EVERY NATION POLYTECHNIC

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
BO CAMPUS

LECTURE NOTES

BIOLOGY
BIO 111

FIRST YEAR - FIRST SEMESTER

B.Sc. (Agri, Dev, CDS, Pol. Sci) and B.Ed.

NOT FOR SALE!!!!

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 BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.SC.)
YEAR – ONE
CELL BIOLOGY, MICROBIOLOGY AND GENETICS
SUBJECT CODE: BIO 111
3 CREDIT HOURS
General Goal:
The goal of teaching of undergraduate students, biology is to provide knowledge about the
principles, concepts and application of biology (Living and non-living things) for societal
At the end of the course, student shall be able to:
Understand basic principles, concept and applications of biology for societal needs
SCHEME OF WORK
Cell biology, Microbiology and Genetics
➢ Concept of living things
➢ Classification of living things
➢ Organization of life
➢ Cells as living forms
➢ Cell properties
➢ Cell and its environment (Physical and Biophysical processes Plasmolysis, diffusion and
osmosis)
➢ Cell structure and functions of cell components
➢ Mitosis and Meiosis
➢ System (Tissues, Excretory, Respiratory, Nervous, Reproductive ect.)
➢ Micro – organism and Man (Bacteria, Viruses, parasites, Man and Microbes)
➢ Basic of Heredity (Gene linkage, sex Chromosomes and sex linked henes)
➢ Probability in Genetics and Application of Genetics
➢ Genetics Variations, Patterns of inheritance and Mendel’s principles
➢ Control of Gene Expression
➢ DNA Technology

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 BIOLOGY
Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several
unifying items that tie its together as a single coherent field. it is the study of living things that is
plants and animals. The study of plants is known as BOTANY and the scientists who study
plants is a Botanist. The study of animal is ZOOLOGY, and the scientist is a zoologist.
For instance , all organisms are made up cells that process heredity. It encompasses the cellular
basis of living thing.
Characteristics of Living Things
These are movement, respiration, nutrition, irritability, growth, excretion and reproduction
1. Movement – Is the change of position of parts or the whole of the living organism. Animals
move from place to lace locomotion. Plants do not move from to place but move part of their
body e.g., plants can bend towards light
2. Respiration – Is the breakdown of food within the cells of living organism with or without
oxygen to release energy.
3. Nutrition/Feeding – Is the process by which living organism obtain or take in food. Green
plants manufacture or make their own food by the process of Photosynthesis. Plant takes in
simple food animals feed on read-made food that is complex food.
4. Irritability/Sensitivity – Is the process by which living things respond to stimulus or external
change in their environment. Animals respond faster to stimulus while plants respond slowly to
stimulus.
5. Growth – Increase in size and height resulting in change in their body shape and functions.
Plants grow at their roots or short tips and definite regions apical growth. Growth in plants is
continuous. Animals grow throughout the body INTERCALARY growth. growth in animals
stop at maturity.
6. Excretion – Is the process by which living things remove metabolic waste from their body.
Metabolic waste includes sweat, urine, carbon dioxide etc.
7. Reproduction – Is the process by which living organisms give rise to young ones called
offspring.
The acronym – MR. NIGER put together from the first letter of each process gives the seven
characteristics of living things.

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Plants Animals
Don’t move from place to place no locomotion Move from place-to-place locomotion
Respond slowly to external stimulus Respond faster external stimulus
Growth in plants take place at definite regions Growth in animals occur in all part of body
called apical growth intercalary growth
Growth is continuous Growth stops maturity

LIVING CELLS
The cell is referred to as the structural and functional unit of all living organisms. The word cell
has its origins in Latin, and when translated, it means “small room” and was first observed by
Robert Hooke – an English natural philosopher in the year 1665.
Molecules and macromolecules associate with each other to form larger structures such as
membranes. A cell is surrounded by a membrane and contains a variety of molecules and
macromolecules. A cell is the simplest or basic unit of life.
Organisms with one cell are called unicellular organisms or exist as single cells e.g., amoeba,
paramecium, euglena, bacteria, yeast, etc. Organisms with two or more cells are called
multicellular e.g., man, mango tree, rat, spirogyra etc. By contrast, the adult human is made up of
about 30 trillion cells (1 trillion = 1012) which are mostly organized into collectives called
tissues.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CELLS
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:
1. Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
2. The cell interior is organized into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
3. The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and cell
growth.
4. Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
5. Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
6. Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.

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7. Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organization of the cell by
synthesizing selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate
locations.
CELL THEORY
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden,
and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:
➢ All living species on Earth are composed of cells.
➢ A cell is the basic unit of life.
➢ All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the following
postulates:
➢ Energy flows within the cells.
➢ Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
➢ The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:
1. Provides Support and Structure
2. All the organisms are made up of cells.
3. They form the structural basis of all the organisms.
4. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide
support and structure to the organism. For e.g., the skin is made up of a large number of
cells.
5. Xylem present in the vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the
plants.
TYPES OF CELLS
During the 1950s, scientists postulated the concept of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells,
with earlier groundwork being laid by Edouard Chatton, a French Biologist in 1925, Organisms
can be divided into those with an acellular organization and those with cellular organization.
.There are only two types of cells. prokaryotic and eukaryotic.

