbes.
• Lipases are used for detergent for mutation & help in removing oil stains from the laundry.
• Pectinase & proteases used to clear fruit juice during bottling.
(d) Microbes in sewage treatments :
The municipal waste water called sewage is treated in sewage treatment plant (STP) before
discharging into water bodies. This treatment involves 2 stages
(i) Primary treatment :
• It basically involved physical removal of large & small particles.
• Floating debris are removed by filtration & grit by sedimentation
• All solids that settle form primary sludge & supernatant forms effluent, effluent is taken for
secondary treatment.

11. MICROORGANISMS
(ii) Secondary treatment :
• It is biological process, that employ heterotrophic bacteria naturally present in sewage.
• Effluent is passed into large aeration tank, where it is constantly agitated and air is pumped
into it.
• When BOD is sufficiently reduced, effluent is passed to seuling tank where ‘flocs’ (masses of
bacteria associated with fungal filaments are allowed to sediment forming ‘activated sludge’.
• Small part of sludge ‘activated’ is pumped back to aeration tank to act as inoculum while the
remaining is pumped into anaerobic sludge digesters where the anaerobic bacteria digest the
bacteria & fungi producing CH4, H2S and CO2 i.e. Biogas.
• Then the treated effluent is released into water bodies.
(e) Microbes In production of biogas :

• Methanogens - Certain bacteria which grow an aerobically on cellulosic material produce
large amount of methane with CO2 & H2 are called methanogens.
• Found in (i) anaerobic sludge (ii) Rumen of cattle (iii) flooded rice fields (iv) Marshy places.
• The technology of biogas production was developed in India mainly due to the efforts of Indian
Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC).
• Biogas is produced in biogas plant which contain 10-15 feet deep concrete tank in which slurry
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is fed, covered by a floating cover which keeps on rising as gas is produced. It contain an
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outler for removal of biogas and another to remove spent slurry which is used as biofertilliser.
or
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Fig. 11.2 : A Typical biogas plant.

• Microbes as Biocontrol Agents :
• Biocontrol refers to use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and pests, these
methods rely on natural predation.
• The very familliar beetle with red and black markings - the Ladybird and Dragonflies are useful
to get rid of aphids and mosquitoes, respectively.
• Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium whose spores are toxic to certain insect larvae and kill
them but is not harmful to other insects.
• Toxin producing genes of this bacterium are transferred into crop plants, which become
resistant to insect pests,e.g. Bt cotton.
• Trichoderma, which is free living fungus in soil & root ecosystem is effective against several
plant pathogens.

11. MICROORGANISMS
(f) Microbes As biofertiliser :
• Symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium in root nodules of leguminous plants helps to fix atmospheric N2.
• Free living N2 fixing Azospirillum and Azotobacter.
• Cyanobacteria are autotrophic microbes widely distributed in aquatic and terrestrial
environments many of which can fix atmospheric nitrogen, eg.. Anabaena, Nostoc,
Oscillatroria, etc. In paddy fields, cyanobacteria serve as an important biofertiliser. Blue green
algae also add organic matter to the soil and increase its fertility. Currently, in our country, a
number of biofertilisers are available commercially in the market and farmers use these
regularly in their fields to replenish soil nutrients and to reduce dependence on chemical
fertilisers.
• Fungs/Mycorrhiza (symbiotic association with plants). e.g. Glomus
• It absorbs phosphorus and passes it to the plants.
• Resistance to root borne pathogens.
• Tolerance to salinity, drought.
• Increase plant growth & developement
• Helps in water absorption.
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SECTION (A) : WHY DO WE FALL ILL
A-1
A-2
What are the basic features for healthy person.
What is community health ?
or
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A-3 What is the difference between community health and personal health ?
A-4 Write the name of the vector of the disease malaria.
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A-5 Define the following term -

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(i) Acute disease (ii) Chronic disease

A-6 Define communicable disease and give three example.
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A-7 Define non communicable disease and give three example.

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A-8 Define the following term

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(i) vector (ii) disease

A-9 What are two broad category of disease.
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SECTION (B) : MICROBES AND THEIR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

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B-1 What is the role of baker's yeast in bread formation.

B-2 Explain primary and secondary sewage treatment?
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B-3 How can microorganisms be helpful in increasing fertility of soil?

B-4 Define the term Biocontrol agents.
B-5 Write the names of five commercial products obtained from microbes and their uses.
B-6 Write a note on antibiotics.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 The group of bacterial diseases is :
(A) Mumps, Measles, Kala azar and Cholera (B) Small pox, Tetanus, Trichinosis and Trench fever.
(C) Measles, Polio, Diptheria and Tetanus (D) Cholera, Typhoid, Diphtheria and Tetanus
A-2 The group of diseases spread by housefly is
(A) Malaria, Cholera, Scabies (B) Rabies, Rickets, Diarrhoea
(C) Typhoid, Dysentery, Cholera (D) Ringworm, Scurvy, Vomiting
A-3 In order to prevent spreading of a communicable disease like cholera it is necessary to
(A) control the population of mosquitoes
(B) dry up all ponds in the neighbourhood
(C) educate people to drink boiled water and not to eat exposed food
(D) prevent others from coming in contact with the diseased person

11. MICROORGANISMS
A-4 Under which of the following conditions are you most likely to fall sick ?
(A) When you are travelling by bus.
(B) When you are talking with your teacher.
(C) When you visit a friend who is suffering from measles.
(D) None of these
A-5 The Antigen present in pathogen is
(A) A specific protein Involved in metabolism
(B) Polysaccharide synthesized by it in the host
(C) A specific protein or polysaccharide present on its coat
(D) A and B both
A-6 Which of the following is a communicable disease ?
(A) Leucoderma (White patches on the skin) (B) Diabetes mellitus
(C) Beri-beri (D) Cholera
A-7 Which of the following statements is correct ?
(A) Degenerative diseases are noncommunicable (B) Allergy is caused by droplet infection
(C) Cholera is a viral disease (D) AIDS can be prevented by vaccination.
A-8 Constipation, abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess mucous and blood clots are the
symptoms of
(A) amoebiasis (B) gall stones (C) malaria (D) kidney stones
A-9 A viral disease causing painful swelling of parotid gland is
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(A) mumps (B) measles (C) chicken pox (D) rabies.
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A-10 Which of the following is a mismatch ?
(A) Leprosy - Bacterial infection (B) AIDS- Bacterial infection
(C) Malaria - Protozoan infection or
(D) Elephantiasis - Nematode infection
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A-11 Low production of sperms or ova (infertility) is due to the deficiency of -
(A) Vitamin - A (B) Vitamin - C (C) Vitamin - E (D) Vitamin - K
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B-1 Wine and beer are produced directly by the fermentation whereas brandy and whisky require both
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fermentation and distillation. This is because

(A) Fermentation is inhibited at an alcohol level of 10–18%
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(B) Distillation prolongs storage

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(C) Distillation improves quality

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(D) Distillation purifies the beverages

B-2 When domestic sewage mixes with river water -
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(A) Small animal like rats will die after drinking river water.
(B) The increase microbial activity releases micronutrients such as iron
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(C) The increases microbial activity uses up dissolved O2

(D) The river water is still suitable for drinking as impurities are only about 0.1%
B-3 When a natural predator (living organism) is applied on the other pathogen organisms to control
them this process is called as -
(A) Biological control (B) Genetic engineering (C) Artificial control (D) Confusion technique
B-4 Mycorrhiza does not help the host plant in -
(A) enhancing its phosphorus up take capacity (B) increasing its tolerance to drought
(C) enhancing its resistance to root pathogen (D) increasing its resistance to insect
B-5 A drug used for patient A is obtained from the organism B. Identify A and B in the above statement
and select the correct answer –
A B
(A) Swine flu Monascus purpureus
(B) AIDS Pseudomonas denitrificans
(C) Heart Penicillium chrysogenum
(D) Organ transplant Trichoderma polysporum
B-6 Which of the following bacteria is present in the rumen of cattle -
(A) Azotobacter (B) Rhizobium (C) Methanobacterium (D) Azospirillum

11. MICROORGANISMS
B-7 In a microbiology laboratory, the technician uses heat to sterilize the growing fungus. when the
heating system broke down, he sterilized the solution by passing it through a sterile filter with a pore
size of 0.2 micrometers. When the fungus was grown on the filtered nutrient solution , it stopped
growing and looked unhealthy within a few days. Which statement is the most likely explanation for
the observed effects on the fungus ?
(A) The nutrient solution contained a virus
(B) Heating makes the glucose in the nutrient more digestable
(C) Filtering removed one of the larger nutrient molecule.
(D) The nutrient solution contained a bacterium that was pathogenic to the fungus.
B-8 Bacteria are used in experiments to study the effects of changing temperature on the growth of
microbes instead of virus because -
(A) Virus cannot reproduce outside a host (B) Bacteria reproduce faster than viruses
(C) Viruses do not have cell walls (D) Bacteria are larger than viruses
B-9 Which micro organisms are used in making antibiotics ?
(i) Viruses (ii) Fungi (iii) Bacteria
(A) I only (B) I and II only (C) II and III only (D) I,II and III
B-10 Which of the following is not an antibiotic
(A) Griseofulvin (B) Cephalosporin (C) Citric acid (D) Streptomycin
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS or
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1. AIDS day is on
(A) May 1 (B) December 20 (C) June 1 (D) December 1
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2. Antibodies are
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(A) lipids (B) genes (C) proteins (D) carbohydrates

3. Which of the following match is incorrect ?
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(A) Dengue – Aedes agypti (B) AIDS – infected needles

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(C) Typhoid – Housefly. (D) Cholera – blood transfusion

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4. Remain healthy means .

