PADMASHREE INSTITUTE OF

MANAGEMENT AND SCIENCE

SEMINAR - 01

Prepared by:
Group-01 Guided by:
BSc Biochemistry Manjubhargavi.O.J
Department of Biochemistry
PIMS, Bengaluru PIMS, Bengaluru
 Unit : 01

Scope of biochemistry and units of

measurements
topics

1. Origin of life
2. Types of organism
3. Prokaryotes
4. Eukaryotes
5. Unicellular
6. Multicellular
7. Compartmentation of functions in lower and higher organisms
 Origin of life
 The origin of life has pre-occupied humans since the dawn of civilization
and has led to a wide range of creation myths including superhuman
agents.
 There are several theories which provide their own explanation on the
possible mechanism of origin of life.
1. Theory of special creation: God created the life on earth.
2. Panspermia: The theory that life on earth originated from
microorganisms in outer space and able to initiate life on reaching a
suitable environment.
3. Spontaneous generation: This theory is also known as abiogenesis. The
hypothetical process by which living organisms develop from non-living
matter.
4. Biogenesis: The hypothesis that living matter arises only from other
living matter,
5. Chemical evolution: Pre-biological changes slowly transform simple
atoms and molecules into the more complex chemicals needed to
produce life.
• This is the most widely accepted theory explaining the origin of life.
• Conditions of pre-biotic earth leads towards the gradual chemical
evolution towards life.
• In 1950, Miller and Urey provided experimental evidence in support of
this theory. They exposed CH4 N2 in a flask to electrical discharge and
produced organic molecules including many essential amino acids.
 TYPES OF ORGANISM
1. Monera: Kingdom Monera belongs to the prokaryote family. The
organisms belonging to this kingdom do not contain a true nucleus.
These are the oldest known micro-organisms on earth. The DNA is not
enclosed within the nucleus. Monera are either autotrophs or
heterotrophs. Example: Bacteria
2. Protista: They are simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants
nor animals or fungi. Protists are unicellular in nature but can also be
found as a colony of cells. Most of protists live in water, damp
terrestrial environments or even as parasites. Example: Euglena.
3. Kingdom Fungi: Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include
microorganisms such as yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. They are
heterotrophic in nature and are found in moist and warm conditions.
Example: Yeast
4. Kingdom Plantae: Includes organisms that range in size from mosses
to giant trees. All plants are multicellular and eukaryotic. They are
further divided into five sub-groups namely Thallophyta, Bryophyta,
Pteridophya, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms.
5. Kingdom Animalia: Constitutes all animals. This is the largest
kingdom. Like plants, they do not possess chlorophyll or a cell wall.
Therefore, members of the animal kingdom exhibit a heterotrophic
mode of nutrition.
 PROKARYOTE
• A prokaryote is a single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and other
membrane bound organelles,
• Prokaryotes are divided into two distinct groups: Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria.
• Prokaryotes come in various shapes, but many fall into three categories:
Cocci(spherical), Bacilli(rod-shaped), spirilli (spiral-shaped) and
Vibrio(comma-shaped).

• Size: Typical prokaryotic cells ranges from 0.1 to 5.0 micrometers in

diameter.
Organization of prokaryotic cell :
• The prokaryotic cell is bound by cell wall even with the presence of
plasma membrane.
• The genome is composed of a single, double-stranded DNA molecule in
the form of a loop or circle.
• The region in the cell containing genetic material is called a nucleoid
(*prokaryotes do not have a separate membrane-bound nucleus)
• The other organ are ribosome and inclusion bodies.
• Locomotory organ is flagella.
 EUKARYOTE
• Cell size is larger than prokaryotes.
• A eukaryotic cell has a nuclear membrane.
• It has mitochondria, golgi bodies, cell wall.
• It also contains locomotory organs such as cilia and flagella.
• The nucleus has a DNA that carries all the genetic information.
• Nucleus is present.
• Centrioles and present in animal cells.
• It has larger ribosomes.
• It contains more than one chromosome.
• Mitochondria is present.
• Cell division occur by mitotic or meiotic division
• Plastids are present in plant cell.
• Nuclear region is well defined.
 UNICELLULAR

• Also known as single-celled organism, that consists of a single cell.