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 PROKARYOTIC CELLS
The term “prokaryote” is derived from the Greek word “pro“, (meaning: before) and “karyon”
(meaning: kernel). It translates to “before nuclei.“ Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient
groups of living organisms on earth, with fossil records dating back to almost 3.5 billion years
ago.
Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms known to be the earliest on earth. Prokaryotes
include Bacteria and Archaea. The photosynthetic prokaryotes include cyanobacteria that
perform photosynthesis.
A prokaryotic cell consists of a single membrane and therefore, all the reactions occur within the
cytoplasm. They can be free-living or parasites.
Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic cells have different characteristic features. The characteristics of the prokaryotic
cells are mentioned below.
1. They lack a nuclear membrane.
2. Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplast, and lysosomes are absent.
3. The genetic material is present on a single chromosome.
4. The histone proteins, the important constituents of eukaryotic chromosomes, are lacking
in them.
5. The cell wall is made up of carbohydrates and amino acids.
6. The plasma membrane acts as the mitochondrial membrane carrying respiratory enzymes.
7. They divide asexually by binary fission. The sexual mode of reproduction involves
conjugation.
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
The prokaryotic cell diagram given below represents a bacterial cell. It depicts the absence of a
true nucleus and the presence of a flagellum that differentiates it from a eukaryotic cell.

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A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane. However, the genetic material is present in
a region in the cytoplasm known as the nucleoid. They may be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral. A
prokaryotic cell structure is as follows:
1. Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells, in addition to the
cell wall. It helps in moisture retention, protects the cell when engulfed, and helps in the
attachment of cells to nutrients and surfaces.
2. Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the cell.
3. Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell organelles and is
a gel-like component.
4. Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exit of
substances in the cells.
5. Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface of other bacterial cells.
6. Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in the locomotion of a
cell.
7. Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.
8. Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures. These are not involved in
reproduction.
9. Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic material is present.
A prokaryotic cell lacks certain organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi
bodies. Components of Prokaryotic Cells
The prokaryotic cells have four main components:
Plasma Membrane- It is an outer protective covering of phospholipid molecules which
separates the cell from the surrounding environment.
Cytoplasm- It is a jelly-like substance present inside the cell. All the cell organelles are
suspended in it.
DNA- It is the genetic material of the cell. All the prokaryotes possess a circular DNA. It directs
what proteins the cell creates. It also regulates the actions of the cell.
Ribosomes- Protein synthesis occurs here.
Some prokaryotic cells possess cilia and flagella which helps in locomotion.
Reproduction in Prokaryotes: A prokaryote reproduces in two ways:
• Asexually by binary fission
• Sexually by conjugation

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Binary Fission
1. The DNA of an organism replicates and the new copies attach to the cell membrane.
2. The cell wall starts increasing in size and starts moving inwards.
3. A cell wall is then formed between each DNA, dividing the cell into two daughter cells.
Recombination
In this process, genes from one bacterium are transferred to the genome of other bacteria. It takes
place in three ways-conjugation, transformation, transduction.
• Conjugation is the process in which genes are transferred between two bacteria through
a protein tube structure called a pilus.
• Transformation is the mode of sexual reproduction in which the DNA from the
surroundings is taken by the bacterial cell and incorporated in its DNA.
• Transduction is the process in which the genetic material is transferred into the bacterial
cell with the help of viruses. Bacteriophages are the virus that initiates the process

EUKARYOTIC CELL
The term “Eukaryotes” is derived from the Greek word “eu“, (meaning: good) and “karyon”
(meaning: kernel), therefore, translating to “good or true nuclei.” Eukaryotes are more complex
and much larger than prokaryotes. They include almost all the major kingdoms except kingdom
monera. Structurally, eukaryotes possess a cell wall, which supports and protects the plasma
membrane. The cell is surrounded by the plasma membrane and it controls the entry and exit of
certain substances.
“Eukaryotic cells are the cells that contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles.”
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane and form large and
complex organisms. Protozoa, fungi, plants, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. They are
classified under the kingdom Eukaryota. They can maintain different environments in a single
cell that allows them to carry out various metabolic reactions. This helps them grow many times
larger than the prokaryotic cells.
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
The features of eukaryotic cells are as follows:
1. Eukaryotic cells have the nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane.
2. The cell has mitochondria.
3. Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in a eukaryotic cell.
4. A cell wall is the outermost layer of the eukaryotic cells.

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 5. The cells divide by a process called mitosis.
6. The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeletal structure.
7. The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA, which carries all the genetic information.
STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELL
Eukaryotic cell diagram mentioned below depicts different cell organelles present in eukaryotic
cells. The nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, cytoplasm, mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes are
clearly mentioned in the diagram

The eukaryotic cell structure comprises the following:

Plasma Membrane
• The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside environment.
• It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the exchange of substances in and
out of the cell.
Cell Wall
• A cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant cell. It is, however, absent in
animal cells.
• It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell-to-cell interaction.
• It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any injury or pathogen attacks.
• It is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin’s, proteins, etc.