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(A) free of infection by pathogen (B) tension free mental status

(C) living in a pollution free environment (D) All of the above
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5. Diseases occurring due to infected articles of a patient are called .

(A) Air borne (B) Water borne (C) Fomite borne (D) Food borne
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6. World health day is on -

(A) 1st May (B) 7th April (C) 30th June (D) 5th December
7. Typhoid is caused by -
(A) Shigella (B) Giardia (C) Escherichia (D) Salmonella
8. Pulse polio programme is organised in our country for
(A) curing polio (B) eradicating polio (C) spreading polio (D) none of the above
9. Community health aims at
(A) better health and family planning (B) better hygiene and clean environment
(C) removing communicable diseases (D) all of the above
10. Head quarter of World Health Organisation (WHO) is located at
(A) New York (B) Geneva (C) London (D) Paris
11. Droplet infection is a mode of -
(A) direct transmission (B) indirect transmission
(C) pathogen spread through mosquitoes (D) fomite transmission
12. A person has developed interferon in his body. He seems to carry infection of -
(A) Tetanus (B) Malaria (C) Measles (D) Typhoid
13. Health is -
(A) complete physical well being (B) mental well being
(C) social well being (D) all of the above

11. MICROORGANISMS
14. Hypertension is a disease caused by -
(A) biological agent (B) social agent (C) physical agent (D) chemical agent
15. A carrier is a human being that -
(A) functions as a reservoir of infection
(B) possesses pathogen but is not harmed
(C) contains antibodies sufficient enough to balance the antigen
(D) all of the above
16. Malaria is a -
(A) Infectious disease (B) Non-communicable disease
(C) Communicable disease (D) None of these
17. Specific defence mechanism against disease comprises -
(A) physical barrier (B) lysozyme (C) phagocytes (D) immune system
18. The antigen present in pathogen is -
(A) a specific protein involved in metabolism
(B) polysaccharide synthesized by it in the host
(C) a specific protein or polysaccharide present on its coat
(D) Both (A) and (B)
19. Pathogens are destroyed by -
(A) kidneys (B) liver (C) adipose tissue (D) lymphatic tissues
20. A noninfectious unnatural and unusual reaction to a substance or condition is -
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(A) immunity (B) allergy (C) infection (D) toxin
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21. AIDS is caused by
(A) Bacteria (B) Fungi (C) HIV (D) Allergy
22. Which of these is not a chronic disease
or
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(A) Tuberculosis (B) Asthma (C) Common cold (D) None of these
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1. Among the following, which is not true about vaccines ?

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(A) Vaccines contain dead microbial cells or their parts.

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(B) Vaccines contain antibiotics to prevent diseases.

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(C) Vaccine contain special proteins which evoke immune system against disease.
(D) Vaccines contain inactivated micro-organisms.
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2. Which of the following is NOT produced by microbial activity ?

(A) Yoghurt (B) Bread (C) Vinegar (D) Antiseptics
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3. Penicillin cannot be used to treat influenza because :

(A) It only helps to bring the temperature down, and does not reduce the infection
(B) The penicillin is broken down by the organism
(C) Viruses do not have cell walls
(D) Reproduction of protozoans is not affected by penicillin
4. Antibodies play an important role in defending the body against infections by which of the following
mechanisms·
(A) They engulf the bacteria and make them harmless
(B) They bind to the surface of pathogens, so that they can be easily identified and removed by
other cells of the immune system
(C) They enter the pathogen and prevent cell division
(D) They are highly reactive and chemically react with the DNA of the pathogen
5. Vaccines prevent infections by pathogens by : (IJSO/Stage-1/2016)
(A) Presenting the body's immune system with antigens in a controlled manner/.so that it is prepared
to counter the pathogen producing it when it attempts to infect the body
(B) Affecting the reproductive cycle of the invading pathogen
(C) Binding to antigens on the surface of the pathogen and inactivating it
(D) Affecting the metabolic pathways of the pathogen

11. MICROORGANISMS
6. While playing football, Dimple fell down and was badly wounded on her left leg.The Doctor
prescribed her antibiotics for a week which should have healed her of the wound in a week.
However, Dimple’s wound did not heal in a week.What among the following could have been the
reason for inability of the wound to heal in the prescribed time frame given by the doctor ?
(A) Prescribed medicine’s date was expired. (IJSO/Stage-1/2013-14)
(B) Dimple wouldn’t have taken the full course of the antibiotics.
(C) Both a & b could be the reason
(D) Doctor’s inability to prescribe the correct medicine for the wound.
7. Use of excessive NKP fertilizers has resulted in : (IJSO/Stage-1/2014-15)
i. Reduction in number as well as species of nitrogen fixing bacteria
ii. Increase in number as well as types of denitrifying bacteria
iii. Increase in the proportion of coarse particles in soil.
iv. Increase in number as well as types of ammonifying microbes
v. Increase in number as well as types of nitrifying bacteria
(A) only i, ii and iii (B) only ii, iv and v (C) only i and ii (D) i, ii, iii, iv and v
8. Which of the following option is not true about the viruses ? (IJSO/Stage-1/2015-16)
(A) Viruses have either DNA or RNA as these genetic material.
9. Ravi mixed two substances A and B in a vessel and left it as it is. After few hours he detected an
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alcoholic smell emanating from the vessel. Identify what A and B are : (IJSO/Stage-1/2017)
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(A) Salt solution and Lactobacillus (B) Fruit juice and Saccharomyces
(C) Fruit juice and Lactobacillus (D) Salt solution and Saccharomyces
10. A `life- style' disorder among these is:
(A) Herpes (B) Presbyopia
or
(C) Hypertension
(IJSO/Stage-1/2017)
(D) Scurvy
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11. The genetically modified (GM) brinjal in India has been developed for: (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
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(A) enhancing shelf life (B) insect-resistance (C) drought-resistance (D) enhancing mineral content
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12. Character(s) of acquired immunity is (are): (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)

(A) differentiation between self and non-self (B) specificity of antigen
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(C) retains memory (D) all the above

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13. Instead of using chemical fertilizers in a paddy field, a farmer thought of employing nitrogen fixation
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technique. Amongst the following which would be beneficial for his cause? (IJSO/Stage-1/2018)
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(A) Glycine max - Rhizobium (B) Cycas — Nostoc

(C) Casuarina — Frankia (D) Azolla-Anabaena
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EXERCISE - 1
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
A-1 D A-2 C A-3 C A-4 C A-5 C A-6 D A-7 A A-8 A A-9 A A-10 B A-11 C
B-1 A B-2 C B-3 A B-4 D B-5 D B-6 C B-7 A B-8 A B-9 C B-10 C
EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A. D C D D C B D B D B A C D B A
Q. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
A. A D C D B C C
EXERCISE - 3
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
A. B D C B A B A B B C B D D

12. DIVERSITY OF LIVING ORGANISMS
A. TAXONOMY
(Gr. taxis-arrangement ; nomos-law). The functional branch of biology dealing with the identification
classification and nomenclature of living organisms is called taxonomy. Carolus Linnaeus (1707-
1778) is known as “Father of taxonomy”.
Taxonomic Hierarchy :
Hierarchy, is defined as an arrangement of
items (objects, names, values, categories,
etc.) in which the items are represented as
being "above", "below" or "at the same level
as" one another.
It is the framework by which taxonomic groups are arranged in definite order from higher to lower
categories.
The hierarchial order of classifying organisms is :
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Kingdom Phylum/Division Class Order Family Genus Species
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S.No. Categories Features
A group of organisms capable of
1. Species or
interbreeding to produce offspring.
It is a group of closely related species
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2. Genus with common ancestory.
A number of genera having several common
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3. Family characters form of family.

A number of families having common
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4. Order characters are placed in Order.

Similar orders are place together in
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5. Class a class.
Many classes with some common
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6. Phylum (or Division) characters are included in Phylum.

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It is the highest category of taxonomic

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studies.All animals are included in

kingdom Animalia and all plants are included
in kingdom Plants are included in kingdom
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7. Kingdom Plantae.
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Taxon : It refers to any rank or category in the hierarchial order of classification. e.g.
Kingdom, phylum etc.The highest taxon is kingdom while the lowest taxon is
species.Species are the basic unit of classification.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Term "Biodiversity" was coined by" Walter G.
Rosen" in 1986.
The warm and humid tropical regions of the earth
between the tropic of Capricorn and the tropic of
Cancer, are rich in diversity of plant and animal
life. This is called the region of "megadiversity"
(a) Identification :
It is defined as the determination that a praticular organism is similar to some other known
individual.
(b) Classification :
Classification is the arrangement of organisms into sets or groups according to the similarities and
dissimilarities present between them.