• It cannot be seen without a microscope.
• A single cell perform all the function.
• Less amount of food and energy is required.
Example: Amoeba , Yeast.
 Multicellular

• It is composed of more than one cell.

• Most of multicellular organism can be seen with naked eyes.
• Functions are performed through collection of cell.
• Large amount of food and energy is required.
Example: Animal cell
 COMPARTMENTATION AND FUNCTION IN
HIGHER AND LOWER ORGANISM
• In lower organisms, like bacteria, compartmentation is less pronounced
compared to higher organisms. They have fewer specialized structure and
organelles.
• In higher organisms, compartmentation is more complex, with specialised
organs and systems carrying out specific functions. This allows in greater
efficiency and coordination in performing various tasks.
• Compartmentation increase the efficiencies of many subcellular process
by concentrating the required compartments to a confined space within
the cell.
• Compartmentation in organisms creates the ability to carry out catabolic
and anabolic reactions at same time.
• In all eukaryotic cells compartmentation of metabolism within organelles
concentrates enzymes and metabolism and also separates them as a mean
of controlling reaction.
• Prokaryotic cells do not need to be compartmentalized because they only
have one job per cell type.
• If prokaryotic cell needs to do more than one job they can use lipids and
proteins to bind organelles like structure in their cytoplasm.
• In eukaryotic cells they have many membrane bound organelles in the
cytoplasm.
• Each organelles has its own function but looks as a separate unit.
 Common physiological events of organisms
Characteristics
Defining features
1. Shown by all living organisms
2. No exceptions
3. Not shown non-living organisms
Charactearistic feature
4. Shown by living organisms
5. There are some exceptions in living organisms
6. Not shown by non living organisms
Or
7. Shown by living organisms
8. There are no exceptions in living organisms
9. Shown by non living organisms
 Physiological events
Growth
Growth is a increase in mass and size of the body.
Growth is permanent and irreversible in multicellular organisms.
Growth and Reproduction are mutually exclusive.
Growth is a characteristic feature. As non living things also grow by
accumulation of matrials .

Reproduction
Reproduction is a biological process Involves in production of offspring of
their own kind.
Reproduction is exclusively for living organisms it is not applicable for
non-living organisms.
It is a characteristic feaure
3.Cellular organisaton
Cells-----tissues-----organs-----organ system-----organisms
It is shown by only living organisms
It is a defining feature
4.consciousness
It is shown by only living organisms
It is a defIt is ability to respond towards external stimuli
ining feature
But self-conscious (awareness about themselves) is a
characteristic feature of humans
5.Locomotion
State of change in place of body is called locomotion
Plants just show tropic movement but animals show location
It is a characteristic feature

6.Metabolism
Metabolism is a sum of total chemical reactions taking place in living organisms
Metabolism is divided into anabolism(photosynthesis) and catabolism(respiration)
It is a defining feature
Any metabolic pathway requires energy and enzymes
Chemical compositon of living organisms
All living organisms is composed of the same particles like atoms,ions and molecules
as the non living and laws of physics is applicable to both of them
In the human organisms there are 70 elements of periodic table which of 4 groups:
1. Macrobiogenic elements: O,C,N,H,Ca etc
2. Oligobiogenic elements: Na,K,Cl,S,Mg,Fe.
3. Microbiogenic elements:Zn,Mn,Co,Cu,F,B,I.
4. Ultramicrobiogenic elements:li,Al,Si,Cd,Cr,Ni.
They are consititutes of organic and inorganic compounds.Living organisms
composed of biomolecules like Water, minerals ,proteiens,
Nucleic acid, final products metabolic pathway (monosaccharides, amino acids,lipids)
Subcellular organelles
Subcellular organelles are the sturucte that has one or more specific jobs to
perform in the cell,much like organ does in the body
Each organelle plays a specific function
1. Nucleus : storage of genetic material
2. Mitochondria: energy production (power house of the cell)
3. Rough endoplasmic reticulum: protein production, in particular export
out of the cell
4. Golgi apparatuses: protein modification and export
5. Peroxisome:lipid destruction and oxidative enzymes
6. Lysosomes: protein destruction
7. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: lipid production and detoxification
The system of units which is present internationally accepted for for measurement is
the system international d’units (french for international system of units) abbreviated
as sl .
S l units