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Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is present inside the cytoplasm, which consists of microfilaments,
microtubules, and fibers to provide perfect shape to the cell, anchor the organelles, and stimulate
the cell movement.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is a network of small, tubular structures that divides the cell surface into two parts: luminal and
extraluminal.
Endoplasmic Reticulum is of two types:
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum contains ribosomes.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is therefore smooth.
Nucleus
• The nucleoplasm enclosed within the nucleus contains DNA and proteins.
• The nuclear envelop consists of two layers- the outer membrane and the inner membrane.
Both the membranes are permeable to ions, molecules, and RNA material.
• Ribosome production also takes place inside the nucleus.
Golgi Apparatus
• It is made up of flat disc-shaped structures called cisternae.
• It is absent in red blood cells of humans and sieve cells of plants.
• They are arranged parallel and concentrically near the nucleus.
• It is an important site for the formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Ribosomes
These are the main site for protein synthesis and are composed of proteins and ribonucleic acids.
Mitochondria
• These are also known as “powerhouse of cells” because they produce energy.
• It consists of an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane is divided
into folds called cristae.
• They help in the regulation of cell metabolism.
Lysosomes
They are known as “suicidal bags” because they possess hydrolytic enzymes to digest protein,
lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.

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Plastids
These are double-membraned structures and are found only in plant cells. These are of three
types:
• Chloroplast that contains chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis.
• Chromoplast that contains a pigment called carotene that provides the plants yellow, red,
or orange colours.
• Leucoplasts that are colourless and store oil, fats, carbohydrates, or proteins.
EUKARYOTIC CELL CYCLE
The cell cycle Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through a series of stages known
collectively as the cell cycle: two gap phases (G1 and G2); an S (for synthesis) phase, in which
the genetic material is duplicated; and an M phase, in which mitosis partitions the genetic
material and the cell divides. The eukaryotic cells divide during the cell cycle. The cell passes
through different stages during the cycle. There are various checkpoints between each stage.
1. Quiescence (G0)
This is known as the resting phase, and the cell does not divide during this stage. The cell cycle
starts at this stage. The cells of the liver, kidney, neurons, and stomach all reach this stage and
can remain there for longer periods. Many cells do not enter this stage and divide indefinitely
throughout their lives.
2. Interphase
In this stage, the cells grow and take in nutrients to prepare them for the division. The period
between mitotic divisions - that is, G1, S and G2 - is known as interphase.
Gap 1 (G1) phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain point - the
restriction point - the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase. Here the cell
enlarges. The proteins also increase.
Synthesis (S) phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosome now
consists of two sister chromatids. DNA replication takes place in this phase.
Gap 2 (G2) phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis
and cytokinesis. Ther cells enlarge further to undergo mitotic division.
M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division (cytokinesis).
MITOSIS
Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter cells with the same
genetic component as the parent cell. Chromosomes replicated during the S phase are divided in

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such a way as to ensure that each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome. In actively
dividing animal cells, the whole process takes about one hour.
The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic apparatus' that aligns them and then
separates the sister chromatids to produce an even partitioning of the genetic material. This
separation of the genetic material in a mitotic nuclear division (or karyokinesis) is followed by a
separation of the cell cytoplasm in a cellular division (or cytokinesis) to produce two daughter
cells. Mitosis involves the following stages:
Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis
On division, each daughter cell is an exact replica of the original cell.
1. Prophase: Prophase occupies over half of mitosis. The nuclear membrane breaks down
to form a number of small vesicles and the nucleolus disintegrates. A structure known as
the centrosome duplicates itself to form two daughter centrosomes that migrate to
opposite ends of the cell. The centrosomes organise the production of microtubules that
form the spindle fibres that constitute the mitotic spindle. The chromosomes condense
into compact structures. Each replicated chromosome can now be seen to consist of two
identical chromatids (or sister chromatids) held together by a structure known as the
centromere.
2. Prometaphase: The chromosomes, led by their centromeres, migrate to the equatorial
plane in the midline of cell - at right-angles to the axis formed by the centrosomes. This
region of the mitotic spindle is known as the metaphase plate. The spindle fibres bind to a
structure associated with the centromere of each chromosome called a kinetochore.
Individual spindle fibres bind to a kinetochore structure on each side of the centromere.
The chromosomes continue to condense.
3. Metaphase: The chromosomes align themselves along the metaphase plate of the spindle
apparatus.
4. Anaphase: The shortest stage of mitosis. The centromeres divide, and the sister
chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart - or 'disjoin' - and move to the opposite
ends of the cell, pulled by spindle fibres attached to the kinetochore regions. The
separated sister chromatids are now referred to as daughter chromosomes. (It is the
alignment and separation in metaphase and anaphase that is important in ensuring that
each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome.)