This diversity gives rise to the need of classification. So, “Diversity needs classification”.
(i) Significance of Classification :
It establishes hierarchy of groups of organisms on the basis of their common features.

It makes the systematic study easier.
It is essential to understand the interrelationship amongst different groups of organisms.
It serves as a base for the development of other biological sciences as well as different fields
of applied biology like public health, environment etc.
(ii) System of Classification :
(I) Artificial system : Biological classification in early times were based upon single habitarily
chosen character suiting the convenience of taxonomist. e.g. On the basis of habitat and
ability to fly.
(II) Natural system : t was based on morphological and anatomical similarities and differences.
(III) Phylogenetic system : t was based on evolutionary sequence as well as genetic relationship
amongst the organisms.Charles Darwin showed that living organisims evolved by the process
of descent with modifications
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(iii) Kingdom system :
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(I) Two kingdom system : t was given by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758. Organisms were divided
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into Plant Kingdom and Animal Kingdom. Fungi, Bacteria and Euglena could not find an
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appropriate position.
(II) Three kingdom system : t was given by Earnst Haeckel. In this Kingdom Protista was also
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included along with plant kingdom and animal kingdom.

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(III) Four kingdom system: t was given by Copeland. Kingdom Monera was also included in this
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system of classification.
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(IV) Five kingdom system: t was given by Robert Whittaker. According to him organisms were
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divided into five kingdoms, on the following basis of :

• Complexity of structure • Mode of nutrition • Level of organization
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1. Kingdom Monera : Unicellular, prokaryotic, microscopic, most ancient, can live in deep
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oceans, hot springs, deserts, high salt concentrations etc. They include bacteria, filamentous
and photosynthetic blue green algae (Cyanobacteria) etc.
2. Kingdom Protista : Unicellular, colonial, eukaryotic. They include photosynthetic algae,
decomposers (slime moulds) and protozoa (predators) etc.
3. Kingdom Fungi : Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotic organisms, they are heterotrophic,
parasitic or saprotrophic.
4. Kingdom Plantae : They are multicellular, eukaryotic, autotrophic (photosynthetic), some are
heterotrophic and parasitic.
They include photosynthetic algae, green plants etc.
5. Kingdom Animalia : Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic.
Carl Woese (1977) modified the five kingdom classification by dividing the Monera into
Archaebacteria (or Archaea ) and Eubacteria (or Bacteria).This is known as six kingdom
classification.

(c) Nomenclature :
It is the system of naming an individual.
Nomenclature is done on the basis of a set of rules stated in the ICN i.e. International Code of
Nomenclature.
(i) Binomial nomenclature : t is a system of naming the organisms in such a way that each of
their names contain two components, first is genus and the second one is species.
• e.g. Scientific name of human is Homo sapiens. Scientific name of crow is Corvus splendens.
Homo and Corvus are the genus while sapiens and splendens are the names of species.
This system was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus(Karl van Linne) in his book Systema Naturae
who is also called Father of Taxonomy.
Certain convections are followed while writing the scientific names :
• The name of the genus begins with a capital letter.
• The name of the species begins with a small letter.
• When printed, the scientific name is given in italics.
• When written by hand , the genus name and the species name have to be underlined
separately.
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B. PLANT CLASSIFICATION :
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Plant kingdom was divided in two sub kingdoms by Eichler.
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Cryptogamae
(Plants without seeds)
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Algae
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Thallophyta Fungi
Lichen
Plant
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Kingdom Bryophyta
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Pteridophyta
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Phanerogamae
(Seed bearing plants)
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Gymnospermae
Monocot
Angiospermae
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Dicot
(a) Sub kingdom Cryptogamae : (Cryptos = hidden gamous = marriage) :
• These are also called as lower plants, flowerless or seedless plants.
• Their reproductive organs are hidden.
(i) Division Thallophyta :
• Thallus : Undifferentiated plant body i.e. absence of root, stem & leaves.
• Their is no vascular system.
• Reproductive organs are single–celled and there is no embryo formation after fertilization.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
In Thallophytes, asexual reproduction generally
take place by spores. Sex organs are simple
single-celled, (the male sex organs are called
as antheridia and female sex organ called
oogonia) and their is no embryo formation after
fertilization.

• Three classes of thallophyta are :
(I) Class Algae :
Characters :
• These are aquatic or terrestrial, fresh water or marine. Autotrophic, photosynthetic containing
various pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoids, xanthophylls etc.
• Unicellular, colonial, filamentous & multicellular.
• Cell wall of cellulose and stored food is starch.
• e.g. Blue green algae (Nostoc),Anabaena Green algae (Ulothrix, Chara, Cladophora, Ulva,
Spirogyra) Brown algae, Red algae etc.
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Fig.12.1 : Spirogyra
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(II) Class Fungi :

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Characters :
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• Earlier, they were placed in kingdom plantae but Whittaker placed fungi in a seprate kingdom.
• They lack chlorophyll but have cell wall of chitin (fungus cellulose) and reserve food material
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consists of glycogen.
• These are heterotrophic. They can be parasitic or saprotrophic.
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• Their body is filamentous called as mycelium.

• e.g. Moulds (Rhizopus), Yeasts (Saccharomyces), Mushroom, (Agaricus), Aspergillus,
Penicillium
Fungi lack chlorophyll and is heterotropic but
still considered as plant because of the
presence of cell wall and absence of
centriole.
Fig.12.2 : Yeast , Rhizopus, Mushroom

(III)Lichen :
Characters :
• t is a symbiotic relationship between algae and fungi.
• Algal part is phycobiont and fungal part is mycobiont.
• They grow on rocks, tree trunks, grounds etc.
• e.g. Parmellia, Alectoria etc.
Fig.12.3 : Lichen
(ii) Division Bryophyta :
Characters :
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• Bryophytes are also known as amphibians of plant kingdom.
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• These are the simplest and the most primitive land plant.
• They have flat plant body which differentiate into stem, leaf and root like structure (Rhizoids).
•
•
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Main plant body is attached to substratum by means of rhizoids.
There is no specialized tissue for the conduction of water and other substances from one part
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of the plant body to another.
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KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
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Bryophytes lie in water (aquatic) and land

(terrestrial) but they require water for fertilization,
so they are known as amphibians of plant
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kingdom.
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Fig.12.4 : Liverwort
• Sex organs are jacketed & multicellular.
• Fertilization produces embryo.
• They show heteromorphic type of alternation in generation.
• e.g. Liverworts (Riccia, Marchantia), hornworts (Anthoceros) and mosses (Funaria).
(iii) Division Pteridophyta :
Characters :
• They are seedless vascular plants, primitive tracheophytes or vascular cryptogams.
• Plant body is differentiated into true stem, leaves & roots. they are the most evolved
cryptogams
• Vascular tissues are present.
• Fruits are absent

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Fig.12.5 : Equisetum (Horsetail)
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BRYOPHYTA AND PTERIDOPHYTA
S.No. Bryophyta Pteridophyta

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1. True stem and true leaves are always absent. True stem and true leaves are present.
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2. Fixation is carried out by rhizoids. Fixation is carried out by roots.

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3. Bryophytes are nonvascular in nature. Pteridophytes are vascular plants.
e.g. Ferns (Dryopteris, Pteris), Club moss (Lycopodium), Horsetail (Equisetum),Marsilea.

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(b) Sub Kingdom : Phanerogamae : (Phaneros = visible : gamous = marriage.)

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This is the highest group of plants which includes flowering and seed bearing plants. They
reproduce sexually by means of seeds.The flowering plants are of two types :
(i) Gymnosperms (ii) Angiosperms
Fig.12.6 : Cycas

(i) Division Gymnospermae :
• Characters :
• Gymno-means naked and sperma- seed.
• Seeds are not enclosed in fruits. These are naked seeded.
• They have well developed vascular system but xylem lacks vessels and phloem lacks
companion cells.
• They occupy an intermediate position between the pteridophytes and the angiosperms.
• Plants are commonly tall trees or shrubs.
• The flowers are represented by unisexual cones, often both cones are present on the same
plant.
• e.g. Cycas, Pinus (commonly known as pine)
(ii) Division : Angiospermae :
• Characters :
• Angio means covered & sperma means seed.These are seed bearing plants.
• These are represented by trees, herbs, shrubs.
• Body well differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
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• They have highly developed vascular system. Seeds remain enclosed in ovary.Plant embryos
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in seeds have structures called cotyledons. cotyledones are called “seed leaves”.
• It is divided into two classes on the basis of number of cotyledons.
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Fig. 12.7 : A dicot plant (mustard)

(I) Class : Dicotyledonae :
• Their seeds have 2 cotyledons in the embryo.
• Leaves are dorsiventral and show reticulate venation.
• Tap root is present, e.g. Neem, Peepal, Mango, Pea, Mustard.
Fig.12.8 : Monocot plant (maize)
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(II) Class : Monocotyledonae :
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• Their seeds have one cotyledon in embryo.
• Leaves are isobilateral with parallel venation.
• Fibrous root system is present, e.g. Wheat, Maize, Onion. or
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALGAE AND FUNGI
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S.no. Algae Fungi

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1. Green, blue green, red brown coloured. Colourless.

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2. Contain chlorophyll and other pigments. Chlorophyll is absent.