Sl units are of two kindS

Fundamental units:
Independent on anyother unit
They can’t be future reduced to simpler units
There are 7 basic units
Eg:M,s,kg
2. Derived units
Depend on fundamental unit
Eg: motion,force,matter
They can be further reduced
7 basic units
 An Overview Of Metric System

Metric System is basically a system used

for measuring distance , length , volume ,
weight and temperature . It is based on
three basic units with which we can
measure almost everything in the world .
METERS

Meters measure length or distance

One millimeter is about the thickness of dime
One centimeter is about the width of a large paper clip
 GRAM
Grams are used to measure mass or the weight of an
object .
A milligram weighs about as much as a grain of salt .
Atomic weight
The total weight of an atom is called the atomic weight. It
is approximately equal to the number of protons and
neutrons, with a little extra added by the electrons.
Example: Carbon
Atomic weight: 12.0107
Molecular weight
The sum of atomic masses of all atoms in a
molecule is known as molecular weight.
Example: NaCl has a molecular weight of
58.5 a.m.u. this is composed of a single
molecule of NaCl.
Equivalent weight
The ratio of atomic weight or molecular weight of compound to its valence is called
equivalent weight
Equivalent weight= Molecular or atomic weight
. Valence
Basicity of acid
Basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions which can be
produced by one molecule of acid.

Acidity of base
The acidity of bases is the number of hydroxyl ions that the basic
molecule can produce in the aqueous solution.
Avogadro’s number

The number of units in one mole of any substance is called

Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant. It is equal to
6.022140857×1023
TOPICS
1. Concentration
2. Types of Concentration
3. Mole to molar conversion
4. Oxidation Number
5. Significance of oxidation number
6. Density
7. Specific Gravity
CONCENTRATION
 Concentration is the number of moles per
unit of volume of the final solution.
 For Example: Syrup is a typical example of a
concentrated solution that consists of sugar
dissolved in boiling water.
 They are divided into four types. They are as
follows:-
 Mass Concentration
 MASS CONCENTRATION
 The mass concentration is defined
as the mass of a constituent divided
by the volume of the mixture V.
 The SI unit is kg/m3 (equal to g/L).
MOLAR CONCENTRATION
 The molar concentration is defined as the
number of constituent divided by the volume
of mixture.
 The SI unit is mol/m3
NUMBER CONCENTRATION
 The number concentration is defined as the
number of entities of a constituent in a
mixture divided by the volume of the
mixture V.
 The SI unit is 1/m3
VOLUME CONCENTRATION
 The volume concentration is defined as the
volume of a constituent divided by the
volume of the mixture V.
 The SI unit is I
MOLE TO MOLAR CONVERSION

 First we must calculate the number of moles

in the solution by rearranging the equation.
 No of moles= Molarity(M) x Volume(L)
0.5x2=1 mol
 For NaCl the molar mass is 58.44g/mol. Now
we can use the rearranged equation.
Mass(g)= No of moles(mol) x Molar
mass(g/mol)
OXIDATION NUMBER
 The number that is allocated to elements in
a chemical combination.
 The oxidation number is basically the count
of electrons that atoms in a molecule can
share, lose or gain while forming chemical
bonds with other atoms of a different
element.
SIGNIFICANCE OF OXIDATION
NUMBER
 Oxidation number helps to identify the
nature of the compound.
 It show how reactions are taking place.
 It also shows the valency of a compound
DENSITY
 Density is mass of unit volume of a material substance.
 Density=Mass/Volume
 Though the SI unit of density is kg/m³, for convenience we
use g/cm³ for solids, g/ml for liquids, and g/L for gases.
 The application of density is determining whether an
object will float on water or not. The floating of ships and
diving of submarines are due to their density difference.
 The knowledge of the densities of two substances helps
you in separation techniques.
 For example: The separation of oil from water. If there is
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 Specific Gravity or relative gravity is a
dimensionless quantity that is defined as the ratio of
the density of a substance to the density of the water
at a specified temperature and is expressed as:
 Specific gravity = Density of the object/Density of
water
 Specific gravity allow the user to determine if the test
fluid will be heavier or lighter than the standard fluid.
 The gem purity can be determined by comparing its
specific gravity with the already measured high purity
 Molarity
Molarity of solution is a weight by volume relationship to represent its
strength and is defined as 'the number of moles of solute dissolved in
one liter of solution.