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 5. Telophase: The final stage of mitosis, and a reversal of many of the processes observed
during prophase. The nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes grouped at
either pole of the cell, the chromosomes uncoil and become diffuse, and the spindle fibres
disappear.
6. Cytokinesis: The final cellular division to form two new cells. In plants a cell plate forms
along the line of the metaphase plate; in animals there is a constriction of the cytoplasm.
The cell then enters interphase - the interval between mitotic divisions.
7. Meiosis: Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that produces haploid sex cells or
gametes (which contain a single copy of each chromosome) from diploid cells (which
contain two copies of each chromosome). The process takes the form of one DNA
replication followed by two successive nuclear and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and
Meiosis II). As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process of DNA replication that
converts each chromosome into two sister chromatids
Facilitate Growth Mitosis
In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply
and facilitate the growth in an organism.
Allows Transport of Substances
Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on
inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by
active and passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol
diffuse across the cell membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive
transport. The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where
the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.
Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the cells
through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.
Aids in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed
as the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes
the daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.

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Thus, we can understand why cells are known as the structural and functional unit of life. This
is because they are responsible for providing structure to the organisms and perform several
functions necessary for carrying out life’s processes
Examples of Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are exclusively found in plants, animals, fungi, protozoa, and other complex
organisms. The examples of eukaryotic cells are mentioned below:
Plant Cells
The cell wall is made up of cellulose, which provides support to the plant. It has a large vacuole
which maintains the turgor pressure. The plant cell contains chloroplast, which aids in the
process of photosynthesis.
Fungal Cells
The cell wall is made of chitin. Some fungi have holes known as septa which allow the
organelles and cytoplasm to pass through them.
Animal Cells
These do not have cell walls. Instead, they have a cell membrane. That is why animals have
varied shapes. They have the ability to perform phagocytosis and pinocytosis.

Protozoa
Protozoans are unicellular organisms. Some protozoa have cilia for locomotion. A thin layer
called pellicle provides supports to the cell.

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Though these two classes of cells are quite different, they do possess some common
characteristics. For instance, both possess cell membranes and ribosomes, but the similarities end
there. The complete list of differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is summarized
as follows
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2μm – Size ranges from 10μm – 100μm in
2.0μm in diameter diameter
Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically simple in
complex in nature nature
Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have Present
a nucleoid region in the cell
Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger in size
spherical in shape and linear in shape
DNA arrangement Circular Linear

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Mitochondria Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
Endoplasmic Absent Present
reticulum
Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes
Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysosomes and centrosomes are
absent present
Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual
Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

CELL ORGANELLES

What are Cell Organelles?

The cellular components are called cell organelles. These cell organelles include both membrane
and non-membrane bound organelles, present within the cells and are distinct in their structures
and functions. They coordinate and function efficiently for the normal functioning of the cell. A
few of them function by providing shape and support, whereas some are involved in the
locomotion and reproduction of a cell. There are various organelles present within the cell and
are classified into three categories based on the presence or absence of membrane.
Organelles without membrane: The Cell wall, Ribosomes, and Cytoskeleton are non-
membrane-bound cell organelles. They are present both in the prokaryotic cell and the eukaryotic
cell.
Single membrane-bound organelles: Vacuole, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic
Reticulum are single membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.
Double membrane-bound organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are double
membrane-bound organelles present only in a eukaryotic cell.
Eukaryotes possess many cellular organelles that perform various functions. Some of these
organelles, such as the cell wall, are exclusive to plant cells.
Cell Membrane Cell wall Mitochondria Plastids Ribosomes
Cytoskeletons Centrosome Centrioles Nucleus Microbodies

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 Cilia and Flagella
Endomembrane systems which consist of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
Plant cells have centrally placed vacuoles.
More than 8.7 million species are living on the planet. Every single species is composed of a cell
and it includes both single-celled and multicellular organisms.
The cells provide shape, structure and carry out different types of functions to keep the entire
system active. The cell contains different functional structures which are collectively called
organelles, and they are involved in various cellular functions.
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of a living organism. According to cell theory
postulates, a cell is the basic building block of life, which makes anything alive and is self-
sufficient to carry out all the fundamental functions of an organism.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

The cell is the fundamental unit of life. All the life activities are carried out by cells. The
organisms can be classified based on the number of cells present in them. Unicellular organisms
are single-celled, while multicellular organisms have a large number of cells.
Unicellular organisms are believed to be one of the earliest forms of life on earth. Eventually,
more complex multicellular organisms evolved from these unicellular life forms over the
aeons. Multicellular organisms have specialized cells with complicated cell organelles, which
unicellular organisms typically lack.
In an ecosystem, plants have the role of producers, while animals have taken the role of
consumers. Hence, their daily activities and functions vary, and so does their cell structure. Cell
structure and organelles vary in plants and animals, and are primarily classified based on their
function. The difference in their cell composition is the reason behind the difference between
plant and animal cells.
Each cell organelle has a particular function to perform. Some of the cell organelles are present
in both plant cells and animal cells, while others are unique to just one of them. Most of the
earth’s higher organisms are eukaryotes, including all plants and animals. Hence, these cells
share some similarities typically associated with eukaryotes.
For example, all eukaryotic cells consist of a nucleus, plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
peroxisomes, mitochondria, ribosomes and other cell organelles.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

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As stated above, both plant and animal cells share a few common cell organelles, as both are
eukaryotes. The function of all these organelles is said to be very much similar. However, there
are major differences between plant and animal cells.
The major differences between the plant cell and animal cell are mentioned below:

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Shape

Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape

Cell Wall

Present Absent

Plasma/Cell Membrane

Present Present

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 Endoplasmic Reticulum

Present Present

Nucleus

Present and lies on one side of the cell Present and lies in the centre of the cell

Lysosomes

Present but are very rare Present

Golgi Apparatus

Present Present

Cytoplasm

Present Present

Ribosomes

Present Present

Plastids

Present Absent

Vacuoles

Few large or a single, centrally positioned vacuole Usually small and numerous

Cilia

Absent Present in most of the animal cells

Mitochondria

Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous

Mode of Nutrition

Primarily autotrophic Heterotrophic

A Brief Summary on Cell Organelles

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 Cell Structure Functions
Organelles

Cell membrane A double membrane composed of lipids Provides shape, protects the inner
and proteins. Present both in plant and organelles of the cell and acts as a
animal cells. selectively permeable membrane.

Centrosomes Composed of centrioles and found only It plays a major role in organizing
in the animal cells. the microtubule and cell division.

Chloroplasts Present only in plant cells and contains a Sites of photosynthesis.

green-coloured pigment known as
chlorophyll.

Cytoplasm A jelly-like substance, which consists of Responsible for the cell’s

water, dissolved nutrients and waste metabolic activities.
products of the cell.

Endoplasmic A network of membranous tubules, Forms the skeletal framework of

Reticulum present within the cytoplasm of a cell. the cell, involved in the
detoxification, production of
lipids and proteins.

Golgi Membrane-bound, sac-like organelles, It is mainly involved in secretion

apparatus present within the cytoplasm of the and intracellular transport.
eukaryotic cells.

Lysosomes A tiny, circular-shaped, single membrane- Helps in the digestion and

bound organelles, filled with digestive removes wastes and digests dead
enzymes. and damaged cells. Therefore, it
is also called as the “suicidal
bags”.

Mitochondria An oval-shaped, membrane-bound The main site of cellular

organelle, also called as the “Powerhouse respiration and also involved in
of The Cell”. storing energy in the form of ATP
molecules.

Nucleus The largest, double membrane-bound Controls the activity of the cell,
organelles, which contains all the cell’s helps in cell division and controls
genetic information. the hereditary characters.

Peroxisome A membrane-bound cellular organelle Involved in the metabolism of

present in the cytoplasm, which contains lipids and catabolism of long-
the reducing enzyme. chain fatty acids.

Plastids Double membrane-bound organelles. Helps in the process of

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 There are 3 types of plastids:
1. Leucoplast –Colourless plastids.
2. Chromoplast–Blue, red, and
yellow colour plastids.
3. Chloroplast – Green coloured
plastids.
photosynthesis and pollination,
imparts colour to leaves, flowers,
fruits and stores starch, proteins
and fats.

Ribosomes Non-membrane organelles, found Involved in the synthesis of

floating freely in the cell’s cytoplasm or proteins.
embedded within the endoplasmic
reticulum.

Vacuoles A membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelle Provide shape and rigidity to the

found within the cytoplasm. plant cell and help in digestion,
excretion, and storage of
substances.
Conclusion
Both plant and animal cells comprise membrane-bound organelles, such as endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondria, the nucleus, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. The plant cell can also be
larger than the animal cell. The normal range of the animal cell varies from about 10 – 30
micrometres and that of plant cell range between 10 – 100 micrometres.

Tissues: In the case of multicellular organisms such as plants and animals, many cells of the
same type associate with each other to form tissues. An example is muscle tissue.

Organs: In complex multicellular organisms, an organ is composed of two or more types of

tissue. For example, the heart is composed of several types of tissues, including muscle, nervous,
and connective tissue.

Organism: All living things can be called organisms. Biologists classify organisms as belonging
to a particular species, which is a related group of organisms that share a distinctive form and set
of attributes in nature. The members of the same species are closely related genetically. In Units
VI and VII, we will examine plants and animals at the level of cells, tissues, organs, and
complete organisms.

HUMAN BODY: ABOUT HUMAN BODY

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If we were to “break apart” the human body at the microscopic level, then the cell would
constitute its most basic unit.
The average adult has somewhere between 30 – 40 trillion cells, and an estimated 242 billion
new cells are produced every day. When a select group of cells with similar functions come
together, it forms a tissue.
Tissues cumulate into organs, group of organs form organ systems and eventually, a complete
organism. Cells -> Tissues -> Organs -> Organ System -> Organism
1. SKELETON
The human body exhibits a variety of movements from walking and running to crawling,
jumping and climbing. The framework that enables us to do all these activities is the skeleton.
Humans have as much as 300 bones at birth. However, the bones start to fuse with age. At
adulthood, the total number of bones is reduced to 206.
Human Anatomy is the scientific study of form and shapes of human beings. The skeleton also
protects several vital organs such as the heart, lungs and the liver. Bones are attached to other
bones through ligaments, a fibrous connective tissue.
Joints are the points at which two or more bones meet. They enable a range of movements like
rotation, abduction, adduction, protraction, retraction and more. Based on flexibility and
mobility, joints can be further classified into movable joints and immovable joints. Movable
joints are flexible while immovable joints (also called fixed joints) are non-flexible since the
bones are fused.