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3. Autotrophic. Heterotrophic.
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4. Body made up of true parenchyma. Pseudo-parenchyma (a false tissue) present.

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5. A cell-wall of true cellulose is present. Cell wall contains chitin, cellulose, pectose etc.
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6. Reserve food is starch. Reserve food is glycogen and oil.

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7. Aquatic. Found at dam p and moist places.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BRYOPHYTES AND PTERIDOPHYTES.

S.no. Character Bryophytes Petridophytes
1. Size Bryophytes are very small in size. Pteridophytes are herbaceous.
2. Vascular tissue They do not contain vascular tissue They bear the vascular tissues.
(xylem and phloem).
3. Differentiation They are not divided into roots, Plant body is differentiated into roots,
stem and leaves. stem and leaves.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERMS.
S.no. Characters Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Nature of seeds Naked as no fruit formation. Enclosed inside the fruit.

1.
Reproductive organs Sporophylls form cones . Flowers.
2.
Xylem Only tracheids but no vessel. Vessels pres ent.
3.
Phloem No companion cell. Companion cell present.
4.
Ovules Not enclosed in ovary. Enclos ed in ovary.
5.
Examples Cycas and Pinus . Monocots and Dicots.
6.

SOME DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF DICOTS AND MONOCOTS.
S.no. Plant organ Dicots Monocots
1. Root Tap, Adventitious or both. Only adventitious.
2. Stem Vascular bundles arranged in ring Vascular bundles s cattered.
with central pith.
3. Leaves Mos tly with reticulate venation. Usually parallel venation.
4. Cotyledons Two One
5. Floral parts Five or multiple of 5, rarely 4. Three or mulitiple of 3, rarely 4, never 5.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS
PLANTS
Do not have Have differentiated

differentiated plant plant body
body into
root, stem and leaves
Without vascular With Vascular

tissue tissue
Thallophyta
(Algae)
Bryophyta
Seeds not formed (Cryptogams) Seeds formed (phanerogams)
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Pteridophyta
Produce naked seeds Produce seeds
inside fruits
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Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
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Bear seeds with Bear seeds with

two cotyledons one cotyledon
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Dicots Monocots
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C. ANIMAL KINGDOM
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(a) Basis of Classification :

• Organization and differentiation of cells to form tissues and organs.
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• Body symmetry.
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• Formation of body cavities and blood vascular system.

• Features of embryonic development.
(i) Level of Organisation in living beings : It is structural differentiation of animal body.
(I) Cellular level of Organisation : Tissues do not differentiate. Different types of cells are
present, e.g., porifera (sponges).
(II) Tissue Level of Organisation : Multicellular body cells organised into tissues but organs are
absent e.g., Coelenterata.
(III) Organ Level of Organisation : Cells are organised into tissues and tissues into organ but
organ systems are absent, e.g., Platyhelminthes.
(IV) Organ System Level of Organisation : Cells are organised into tissues, tissues into organs
and organ into organ systems e.g., Nematoda and higher animals.
(ii) Body Symmetry : It is similarity in arrangement of parts. Absence of repetition or similarity is
called asymmetry. Symmetry is of two types, radial and bilateral.
(I) Radial Symmetry : The body is cylindrical or discoid when similar parts occur all around the
central axis. Any vertical plane passing through, the central axis will divide the body into two
equal halves, e.g., many sponge, coelenterates and echinodermates. Head is generally
absent.

(II) Bilateral Symmetry : The body has a head. Organs and limbs are paired. They are arranged
laterally. Body is divisible into two equal halves by only one plane (mid-sagittal plane). Bilateral
symmetry is found in Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda and
chordata.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BILATERAL AND RADIAL SYMMETRY
S.No. BILATERAL SYMMETRY RADIAL SYMMETRY
1 Limbs and organs are paired. Limbs and organs occur all around the
central axis.
2 Cephalization is present. Cephalization is absent.
3 The body can be divided into two equal halves by The body can be divided into two equal
only one plane called mid-sagittal plane. halves by any vertical plane passing
through the central axis.
4 Examples. Fish, Frog, Earthworm, Human. Examples. Hydra, Starfish.
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Fig.12.9 : Diagrams showing body symmetry A-Asymmetry in Sponges ; B-Radial symmetry in
Starfish : C-Bilateral symmetry in Spider: D--Fish-a bilaterally symmetrical animal having front
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(anterior) end, tail (posterior) end and back (dorsal), underside (ventral) side.
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Cephalization : It is development of head in the anterior part of the animal body.

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(iii) Germ or Germinal Layers : They are the germinal layers that differentiate in the embryo. All
tissues and organs of the animal body develop from them. Germinal layers can be two or three
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in number. On this basis, the animals are of two types, Diploblastic and Triploblastic.
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(I) Diploblastic Animals : Animals having two germinal layers, outer ectoderm and inner
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endoderm. Mesoderm is absent e.g. Porifera, Coelenterata.

(II) Triploblastic Animals : Animals having three germinal layers-outer ectoderm, middle
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mesoderm and inner endoderm, e.g., Platyhelminthes to Chordata.

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Fig.12.10 : Diploblastic and triploblastic bodies have two and three cell layers respectively.

(iv) Coelom (Body Cavity) : It is mesoderm lined fluid filled space that occurs between alimentary
canal and body wall which provides shock proof environment to various body organs.
Depending upon the absence or presence of coelom animals are of three types-acoelomate,
pseudocoelomate and eucoelomates.
(I) Acoelomate : Coelom is absent e.g., Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes.In Platyhelminthes a
mesoderm is present but it does not form cavity.
(II) Pseudocoelomate : A cavity called pseudocoelom is present which is not lined by
mesoderm. It is generally endodermal in origin. Mesoderm occurs but forms small separate
pouches e.g., Nematoda.
(III) Coelomate or Eucoelomate : A true coelom lined by mesoderm is present. On the basis of
origin, true coelom is of two types, schizocoelom and enterocoelom.
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or
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Fig.12.11 : Diagrammatic sectional view of : (A) Coelomate (B) Pseudocoelomate (C) Acoelomate
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Flow Chart : Classification of Animals

ANIMALS
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Cellular level of Tissue level of

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organisation organisation
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Porifera
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No body cavity between Pseudocoelom Coelomate

epidermis and gastrodermis
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Nematoda
Coelenterata,
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Platyhelminthes
Mesodermal cells from Coelom formed from

a single cell during pouches pinched off
growth of the embryo from the endoderm
Annelida, Mollusca,
Arthropoda
No notochord Notochord present
Echinodermata Chordata
Notochord present Notochord replaced by

in atleast larval vertebral column in adults
forms, but very rudimentary
Protochordata Vertebrata
Exoskeleton of Gills in larva, Exoskeleton Exoskeleton Exoskeleton

scales, endoskeleton lungs in most of scales, laying of feathers, lay of hair, external
of bone/cartilage, adults, slimy eggs outside eggs outside ears, mostly
breathing through gills skin water water, flight possible giving birth
to young one
Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

(a) Non Chordates :
(i) Phylum Protozoa :
Characters :
• They are unicellular, eukaryotes.
• These are the simplest & the most primitive animals. Their body organization is of
“Protoplasmic Level”.
• They are of different shapes i.e. irregular, elongated or rounded.
• They have different types of locomotory organs like cilia, flagella, pseudopodia (false feet) etc.
• Nutrition is of different types like holozoic, holophytic, mixotrophic.
• Digestion is intracellular & it takes place in food vacuole.
• Excretion & respiration occurs through general body surface by the process of simple
diffusion.
• Reproduction may be sexual or asexual.
• e.g., Amoeba, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Euglena, Paramoecium.
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Fig.12.12 : Amoeba & Euglena

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(ii) Phylum Porifera :

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Characters :
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• These are pore bearing organisms i.e. with porous body.

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Fig.12.13 : Sycon
• Also called as sponges.
• Aquatic, mostly marine habitats.
• These are sessile and sedentary (attached to substratum) asymmetric or with radial symmetry.
• Sponges are diploblastic.
• Occur in different shapes i.e. vase–like, rounded, sac like etc.
• Body perforated by numerous pores called ostia which opens into a canal system having
canals and chambers lined with choanocytes and have a large sized water outlet called
oscula.
• Their cavity is called spongocoel.
• Endoskeleton is made of needle like spicules made of calcium carbonate and silica or spongin.
• Hermaphrodite, asexual reproduction by budding.
• e.g., Sycon, Spongilla, Euplectella. (Venus flower basket)

(iii) Phylum - Coelenterata or Cnidaria :
Characters :
• These are sac like structures. They have a body cavity called gastrovascular cavity or
coelenteron.
• It has single opening for ingestion and egestion both.
• Aquatic, mostly marine.
• Multicellular, diploblastic, radially symmetrical.
• They have special structures called tentacles, cnidoblast or nematocyst cells. They are
specialized for stinging. They paralyse the prey by releasing poison.
• Asexual reproduction by budding and sexual reproduction by gametes.
• Some of them have exoskeleton of CaCO3 .They are called Corals, they live in colonies and
when they die they form coral reefs, or islands. e.g. Hydra, Jelly fish, Physalia , Sea-anemone
etc.
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Tentacles
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SEA ANEMONE
Fig.12.14 : Cnidaria , Sea Anemone
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
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Cnidoblast - Helps in paralysing the prey by injecting

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poison. e.g. Hydra : Fresh water coelenterate.

