Functional Anatomy and Physiology

Introduction to functional anatomy and Physiology

(Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 13th Edition)

Slide created by Nawal Rabbani

 Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy is defined as the science of body structures and relationships
among them.

Physiology is the science of body functions – how the body parts work

Because structure and function are so closely related, you will learn
about the human body by studying its anatomy and physiology
together.
 Subspecialties of Anatomy
 Embryology: The study of first eight weeks of development after fertilization of a human
egg

 Developmental Biology: The study of complete development of an individual from

fertilization to death

 Cell Biology: The study of cellular structure and functions

 Histology: The study of microscopic structure of tissues

 Gross Anatomy: The study of structures that can be examined without a microscope.
 Subspecialties of Anatomy
 Systemic Anatomy: The study of structures of a specific system of the body such as the nervous
or respiratory system.

 Regional Anatomy: The study of specific regions of the body such as the head or chest

 Surface Anatomy: The study of surface markings of the body to understand internal anatomy
through visualization and palpation (gentle touch)

 Radiographic Anatomy: The study of body structures that can be visualized with X-Rays

 Pathological Anatomy: The study of structural changes associated with disease

 Subspecialties of Physiology
 Neurophysiology: The study of functional properties of nerve cells

 Endocrinology: The study of hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and how they
control body functions

 Cardiovascular Physiology: The study of functions of the heart and blood vessels

 Immunology: The body’s defense against disease-causing agents

 Subspecialties of Physiology
 Respiratory Physiology: The study of functions of the air passageways and lungs

 Renal Physiology: The study of functions of kidneys

 Exercise Physiology: The study of changes in cell and organ functions due to muscular
activity

 Pathophysiology: The study of functional changes associated with disease and aging
 Bones and Joints
 Bone: It is a complex and dynamic living tissue that provides support and protection to the body
and is also involved in producing blood cells and storing minerals.
 Example: Humerus, Scapula, Femur, Tibia..etc

 Compact Bone Tissue: Outer hard covering of bone

 Spongy Bone Tissue: Inner soft tissue containing red-bone marrow

 Joint: The point of contact between two bones, between bones and cartilage or between bone and
teeth is called joint.
 Example: Shoulder joint, Elbow joint, Hip Joint, Knee joint….etc
 Muscles

 Muscle: A contractile form of tissue which animals use to produce movement. It also
stabilizes body position, regulate organ volume, generate heat, and propels fluids and food
matter through various body systems.

 Types of Muscular Tissue:

1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue (Found in skeletal muscles to move bones)
2. Caridac Muscle Tissue (Found in heart wall to contract heart)
3. Smooth Muscle Tissue (Found in hollow internal structures such as blood vessels and
airways)
 Cartilage
 Cartilage: A type of dense, non-vascular connective tissue, usually found at the end of
joints, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, in the throat and between intervertebral discs

 Types of cartilage:
1. Hyaline cartilage (Most widespread type and resembles glass)
2. Fibrous cartilage (Found in Intervertebral Discs and Pubic Symphysis)
3. Elastic cartilage (Found in external ear and Epiglottis)
 Body Structure
 There are six levels of structural organization and body systems which are as follows:
1. Chemical Level:
It includes atoms and molecules which participate in chemical reactions. Some essential atoms
for maintaining life are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Calcium and Sulphur.

2. Cellular Level:
Molecules combine to form cell which is the structural and functional unit of an organism. It
includes Muscle cells, Nerve cells and Epithelial cells.

3. Tissue Level:
Tissues are group of cells and materials surrounding them that work together to perform a
particular function. It includes Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Muscular tissue and Nervous tissue.
 Body Structure

4. Organ Level:
Two or more different types of tissues join together to form organs. They have specific functions and have
recognizable shapes. Example: Stomach, Skin, Bones, Heart, Liver, Lungs and Brain.

5. System Level:
A system consists of related organs with a common function. It is also known as organ system level.
Example: Digestive system includes organs such as mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas.