2. MUSCLES
Muscles are specialized tissues which assist the bones in locomotion. Muscles are attached to the
bones through tendons. Movement of limbs happens due to the contraction and relaxation of the
corresponding muscles present in that region. Joints help in the flexibility of bones, but a bone
cannot be bent or stretched until a muscle act on it. In other words, the muscles attached to that
bone pulls it to the direction of movement.
Furthermore, most movement involves muscles that work as a pair. For example, when we bend
our arm, muscles in that region contract, become shorter and stiffer and pull the bones to the
direction of movement. For relaxation (stretching), muscles in the opposite direction have to pull
the bones towards it.

List of Human Body Parts

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 • Human body parts comprise a head, neck and four limbs that are connected to a torso.
• Giving the body its shape is the skeleton, which is composed of cartilage and bone.
• Human body internal parts such as the lungs, heart, and brain, are enclosed within the
skeletal system and are housed within the different internal body cavities.
• The spinal cord connects the brain with the rest of the body.

Human Body Structure

There are different cavities in the human body that house various organ systems.
1. The cranial cavity is the space within the skull, it protects the brain and other parts of the
central nervous system.
2. The lungs are protected in the pleural cavity.
3. The abdominal cavity houses the intestines, liver and spleen.
Humans have evolved separately from other animals, but since we share a distant common
ancestor, we mostly have a body plan that is similar to other organisms, with just the muscles and
bones in different proportions.
For example, we might assume giraffes have more vertebrae in its neck than humans. No, despite
being incredibly tall, giraffes have the same number of vertebrae, i.e., they also have seven
vertebrae in their neck.
One of the most prominent characteristic features is the ability to use our hands, especially for
tasks that require dexterity, such as writing, opening a bottle of water, opening a doorknob, etc.
This is the result of humans having ancestors that began walking on their hind limbs rather than
using all four limbs. Most of our anatomical insight was gained through the dissection of corpses
(cadavers), and for a long time, it was the only way we could gain anatomical knowledge about
the human body. It was a rather grotesque affair, but it made up the bulk of medical literature for
centuries. These days, technological innovation has made it possible to explore human anatomy
at a microscopic level.
Even to this day, scientists are newly discovering organs that were previously overlooked or have
been mistakenly identified as other existing tissues. In 2018, scientists had discovered a new,
body-wide organ called the Interstitium that exists right under the skin.

Human Physiology

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It is referred to the physical, mechanical, and biochemical function of humans. This connects
health, medicine, and science in a way that studies how the human body acquaints itself to
physical activity, stress, and diseases.
The person who is trained to study human physiology is called a physiologist. Claude Bernard is
referred to as the father of Physiology for his exemplary research.

Human Body Parts and their Functions

The list of human body parts vary as the standard definition of an organ is still up for debate.
However, there are an estimated 79 organs identified to date. We also possess organs that have
“lost” their function throughout our evolution. Such organs are called vestigial organs.
Some of these organs work together and form systems that are specialized to perform a specific
function or a set of functions. Collectively, these are known as organ systems.
And out of these 79 organs, five are crucial for survival, and any damage to these five organs
might result in termination of life. These five crucial human body parts are the brain, heart, liver,
lungs and kidneys. Read on to explore more about these body parts and their functions in detail:

Circulatory System
The circulatory system is also referred to as the cardiovascular system. It comprises the heart and
all the blood vessels: arteries, capillaries, and veins. There are essentially two components of
circulation, namely:
• Systemic circulation
• Pulmonary circulation

Diagram showing pulmonary (blue) and systemic circulation (red)

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Besides these two, there is a third type of circulation called Coronary circulation. Because blood
is the body’s connective tissue, it helps to transport essential nutrients and minerals to the cells
and waste byproducts away from it.
Hence, it is also known as the body’s “transport system.” Anatomically, the human heart is
similar to other vertebrate hearts in the animal kingdom and hence, is a homologous organ.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

A diagram of the human digestive system detailing various components

The digestive system breaks down food and assimilates nutrients into the body, which the body
then uses for growth and cell repair. The major components of the digestive system are:
• Mouth Teeth Tongue Oesophagus Stomach Liver
• Pancreas Gastrointestinal tract Small and large intestines Rectum
The process of digestion starts with mastication (chewing food). Then, the saliva mixes with
food and forms a bolus, a small rounded mass that can be easily swallowed. Once swallowed, the
food travels down the oesophagus and into the stomach. The stomach secretes strong acids and
powerful enzymes that break the food down into a paste.

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It then moves into the small intestine where the food is broken down even more because of the
bile secreted by the liver and powerful, digestive enzymes from the pancreas. This is the stage at
which nutrients are absorbed from the food.
The leftover materials (stool) then move on to the large intestine where it transforms from liquid
to solid, as water is removed. Finally, it gets pushed into the rectum, ready to be eliminated from
the body.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The human reproductive system is also known as the genital system that comprises internal and
external organs that help in reproduction. It varies for both males and females. Hormones, fluids,
and pheromones are all connective accessories for the reproductive organs to function.
Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system consists of the following:
• Ovaries: Produces ovum – female egg as well as the hormone estrogen.
• Uterine tubes: Oviducts or fallopian tubes are the other names given for uterus tubes.
Also known as the womb, the uterus is a pear-shaped organ where the fetus grows. The cervix is
the route to the vagina and gateway for sperm to enter. Vagina acts as the route for a penis to
enter during intercourse and the exit of the fetus during delivery.