Physalia : Portugese man of war
Aurelia - Jelly fish.
Millepora - Coral.
(iv) Phylum Ctenophora :

Characters :
• Body is transparent with radial symmetry.
• They possess comb plates that are ciliated and 8 in number. These help in locomotion. They
also possess tentacles.
• Marine, solitary and free swimming. e.g. Cestum.
(v) Phylum Platyhelminthes : (Platys = Flat; helminth = worm)
Characters :
• Generally called as flatworms.
• Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, dorsoventrally flattened.
• Acoelomates.
• Their digestive cavity has a single opening with mouth only and anus is absent.
• They possess hooks and suckers.

Fig.12.15 : Planaria , Liver fluke

• They have flame cells or protonephridia for excretion.
• Mode of nutrition is parasitic.
• Reproduction is of both types i.e. asexual and sexual
• These are hermaphrodite. e.g. Planaria, Fasciola (liver fluke) , Taenia solium, Blood fluke.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Hermaphrodite i.e. male and female reproductive organs are present in same animal.
(vi) Phylum – Nematoda (Aschelminthes):

Characters :
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• Also called as roundworms.
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• Bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented triploblast ic.
• These are pseudocoelomic.
•
•
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Their alimentary canal is tubular having both mouth and anus.
Most are free living, some live in moist soil, some are fresh water while some are marine.
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• Some are parasites on plants & animals.
• They lack circulatory system. Female ascaris is longer than male ascaris it has curved tail.
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• Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separate. e.g. Ascaris (round worm), Filarial worm
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(elephantiasis).
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
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Alimentary canal straight and complete with mouth

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and anus in nematodes. They are unisexual

organisms.
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MALE
ASCARIS FEMALE
Fig. : 12.16 : Ascaris - A; male ; B : female.

(vii) Phylum : Annelida (Annulus = ring ; segments)
Characters :
• Their body is triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, soft, elongated, vermiform, cylindrical.
• Body is metamerically segmented. .
• Exoskeleton is absent, body is covered by thin cuticle.
• Eucoelomata i.e. they have true body cavity which first appeared in this phylum.
• Well developed alimentary canal is present.
• They have closed circulatory system.
• Locomotion is with the help of chitinous projections called chaetae (setae).
• Excretion by nephridia.
• Nervous system has dorsal brain.
• Most are aquatic, marine or fresh water. Some are terrestrial.
• They reproduce sexually e.g. Earthworm, Leech, Nereis, Sea mouse etc.
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Fig.12.17 : Some common annelids A) Nereis B) Hirudinaria

KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
In Annelids, body is metamerically segmented
i.e. body is divided externally by transverse
grooves as well as internally by septa,
These segments are called metameres.
Locomotion by parapodia or Chitinous
setae which are segmentally arranged.
(viii) Phylum : Arthropoda (Arthros jointed , poda = legs)

Characters
• These are the organisms with jointed appendages.
• This is the largest phylum in animal kingdom.
• Body triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical and externally segmented.

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Fig.12.18 : Some common arthropods

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• They have an exoskeleton made up of protein and chitin (Moulting Periodic shedding off of
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the exoskeleton to induce the growth).

• They have a complete alimentary canal with mouth & anus.
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• Respiration occurs through general body surface, gills, trachea and book lungs.
• They have an open circulatory system with dorsal heart & arteries.
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• Body cavity is called haemocoel.

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• Excretion by coelomducts, malpighian tubules, green glands, coxal glands.

• Sexes are separate.
• Each segment has paired lateral and jointed appendages. e.g. Palaemon (prawn), Cancer
(crab), Periplanata (cockroach), Anopheles (mosquito) & Aranea (spider), Apis (Honey bee),
Lepisma, Palamnaeus (scorpion) Scolopendra (centipede), Musca (House fly) Butterfly.
(ix) Phylum Mollusca : (Molluscs = soft)
Characters :
• It is the second largest group of animals, body soft, unsegmented, asymmetrical & without
appendages Neopilina is a segmented mollusca.
• Bilateral symmetry in some mollusca like pila due to torsion (twisting) during growth , the adult
are asymmetrical.
• Body divided into a head, foot and visceral mass. A thin skin covering the body is called as
mantle, which secretes a calcareous shell.
Fig.12.19 : Some common Molluscs

• Body cavity is haemocoel.
• Respiration by gills (Ctenidial) in aquatic forms but in terrestrial forms space between mantle
and body wall called as mantle cavity act as lungs.
• For ingestion they have tongue like structure “radula” they also possess a digestive gland called
hepatopancreas.
• Open circulatory system.
• Excretion by metanephridia present near heart.
• Reproduction is sexual and sexes are separate. e.g. Chiton (8 Calcareous pieces), Pila, Helix
(torsion univalve), Dentalium (tusk like shell), Unio, Mytilus (Bivalve), Octopus, Tropedo, Sepia,
Indian pearl oyster
(x) Phylum Echinodermata : (Echinos = spines Derma = skin)
Characters :
• These are marine animals, their body is triploblastic, eucoelomata, unsegmented.
• Their body has spines arising from exoskeleton of calcium.
• Adults are radially symmetrical while larvae are bilaterally symmetrical.
• Head is absent, oral and aboral surfaces have five radial ambulacra.
• Water vascular system is the charactristic feature of this phylum.
• Excretory organs are absent.
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Echinus (sea urchin)

Asterias (star fish)
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Antedon
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(feather star) Holothuria

(sea cucumber)
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Fig.12.20 : Some common Echinoderms

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• A complex system of water containing tubes and bladders passing through pores of skin called
water vascular system is present. From this tube like structure arise, these tubes look like feet
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and are called as tube feet that helps in locomotion

• Reproduction can be asexual, sexual or by regeneration.
• e.g. Asterias (star fish), Echinus (sea urchin), Holothuria (sea cucumber), Antedon (feather
star)
(xi) Phylum Hemichordata :
Characters :
• They are placed in between nonchordates and chordates as they possess some characters of
both.
• They include worm like, unsegemented, bilaterally symmetrical animals which are exclusively
marine.
• Their body is divided into three regions proboscis, collar & trunk.
• They do not possess notochord, which is a flexible, rod like structure running through the
length of the body, above alimentary canal.
• They possess gill slit or gill cleft which is meant for respiration.
• They possess nerve cord in collar region but it is not a true dorsal nerve cord.
• e.g. Balanoglossus (tongue worm), saccoglossus.

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Fig.12.21 Balanoglossus
(b) Subphylum : Vertebrata or Craniata :
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Majority of chordates are included in this phylum.

Characters :
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• They are advanced animals, having a cranium (brain box) around the brain. Nervous system is
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well developed.
• Notochord is replaced by a vertebral column (backbone) in the adults. Endoskeleton is highly
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developed.
• There are two pairs of limbs or appendages.
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• Head is well differentiated.

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• The heart is situated ventrally. The circulatory system is closed consisting of blood vascular
system and lymphatic system. Red coloured pigment haemoglobin is present in red blood
corpuscles.
• Respiratory organs may be gills (in aquatic animals), skin, buccopharyngeal cavity (in
amphibians) or lungs (in land animals).
• Excretion occurs through kidneys.
VERTEBRATES VERSUS INVERTEBRATES
S.NO. VERTEBRATES INVERTEBRATES
Vertebral column (backbone) to support
1. Lack vertebral colum n (backbone).
the body.
2. Possess endoskeleton. Lack endoskeleton.
3. Usually possess a post-anal tail. Tail is absent.
4. Position of heart is ventral. Position of heart, if present, is dorsal.
Nerve cord is tubular and dorsal in Nerve cord (spinal) is solid and ventral in
5.
position. position.
Red blood cells (RBCs) contain Generally, haemoglobin is absent. If present,
6.
haemoglobin. it remains dissolved in blood.
Two pairs of lim bs (appendages) are Lim bs (appendages) consists of more than
7.
present. two pairs.

• This subphylum is subdivided into seven classes. They are :
Subphylum Vertebrata
7 classes
Agnatha Gnathostomata
(Jawless (Vertebrates with
vertebrates) well developed jaws)
1. Cyclostomata
2.Chondrichthyes
3.Osteichthyes
4.Amphibians
5.Reptiles
6.Aves
7.Mammals
(i) Agnatha:
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(I) Class Cyclostomata : (Gr. Cyclos = circular, Stome = mouth ; the circular mouthed
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fishes)
These are the most primitive vertebrates.
Characters : or
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• Animals are jawless and possess a circular mouth.
• They are ectoparasites on fish and use mouth to stick to fish ; the mouth is therefore suctorial.
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• Notochord is present in the form of a cylindrical rod.

• Head and brain are poorly developed.
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• Cartilagenous endoskeleton is present.

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• Respiration occurs through gills contained in pouches.

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• Heart is two–chambered consisting of one auricle and one ventricle.