• Example of molarity
1.25mol/L or 1.25M solution of KOH means
that 1.25mol of KOH has been dissolved in one liter (or one cubic
decimetre) of solvent.
 Molality
Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute per
kilogram (kg) of the solvent.

• Example of molality
1mol/kg or 1m solution of KCl means that 1mol(74.5g) of KCl is
dissolved in 1kg of water.
 Normality
It is the measure of concentration equal to the gram equivalent mass of a substance per
liter of solution.

• Example of normality
1N HCl solution is one Molar HCl solution because only 1 mole of H+ is formed
per mole of HCl.
 Mole Fraction
The mole fraction or molar fraction (xi) is defined as the amount of a
constituent (expressed in moles), n i, divided by the total amount of all
constituents in a mixture (also expressed in moles), n tot:

The sum of all the mole fractions is equal to 1:

 Atomic Theory
• Dalton’s atomic theory was a scientific theory on the nature of matter
put forward by the English physicist and chemist John Dalton in the
year 1808. It stated that all matter was made up of small, indivisible
particles known as ‘atoms’.

• All substances, according to Dalton’s atomic theory, are made up of

atoms, which are indivisible and indestructible building units. While
an element’s atoms were all the same size and mass, various
elements possessed atoms of varying sizes and masses.
 Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

• All atoms of a specific element are identical in mass, size, and other properties.
However, atoms of different element exhibit different properties and vary in mass and
size.

• Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. Furthermore, atoms cannot be divided
into smaller particles.

• Atoms of different elements can combine with each other in fixed whole-number ratios
in order to form compounds.

• Atoms can be rearranged, combined, or separated in chemical reactions.

 Limitations of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• It does not account for subatomic particles: Dalton’s atomic theory stated that
atoms were indivisible. However, the discovery of subatomic particles (such as
protons, electrons, and neutrons) disproved this postulate.
• It does not account for isotopes: As per Dalton’s atomic theory, all atoms of an
element have identical masses and densities. However, different isotopes of
elements have different atomic masses (Example: hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium).
• It does not account for isobars: This theory states that the masses of the atoms of
two different elements must differ. However, it is possible for two different elements
to share the same mass number. Such atoms are called isobars (Example: 40Ar and
40Ca).
• Elements need not combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form compounds:
Certain complex organic compounds do not feature simple ratios of constituent
atoms. Example: sugar/sucrose (C11H22O11).
• The theory does not account for allotropes: The differences in the properties of
diamond and graphite, both of which contain only carbon, cannot be explained by
 Merits of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
• The law of multiple proportions, the law of conservation of mass, and
the law of constant proportions are not violated by Dalton’s atomic
theory.
• The theory provides a basis to differentiate between elements and
compounds.
 Dalton’s Law
Dalton’s law of partial pressures is a gas law which states that the total
pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures exerted by each individual gas in the mixture.

For example, the total pressure exerted by a mixture of two gases A and B is equal
to the sum of the individual partial pressures exerted by gas A and gas B (as
illustrated below).
 Dalton’s Law Formula

Dalton’s law of partial pressures can be mathematically expressed as

follows:

• Where,
• Ptotal is the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases
• P1, P2,…, Pn are the partial pressures of the gases 1, 2,…, ‘n’ in the
mixture of ‘n’ gases