6. Organism Level:
Any living individual is called an organism. All the parts of the human body functioning together constitute
the total organism
 Digestive System

The organs involved in the breakdown of food are collectively known as digestive system. It
involves:

1. Oral Cavity:
The mouth is also referred as oral cavity, it is formed by the cheeks, hard and soft palates, and tongue.
It is involved in mastication (mechanical digestion) and chemical digestion with the help of enzymes.

2. Stomach:
It is a J-shaped enlargement of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) directly inferior to the diaphragm in the
abdomen. It connects esophagus with small intestine and is involved in digestion and storage of food
 Digestive System

3. Small Intestine:
A long tube where most digestion and absorption of nutrients occur is called the
small intestine. It is about 2.5cm (1 inch) in diameter and 3m (10 ft) long in a living person and
about 6.5m (21 ft) long in a cadaver due to loss of smooth muscle tone after death. It is divided
into three parts:
1. Duodenum(25cm long)
2. Jejunum (1m long)
3. Ileum (2m long) Ileocolic Sphincter at the end

It is involved in digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. It absorbs

monosaccharides, amino acids, dipeptides, tripeptides, lipids, vitamins and water
 Digestive System

4. Large Intestine:
It extends from ileum to the anus and is about 1.5m (5ft) long. It is involved in the
completion of absorption, production of certain vitamins, formation of feces and expulsion of
feces from the body. It has four major regions:

1. Cecum (Appendix is attached to it)

2. Colon (Ascending, Transverse & Descending)
3. Rectum (Storage of feces)
4. Anal Canal (Int. Sphincter Smooth Muscle, Ext. Sphincter Skeletal Muscle)
 Urinary System
 The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one urinary bladder and on urethra.

 After the kidneys filter blood plasma, they return most of the water and solutes to the
bloodstream.

 The remaining water and solutes constitute urine, which passes through the ureters and is
stored in the urinary bladder until it is excreted from the body through the urethra.

 The branch of medicine that deals with the male and female urinary systems and the male
reproductive system is called urology
 Urinary System

1. Kidneys:
The paired kidneys are reddish, bean-shaped organs located just above the waist
between the peritoneum and the posterior wall of the abdomen.
 A typical kidney is about 10-12cm long, 5-7cm wide and 3cm thick about the size of a bath
soap and has a mass of 135-150g.

 Internally a kidney has two distinct regions

1. Renal cortex (Superficial light-red area)
2. Renal Medulla (Deep reddish-brown area)
 Urinary System

Nephron:
It is the functional unit of kidneys. A kidney has about 1 million nephrons.
It has two parts:
1. Renal Corpuscle (where blood is filtered)
2. Renal Tubule (into which the filtered fluid passes)

Renal Corpuscle:
It has further two parts:
3. Glomerulus (capillary network)
4. Bowman’s Capsule (a double walled epithelial cup that surrounds glomerulus)
 Urinary System

Renal Tubule:
It has further three parts:
1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (lies in renal cortex)
2. Loop of Henle (extends into renal medulla, makes a hairpin turn and returns to renal
cortex)
3. Distal Convoluted Tubule (lies in renal cortex)

The distal convoluted tubules of several nephrons empty into a single collecting duct, which in
turn drain all the filtrate into ureters
 Urinary System

2. Ureter:
 Each of the two ureters transport urine from renal pelvis into urinary bladder.
 The ureters are 25–30 cm (10–12 inch) long and are thick walled.
 Even though there is no anatomical valve at the opening of each ureter into the urinary bladder, a
physiological one is quite effective.

3. Urinary Bladder:
 It is a hollow, distensible muscular organ situated in the pelvic cavity posterior to the pubic symphysis. In
males, it is directly anterior to the rectum; in females, it is anterior to the vagina and inferior to the uterus.
 Urinary bladder capacity averages 700–800 mL
 It is smaller in females because the uterus occupies the space just superior to the urinary bladder.
 Urinary System

4. Urethra:
 The urethra is a small tube leading from the internal urethral orifice in the floor of the
urinary bladder to the exterior of the body.
 In both males and females, the urethra is the terminal portion of the urinary system and the
passageway for discharging urine from the body.
 In males, it discharges semen (fluid that contains sperm) as well.
 In females, the opening of the urethra to the exterior, the external urethral orifice, is located
between the clitoris and the vaginal opening