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• Gonad is single and fertilization is external. e.g. Petromyzon (lamprey), Myxine (hag fish).
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Fig.12.22 : Petromyzon
(ii) Gnathostomata :
(I) Super Class Pisces :
General feature
• True fishes are included in the class
• They respire through gills.
• Their body is stream lined and and covered by scales / plates.
• They have muscular tail and fins for movement.
• Endo skeleton is either made up of cartilage or bone.
• They are unisexual and lay eggs.
• They are cold blooded.
• Heart is 2 chambered.

KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Cold blooded / Poikilotherms:
There body temperature does
not remain constant and varies
with atmospheric temperature.
PISCES
Chondrichthyes Osteicththyes
(Cartilageinous (Bony fishes)

fishes)
Scoliodon (Dog fish)
Carcharodon (White fish)

Torpedo (Electric fish)
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Anguilla (Freshwater eel)
Clarias (Magur)
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Wallagonia (Lachi)
Exocoetus (Flying fish) Hippocampus
(See horse)
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Fig.12.23 : Some common fishes

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S.NO. CHONDRICHTHYES OSTEICHTHYES

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1. Mouth ventral. Mouth terminal.

Tail fin asymmetrical (heterocercal). Tail fin symmetrical (homocercal).
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2.
3. 5-7 pairs of gills are present. 4-5 pairs of gills are present.
4. Gills are naked. Gills are covered by operculum.
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5. Cloacal aperture is present. Anus and urinogenital apertures are separate.

6. No swim bladder. Swim bladder usually present.
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7. Fertilization is internal. Fertilization is external.

8. e.g. Scoliodon – Dog fish, Trygon - e.g. Labeo rohita - Rohu or Indian carp, Anabas -
Sting ray, Torpedo - Electric ray, Climbing perch, Caulophyryne jordani- Angler fish,
Rhineodon - Whale shark. Hippocampus - Sea horse, Pterois valitans -Lion fish,
Exocoetus - Flying fish, Synchiropus splendidus -
Mandarin fish.
II. Tetrapoda :
1. Class Amphibia : (Gr. amphi = both, bios = life, the vertebrates leading two lives / dual life)
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Amphibians are the first vertebrate
which come out of water but these are
not able to live on land
permanently.These depend on water
for their reproduction.
Characters :
• They are amphibious in nature ; found in fresh water and moist places.
• Skin is smooth or rough, rich in glands which keep it moist ; skin with pigmented cells,
i.e.,chromatophores.
• Body is without scales.
• Endoskeleton is mostly bony, notochord does not persist in adults.
• Head and trunk are distinct ; neck and tail may or may not be present.
• Limbs tetrapods (four – limbed), digits without nails

• Respiration occurs by lungs, skin or buccal lining, gills are present at least during larval stage
for respiration.
• Excrete either ammonia (by tadpole) or urea (by adults).
• Heart three chambered with two auricles and a ventricle, red blood corpuscles are large,
biconvex,
oval and nucleated.
• Brain is not much developed, cranial nerves are 10 pairs.
• Sexes are separate, i.e., dioecious, male without copulatory organ.
• Eggs with gelatinous covering, usually laid in water.
• Fertilization is external.
• Development is indirect with a tadpole larva which undergoes metamorphosis to become
adult.
• e.g. Salamanders, frogs & toads. Salamandra (Salamander), Necturus (mud puppy), Triturus
(newt), Rana (frog), Bufo (toad).
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Fig.12.24 : (a) Salamander (b) Toad (c) Frog (d) Hyla
2. Class Reptilia : (L. reptare = to creep ; creeping vertebrates).
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
or
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Reptiles are first successful terrestrial
animals but some are aquatic. Body is
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divided into head, neck, trunk and tail.

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Characters :
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• Two pairs of pentadactyl limbs are present ; but in snakes limbs are reduced or absent.
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• Body is covered with epidermal horny scales.

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• Skin is dry, impermeable and devoid of glands.

• Respiration takes place by lungs only. Gills are absent.
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• Heart is incompletely four – chambered, having two auricles and incompletely divided
ventricle. In crocodile, heart is completely four chambered.
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• Fertilization is internal (characteristics of land animals).

• There is no larval stage in development. e.g. Testudo (tortoise), Chelone (turtle) Draco (flying
lizard), Chameleon, Hemidactylus (wall lizard), Naja (cobra) etc.
KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
The only poisonous lizard is Heloderma all
other are non-poisonous.
Varanus is the largest living lizard present in
the world.
Fig.12.25 : Wall Lizard, Chamaeleon, Snake, Tortoise`

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AMPHIBIA AND REPTILIA
S.no. Amphibia Reptilia
1. Skin is smooth and moist. Skin is dry and cornified.
2. Scales are absent. Scales are present over the body.
3. Digits do not possess claws. Digits end in claws.
4. Heart is three chambered. Heart is incompletely four chambered.
5. Fertilization is external. Fertilization is internal.
6. Examples : Frog, Toad. Examples : Lizard, Snake, Tortoise.
3. Class Aves : (L. Aves = birds )

• The birds are described as ‘feathered reptiles’ that have developed the power of flight.
Characters :
• The body is covered with soft feathers (feathery exoskeleton). called Plumage
• The body is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail.
• There are two pairs of limbs. The fore limbs are modified to form wings (in flying birds) or are
reduced (as in non–flying birds). Hind limbs are strongly developed for perching, walking.
• Endoskeleton is light. The bones have air cavities (Pneumatic bones). This makes the bird
light.
• Jaws are modified to form a strong beak.
• Teeth are absent.
• Respiration is by lungs only. Lungs have additional bag like membranous extensions called as
air sacs.
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• Heart is completely four chambered.
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• Birds are oviparous, i.e. egg laying.
• or
Fertilization is internal. Fertilized eggs are laid with a yolk (stored food ) and with a hard
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calcareous shell.
• Like reptiles and mammals, they have the embryonic membranes namely the amnion, chorion,
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yolk – sac and allantois.

• High degree of parental care is exhibited.
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• There is no larval stage in development. e.g. Columba (pigeon), Pavo (peacock), Corvus
(crow), Passer (sparrow). Struthio camelus(ostrich), Kiwi and Penguin are flightless
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birds.White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) Male Tufted duck (Aythya fligula)

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KNOWLEDGE BOOSTER
Sound producing organ at the junction of

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trachea and bronchi of birds is called syrinx.

Penguins, Emu, Ostrich and Kiwi are
flightless birds.
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Archaeopteryx is the connecting link

between reptiles and birds.
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Fig.12.26 : Some common birds.

4. Class Mammalia : (L. mamma = breast ; the mammals)
• Mammalia is the most evolved group of organisms and are found in diverse habitats ranging
from deserts, polar ice caps, oceans, mountains, forests and grasslands.
• They are named mammals as all of them possess mammary glands (milk producing glands).
Mammals are the only animals which feed their young ones with milk.
Characters :
• Skin is covered with an exoskeleton of hair. Hair are provided with sweat glands which help in
the regulation of body temperature. In aquatic mammals, hair being negligible, the
subcutaneous layer of fats provides insulation.
• Mammals have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs.

• The body cavity is unequally divided into two parts by a muscular partition called as
diaphragm.
• Eyes are provided with movable lids.
• Ears have fleshy external ears or pinnae.
• Teeth are embedded in sockets (thecodont). Two sets of teeth develop in the life time of a
mammals Milk teeth and permanent teeth (diphyodont).
• Teeth are of different types (heterodont).
• Respiration occurs by lungs.
• Heart is four chambered. R.B.Cs are non nucleated and usually circular.
• Sexes are separate. Gonads are paired. Testes lie commonly in the scrotal sacs outside the
abdomen.
• Fertilization is internal. Eggs are small , microscopic without shells and are retained in uterus
of female for development.
• Embryonic membranes (amnion, chorion, yolk sac and allantois ) present.
• They give birth to living young ones and are called as viviparous.
• The young ones are fed on milk from mammary glands.
Important Groups of Mammals :
• Mammals are divided into three main groups :
• Egg-laying mammals (monotremes) : These mammals show characters of both reptiles and
mammals. They lay hard shelled eggs (oviparous)
• e.g. Spiny ant eater, Duck – billed platypus
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• Marsupial mammals (pouched mammals):
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• Pouched or marsupial mammals (Latin marsu-pium = pouch) They are viviparous.
• The young ones, when born, are cared in pouch called marsupium present on the mother’s
•
abdomen. or
In the pouch, they feed on the mother milk e.g. Kangaroo (Macropus), Kola bear.
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• Placental mammals (true mammals) : These mammals with true placenta.
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• The embryo is retained in the uterus.