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Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system consists of testicles, which act as a storehouse for sperms. These
oval-shaped organs, are encased in a pouch that is called scrotum.

Next to the testis is the vas deferens that are the accessory ducts for the male sexual system.
When sperm is formed, it is mixed with fluids that are produced by seminal glands, prostate
gland, and Cowper’s gland. The primary purpose of Cowper gland is to hike the semen volume
and lubrication during coitus.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory process involves the intake of oxygen, and the exhale of carbon dioxide from the
body. This system is also known as the ventilatory system, gas exchange system or respiratory
apparatus. Vertebrates like human beings possess lungs for respiration. The process of respiration
starts with the cycle of inhalation and exhalation.
Inhalation results in the oxygen entering into the body and exhalation results in carbon dioxide
exiting from the body. Anatomically, the respiratory system comprises the following organs:
• Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles Lungs Diaphragm

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A diagram of the human respiratory system highlighting the gas exchange process
By diffusion, molecules of carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged passively among the blood
cells and external environment. This swap is done through alveoli (which are the air sacs) in the
lungs.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The voluntary and involuntary actions are maintained and taken care of by the central nervous
system. It helps to channel the signals to and from different parts of our body. Nervous System is
broadly classified into two categories:
• Central Nervous System
• Peripheral Nervous System

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Distribution of Nerves in humans (top) and the Neuron (bottom)
The central nervous system contains the brain and the spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous
system includes nerves and ganglia that are present outside the brain and spinal cord. Through
the axons, every part of the body gets connected.
Central Nervous System consists of:
• Forebrain: It comprises the cerebrum, hypothalamus, and thalamus. The largest part of
the brain is the cerebrum. Thinking, perceiving, controlling motor function, receiving and
processing information and understanding language are the main functions done by this
section of the brain. Also, sexual development and emotion functions are attached to the
fore-brain.
• Midbrain: It is situated between the hypothalamus and thalamus. The brain stem is
associated with the midbrain. Auditory and visual responses are controlled by the mid-
brain.
• Hindbrain: The medulla, pons, and cerebellum are together, tied in the hind-brain.
Interconnections of different parts of the brain’s surface that helps to accommodate
neurons and connect them to the spinal column are done by the Hind brain.

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Peripheral Nervous System consists of:
• Somatic nervous system: The system’s primary purpose is to transmit the motor and
sensory impulses from CNS and back. It is linked to all the sensory organs, limbs and
skeletal system. Imagine a scenario where you are riding a bicycle, and suddenly, you
spot an obstacle (say a dog) on the road. Your ability to immediately swerve out of the
obstacle’s path and avoid the crash is the result of the somatic nervous system taking
action.
• Autonomic Nervous System: This system works without the person’s effort. The system
helps to relay impulse from the central nervous system to smooth muscles and
involuntary organs such as your heart, lungs etc. Also, it prepares the body against any
violent attacks or abnormal conditions such as high body temperature during a fever or
high rate of breathing and blood pressure after a strenuous exercise.

Key Points About the Human Body

Every human being, tissues, human body parts and the organ systems are made up of cells- the
fundamental unit of life. Anatomy is the science of understanding the structure and the parts of
living organisms. Physiology, on the other hand, deals with the internal mechanisms and the
processes that work towards sustaining life.
These can include biochemical and physical interactions between various factors and
components in our body. With the progress of evolution, organisms began to exhibit advanced
characteristics and features that enabled them to be more efficient and thrive in their respective
environment.
The human structure can be described as bipedal, with hair covering the body, presence of
mammary glands and a set of extremely well-developed sense organs. With respect to human
body anatomy, we have a specialized circulatory system that enables the efficient transport of
materials and nutrients within the body.
The presence of a well-developed digestive system helps to extract essential nutrients and
minerals required by the body. A well-developed respiratory system ensures the efficient gas
exchange and the nervous system enables coordination and interaction within the body and also
the external environment, thereby ensuring survival.