• These are the very successful group of land animals, occurring in diverse climatic conditions.
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e.g. Mole, bat, lion, tiger, camel, giraffe, whale, dolphin, monkey, humans etc.
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Fig.12.27 : (a) Duck-Billed Platypus (b) Spiny Ant-Eater, (c) Kangaroo
A COMPARATIVE SUMMARY OF THE VERTEBRATES

S.No. Character Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia
1. Habitat Aquatic Terrestrial Terrestrial Arboreal Terrestrial,
& aquatic aquatic
& arboreal.
2. Body Temperature Cold-blooded Cold-blooded Cold-blooded Warm-blooded Warm- blooded

3. Exoskeleton Slimy scales Absent Dry & Scaly Feathers, claws Hairs, nails etc.
Respiratory Gills Gills, lungs Lungs Lungs Lungs
4. organ & skin
Locomotory Fins Limbs Limbs Wings Limbs
5. organs and legs
Heart 2-chambered 3-chambered Incompletely 4-chambered 4-chambered
6. four chambered
7. Propagation Oviparous Oviparous Oviparous Oviparous Viviparous
8. Fertilization External External Internal Internal Intra-uterine

SECTION (A) : TAXANOMY
A-1 What is classification ?
A-2 What is the lowest category of classification ?
A-3 What is meant by nomenclature ?
A-4 Name the scientist who proposed the binomial system.
A-5 Define taxon.
A-6 What are the advantages of classifying organisms
A-7 Who proposed 4 kingdom classification ?
A-8 Write down 4 key features of monera group.
A-9 Write down the sub groups of monera group.
A-10 What is five kingdom classification & who proposed it ? Explain in detail.
SECTION (B) : PLANT CLASSIFICATION
B-1 What are thallophytes ?
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B-2 What are phanerogames ?
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B-3 Draw the complete flow chart to classify plant kingdom ?
SECTION (C) : ANIMAL KINGDOM or
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C-1 Which is the largest phylum of kingdom animalia ?
C-2 Name the phylum in which animals have segmented body, coelom, and bilateral symmetry.
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C-3 Name the phylum in which animals have segmented body, jointed appendages and compound
eyes.
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C-4 Write the binomial name of any one organism.

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C-5 Name the code which governs the naming of organism

C-6 Write down four main features of protozoa.
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C-7 Mention the characteristic features of arthropoda.

C-8 How do poriferan animals differ from coelenterate animals ?
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C-9 What kind of symmetry is present in protochordata ?

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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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A-1 Classification reflecting the evolutionary interrelationships of organisms is called
(A) phylogenetic classification (B) artificial classification
(C) natural classification (D) numerical classification
A-2 Two kingdom classification was given by
(A) Linnaeus (B) Haeckel (C) Copeland (D) Whittaker
A-3 Three kingdom classification was proposed by
(A) Linnaeus (B) Haeckel (C) Whittaker (D) Lamarck
A-4 A branch of biology which deals with the identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms
is called
(A) Morphology (B) Ecology (C) Taxonomy (D) Phytogeography
A-5 Who is known as father of taxonomy ?
(A) Mendel (B) Linnaeus (C) Darwin (D) Crick
A-6 Binomial nomenclature was introduced by
(A) John Ray (B) A.P. deCandolle (C) A.L.de Jussen (D) Carolus Linnaeus
A-7 The basic unit of classification is
(A) variety (B) species (C) genus (D) family

A-8 According to binomial nomenclature, the scientific name of an organism must consists of two words.
These are
(A) species and tribe (B) genus & species (C) order and family (D) genus and family
A-9 Which taxonomic term may be substituted for any rank in the classification ?
(A) Class (B) Genus (C) Species (D) Taxon
A-10 A group of freely interbreeding organisms constitutes a
(A) species (B) genera (C) family (D) class
B-1 Thallophyta includes
(A) fungi and bacteria (B) algae, fungi, animals and lichens
(C) algae, fungi and lichens (D) algae and fungi
B-2 Flowering plants are included under
(A) cryptogams (B) phanerogams (C) bryophytes (D) pteridophytes
B-3 Which of the following has an embryo but lacks vascular tissue ?
(A) Bryophyta (B) Pteridophyta (C) Gymnosperms (D) Angiosperms
B-4 The most primitive vascular plants are –
(A) bryophytes (B) pteridophytes (C) gymnosperms (D) angiosperms
B-5 Cryptogams include
(A) thallophytes (B) bryophytes (C) pteridophytes (D) all of the above
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B-6 Algae are characterized by
(A) pyrenoids (B) aquatic habitat
(C) unicellular sex organs (D) all of the above
SECTION (C) : ANIMAL KINGDOM
or
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C-.1 Organ system grade of body organization is found in : –
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(A) Sponges (B) Protozoa (C) Arthropods (D) Platyhelminthes

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C-.2 Polymorphism is exhibited by

(A) Hydra (B) Physalia (C) Octopus (D) Crab
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C-3 Comb jellies belong to

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(A) Scyphozoa (B) Hydrozoa (C) Ctenophora (D) Both A and B

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. C-4 Platyhelminthes are called

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(A) round worms (B) flat worms (C) blind worms (D) none of the above
.
C-5 In Platyhelminthes, the excretory organs are

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(A) nephridia (B) malpighian tubules

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(C) flame cells (solenocytes) (D) green glands

C-6 Platyhelminthes are
(A) coelomates (B) pseudocoelomates (C) haemocoelomates (D) acoelomates
.
C-7 The common name for Ascaris is

(A) shipworm (B) pinworm (C) tapeworm (D) round worm
C-8 Metamerism is characteristic feature of
(A) Chordata (B) Annelida (C) Mollusca (D) Nematoda
C-9 The excretory organs of Annelida are
(A) nephridia (B) statocysts (C) archeocytes (D) none of the above
C-10 Which one is mismatched ?
(A) Flagella ......Euglena (B) Pseudopodia ........Amoeba
(C) Cilia ........Paramecium (D) Flagella ........ Plasmodium
C-11. Contractile vacuole is present in
(A) Amoeba (B) Euglena (C) Paramecium (D) All of the above
C-12 Choanocytes are unique to
(A) Protozoa (B) Porifera (C) Mollusca (D) Echinodermata
C-13 Cnidaria is characterised by
(A) nematoblasts (B) coelenteron
(C) tissue level of organisation (D) all of the above

C-14 Which of the following coelenterate is known as “Portuguese man of war”
(A) Hydra (B) Aurelia (C) Physalia (D) Metridium
C-15 The most important character of chordata is :
(A) Dorsal hollow nervous system (B) Vertebral column
(C) Kidneys (D) None of the above
C-16 Herdmania is member of :
(A) Hemichordata (B) Urochordata (C) Cephalochordata (D) Vertebrata
C-17 Which one of following belongs to hemichordata :
(A) Doliolum (B) Pyrosoma (C) Balanoglossus (D) All of the above
C-18 All chordates possess :
(A) Exoskeleton (B) Limbs
(C) Skull (D) Axial skeletal and rod of notochord
C-19 Which is an exclusive chordate character :
(A) True coelom (B) Pharyngeal gill slits (C) Bilateral symmetry (D) Triploblastic
C-20 Which of the following is not the basic feature of chordata
(A) Pharyngeal gills slits (B) Presence of contractile vacuole
(C) Post anal tail (D) Dorsal nerve cord
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C-21 Mesoglea is characteristic of
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(A) platyhelminthes (B) aschelminthes (C) cnidaria (D) mollusca
or
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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1. Which of the following are first true terrestrial animals :

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(A) Amphibia & reptilia (B) Reptilia (C) Aves (D) Mammals
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2. Skin is devoid of glands in :

(A) Amphibians (B) Reptiles (C) Both A & B (D) Mammals
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3. Which of the following reptile can change it’s colour of body :

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(A) Snake (B) Draco (C) Chameleon (D) Python

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4. Birds are :
(A) Endothermal (B) Warm blooded (C) Both A & B (D) Ectothermal
5. Which of the following is exclusively mammalian character :
(A) Four chambered heart (B) Diaphragm
(C) Presence of external ear (D) Both B & C are correct
6. In the flying birds, the quill feathers are useful for :
(A) Giving shape to the bird (B) Giving external heat
(C) Flight in air (D) Preventing loss of heat from the body
7. Which of the following class is without epidermal scale ?
(A) Fish (B) Aves (C) Mammals (D) Amphibian
8. Whale is kept in class :
(A) Pisces (B) Mammalia (C) Aves (D) Amphibian
9. The heart is completely divided into 4 chambers in :
(A) Reptiles (B) Mammals (C) Aves (D) Both (B) and (C)
10. Which of the following is a chordate feature, not shared by the non-chordates
(A) Metamerism (B) Protoplasmic organization
(C) Bilateral symmetry (D) Pharyngeal gill slits

11. Which one of the following invertebrates is a deuterostome and enterocoelous coelomate
(A) Pila (B) Ascaris (C) Aphrodite (D) Asterias
12. Which one of the following sets of animals belongs to the same class of a phylum
(A) Hydra, jelly fish, cray fish (B) Bat, pigeon, whale
(C) Spider, scorpion, centipede (D) Whale, otter, kangaroo
13. Jaws are absent in
(A) Protochordata (B) Protochordata and cyclostomata
(C) Amphioxus and balanoglossus (D) Herdmania and myxine
14. Scales in chondrichthyes are
(A) Placoid (B) Ganoid (C) Cycloid (D) Sesamoid
15. Which of the following is not found in birds
(A) Hind limb (B) Fore limb (C) Pelvic girdle (D) Pectoral girdle
16. Schizocoelic type of coelom is present in the
(A) Protochordata (B) Echinoderms (C) Nematodes (D) Annelids
17. Which of the following group is Deuterostome
(A) Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca (B) Echinodermata, Hemichordata, Chordata
(C) Annelida, Mollusca. Chordata (D) Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata
18. Laminaria (kelp) and Fucus (rock weed) are the examples of
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(A) Green algae (B) Brown algae (C) Red algae (D) Golden brown algae
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19. Which of the following represents obligate anaerobes
(A) Spirogyra (B) Pisum sativum or
(C) Onion (D) Methane bacteria
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20. Which of the following is a photo–autotrophic bacterium
(A) Rhodospirillum (B) Azospirillum (C) Nitrosomonas (D) Nitrobacter
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21. Gram +ve bacteria have

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(A) Thick and homogeneous cell walls (B) As much as 70% peptide molecules
(C) Either no lipids or less than 10% lipids (D) All the above
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1. Pteridophytes are characterized by ______ venation in their leaves. (IJSO/Stage-I/2008)
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(A) multicostate, reticulate divergent. (B) unicostate, parallel

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(C) forked (D) unicostate, reticulate

2. The animal body is formed of many cells, but the cells show no coordination to form tissues in :
(IJSO/Stage-I/2009)
(A) protozoans (B) coelonterates (C) sponges (D) flat worms
3. Which one of the following is true fish ?
(A) Star fish (B) Gold fish (C) Silver fish (D) Hag fish
4. Cycas is classified as gymnosperm because of (IJSO/Stage-I/2010)
(i) presence of naked seeds (ii) lack of vessels in the xylem.
(iii) presence of sieve tubes. (iv) fruit formation.
The correct reason is
(A) (i) and (iv) (B) (i) and (iii) (C) (i) and (ii) (D) (ii) and (iii)
5. The correct order of evolutionary advancement among the plants is
(A) spirogyra diatom hornwort fern
(B) blue green alga liverwort fern seed bearing plant
(C) liverwort cyanobacterium moss gymnosperm
(D) red alga fern moss liverwort
6. The animal in which coelomic fluid has a significant role in locomotion is
(A) earthworm (B) leech (C) crab (D) sea cucumber

7. An animal with chitinous exoskeleton, haemocoel and gills belongs to
(A) ascheminthes (B) Arthropoda (C) echinodermata (D) urochordate
8. With reference to human beings, the correct order of taxonomical classification is
(IJSO/Stage-I/2011)
(A) chordata, primata, mammalia, hominidae. (B) chordata, mammalia, primata, hominidae.
(C) chordata, primata, hominidae, mammalia. (D) chordata, mammalia, hominidae, primata
9. If the glands in the pharyngeal bulb of earthworm are inactivated, digestion of which of the following
is affected ?
(A) proteins (B) carbohydrates (C) lipids (D) nucleic acids
10. What is the major difference between Bacteria and Virus (IJSO/Stage-I/2012)
(A) Viruses are precursors to bacteria
(B) Viruses lack proteins that are present in bacteria
(C) Viruses use host machinery to reproduce unlike bacteria
(D) Viruses have proteins whereas bacteria do not,
11. The term Biodiversity refers to (IJSO/Stage-I/2013)
(A) Species Diversity (B) Genetic diversity (C) Ecosystem diversity (D) All of the above
12. Which one of the following is said to produce seeds exposed and they are called naked seed plant
(A) Deodar & Pinus (B) Marsilea & Nostoc
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(C) Maize & Garden Pea Plant (D) Spirogyra & Funaria
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13. Wuchereria is an example of :
(A) Arthropods (B) Annelida (C) Arthropoda (D) Nematoda
14.
or
The algae belonging to which group can sustain normal growth at the greater depth of ocean ?
sF
(IJSO/Stage-I/2014)
(A) Red algae (B) Blue-green algae (C) Brown algae (D) Green algae
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15. Snakes, the cold blooded animals, flick their bifid tounge often to :
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(A) sense vibration in earth (B) sample air for chemoreceptors

ts
(C) sense the nature of substratum (D) sense the temperature of air
s
16. Which of the following places having same number of species is considered most biodiverse ?
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(A) species belonging to more taxa (B) many of the species economically important
(C) many of the species endemic (D) species adapted to greater number of habitats
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17. Gram positive bacteria will have one of the specific characters. Identify it.
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(A) They have more peptidoglycon in their cell walls.

(B) They show red colour on gram staining.
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(C) Flagella found all over the body.

(D) They will have mesosomes as the extension of cell membrane.
18. Choose the right combination of heart types and animals.
(A) (B)
(C) (D)

19. Which of the following option is not true about the viruses ? (IJSO/Stage-I/2015)
(A) Viruses have either DNA or RNA as their genetic material.
20. Which amongst the following shows the characters of both plants and animals :
(IJSO/Stage-I/2017)
i. Anabaena ii. Paramecium iii. Euglena iv. Amoeba
(A) i and iv (B) iii (C) ii (D) i and iii
21. Metamerism is a characteristic of (IJSO/Stage-I/2017)
(A) Hirudinaria (B) Taenia (C) Asterias (D) Pila
22. A scientist observed few cells under a microscope with following characters: (IJSO/Stage-I/2018)
i. Cells divided by binary fission or fragmentation, or budding.
ii. Cells moved with the help of flagella
iii. Ether lipids were observed in cell membranes
iv. Peptidoglycans were noted in the cell walls
Which of the following category do the cells belong to?
(A) Archaea (B) Plant cells
(C) Unicellular eukaryotes (D) Cyanobacteria
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23. True coelom is not present in animals of : (IJSO/Stage-I/2018)
fre
(a) Platyhelminthes (b) Annelida (c) Echinodermata (d) Arthropoda
24. Identify the odd ones from each group (A and B) based on same criterion. (IJSO/Stage-I/2018)
Group A
Salmon
Group B or
Alpine salamander
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Bullfrog Spiny anteater
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Platypus Common toad

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Bull shark Crocodile

ts
(A) Platypus, Alpine Salamander (B) Bull shark, Alpine salamander ,

(C) Bullfrog, Crocodile (D) Platypus, Common toad
s
te
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EXERCISE - 1
in

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A-1 A A-2 A A-3 B A-4 C A-5 B A-6 D A-7 B A-8 B A-9 D A-10 A
B-1 C B-2 B B-3 A B-4 B B-5 D B-6 D
SECTION (C) : ANIMAL KINGDOM
C-1 C C-2 B C-3 C C-4 B C-5 C C-6 D C-7 D C-8 B C-9 A C-10 D C-11 D C-12 B C-13 A
C-14 C C-15 A C-16 B C-17 C C-18 D C-19 B C-20 B C-21 C
EXERCISE - 2
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
A. B B C C D D D B D D D D B A B D B B D A D
EXERCISE - 3
Q. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
A. C C B C B A A B A C D A D A B
Q. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
A. D A A B B A A,D A A

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IJSO STAGE-I

Pre-foundation Career Care Programmes (PCCP)

Resonance Eduventures Limited

Address : Plot No. A-51 [A], IPIA, Near Resonance CG Tower,

© Resonance Eduventures Limited

of this material is punishable under law.

6. Excretion 112 - 120

7. Control & Coordination 121 - 141

8. Reproduction 142 - 160

9. Heredity and Evolution 161 - 183

10. Ecology & Adaptation 184 - 209

11. Microorganisms 210 - 225

12. Diversity of Living Organisms 226 – 254

organisms are composed of cells and their products.

Modern cell theory :

• It is also known as cell doctrine or cell principle.

• Any cell arises from pre-existing cell.

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-1

Fig.1.1 : Ultrastructure of Prokaryotic cell

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-2

complex, called dictyosomes. complex.

(d) Cell shape :

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-3

(e) Cell size :

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-4

Fig.1.4 : Parts and layers of cell wall

takes place by interssusception (Addition of materials with in the existing wall).

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-5

removed Eg: Spectrin in RBC, ATPase.

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-6

(3) Bulk transport : It take place by two methods.

vesicles (Phagosome) is called phagocytosis.

• Exocytosis (Cell vomitting or emiocytosis) : It is reverse of endocytosis in which waste

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-7

Fig.1.6 : Parts of Endoplasmic reticulum

Glycogen storing liver cells.

4. RER bears ribophorins for the attachment of Ribophorins are absent.

5. It may develop from nuclear envelope It may develop from RER.

• It gives internal support to the colloidal matrix i.e. cytoplasm.

• Materials synthesized can be stored in different parts of ER.

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-8

Fig : Golgi apparatus

polysaccharides of the cell wall are secreted by Golgi complex.

• Glycosidation & Glycosylation : Golgi complex cause glycosidation (addition of

synthesized on RER to form glycolipids and glycoproteins.

• Formation of acrosome : Acrosome of sperms is synthesised by Golgi complex during

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-9

II. Double Membranous cell organelles :

outer Inner cristae matrix stalked matrix Inner

(A) Mitochondria (B) Cristae (C) Fo - F1 Complex

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-10

Leucoplast Chromoplast Chloroplast

• Chloroplast have following two parts :

Fig.1.10 : Internal structure of chloroplast of higher plants.

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-11

Fig.1.12 : Ultrastructure of centrioles in T.S.

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-12

Central Matrix Central

• In some plant cells, only one large prominent vacuole is present.

BIOLOGY_ ijso VOL.1_PAGE-13

of its two membranes.

nucleosides, enzyme of DNA and RNA synthesis.

fibrous lamina or nuclear lamina

nuclear membrane during Cell division.