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 MIRCO – BIOLOGY
What is Microbiology?
Microbiology is the study of organisms too small to be seen with the naked eye
What is microbiology all about?
Microbiology is about cells and how they work, especially the bacteria, a large group of cells of
enormous basic and practical. Microbiology is about diversity and evolution; about how different
kinds of microorganisms arose and why. It is about what microorganisms do in the world at
large, in soils and waters, in the human body, and in animals and plants.
One way or another, microorganisms affect all other life forms on Earth, and thus we may think
of microbiology as the foundation of the biological sciences. Microorganisms differ from the
cells of macro-organisms. The cells of macro-organisms such as plants and animals are unable to
live alone in nature and exist only as parts of multicellular structures, such as the organ systems
of animals or the leaves of leafy plants. By contrast, most microorganisms can carry out their life
processes of growth, energy generation, and reproduction independently of other cells.
The science of microbiology revolves around two themes:
(1) Understanding basic life processes:
➢ As a basic biological science, microbiology uses and develops tools for probing the
fundamental processes of life .
➢ Scientists have been able to gain a sophisticated understanding of the chemical and physical
basis of life from studies of microorganisms because microbial cells share many
characteristics with cells of multicellular organisms; indeed, all cells have much in common .
➢ Moreover, microbial cells can grow to extremely high densities in laboratory culture, making
them readily amenable to biochemical and genetic study .
➢ These features make microorganisms excellent models for understanding cellular processes in
multicellular organisms, including humans
(2) Applying our understanding of microbiology for the benefit of humankind.
As an applied biological science, microbiology deals with many important practical problems
in medicine, agriculture, and industry, For example:
❖ Most animal and plant diseases are caused by microorganisms .
❖ Microorganisms play major roles as agents of soil fertility and in supporting domestic
❖ animal production .
❖ Many large-scale industrial processes, such as the production of antibiotics and human

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❖ proteins, rely heavily on microorganisms. Thus, both the detrimental and the beneficial
❖ aspects of microorganisms affect the everyday lives of humans.
The Importance of Microorganisms
Microorganisms play central roles in both human activities and the web of life on Earth.
1. Although microorganisms are the smallest forms of life, collectively they constitute the largest
mass of living material on Earth and carry out many chemical processes necessary for other
organisms.
2. In the absence of microorganisms, other life forms would never have arisen and could not
now be sustained. Indeed, the very oxygen we breathe is the result of past microbial activity
3. Moreover, we will see how humans, plants, and animals are intimately tied to microbial
activities for the recycling of key nutrients and for degrading organic matter.
4. No other life forms are as important as microorganisms for the support and maintenance of
life on Earth.
5. Microorganisms existed on Earth for billions of years before plants and animals appeared, and
we will see in later chapters that the diversity of microbial life far exceeds that of the plants
and animals.
6. This huge diversity accounts for some of the spectacular properties of microorganisms. For
example, we will see how microorganisms can live in places unsuitable for other organisms
and how the diverse physiological capacities of microorganisms rank them as Earth’s premier
chemists.
THE “BRANCHES” OF MICROBIOLOGY;
1. Bacteriologists: study bacteria, there are medical, agricultural, biotechnological
specializations.
2. Mycologists: study fungi, there are medical, agricultural, biotechnological
specializations.
3. Protozoologists: study small “animal - like” single celled organisms such as amoeba, and
various disease-causing parasites.
4. Phycologists: study algae. The study of lichens can also be regarded as a sub discipline
of microbiology
5. Parasitologists- a term generally used to describe those who study small animals as
agents of disease (like some microscopic worms for instance) but also used to describe
those who study protozoan pathogens.

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 6. Immunology is often taught and researched in microbiology faculties
History of Microbiology
Robert Hooke (1635 - 1703) was a “polymath’ he made many scientific discoveries in the 17th
century, including making one of the first microscopes and also using a copy of one of
Leeuwenhoek’s microscopes to see and draw details of the structure of plant cells and some
microbes.
Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) made the first useful microscopes in the 19th century,
they were fiendishly difficult to make and use, they were essentially a lens held in a metal clip,
the lens was made from a tiny drop of molten glass, and he used such a microscope to see the
first microscopic cells.
Ilya Metchnikoff (1845-1916) was the first to realize that animals such as us had a defence
system against infection, what we now call the immune system
Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), searched for the “magic bullet” against infectious disease, he
synthesized the first successful (but very toxic) drug against a disease – syphilis, it was an
arsenic derivative he called salvarsan.
Gerhardt Domagk (1895-1964) developed the first useful drug against a variety of bacterial
infections, the first sulfa drug –prontosil. Ironically, he died of an infection!
Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) and Selman Waksman (1888-1973) discovered the first
relatively safe and effective antibiotics (of natural origin) – isolated from microorganisms.
Fleming discovered penicillin, Waksman discovered streptomycin and a number of other
antibiotics.
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) was a chemist, he made many great discoveries, and he performed a
crucial experiment using a swan necked flask that proved that new life did not just spontaneously
arise from substances like rotting meat. For centuries before Pasteur, many people believed in
Spontaneous Generation- the belief that life is generated spontaneously from dead organic
matter.
Robert Koch (1843-1910) and his colleagues made many important discoveries in microbiology,
Koch initiated the use of the seaweed polysaccharide gel called agar as a stable material for the
formation of a gel on which separated and pure (single species) colonies of bacteria and fungi
could be grown (actually it was the wife of a colleague of his who suggested it), this was a
critical advance, and he also stated and used his Koch’s postulates (discussed later) required to
prove that a given organism caused a given disease.

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 Stelluti, Hooke, Van Leeuwenhoek, first people to observe and describe microorganisms
Spontaneous Generation: Living organisms could develop from non-living matter
Louis Pasteur: disproving the theory of spontaneous generation
Microbiology Tools
1. Light Microscope can allow you to see microscopic but not small as viruses
2. Culturing: agar plates, liquid mediums etc.
3. DNA sequencing: sequencing genes, genomes, comparing, identifying virulence or
other genes.

GENETIC

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