Functional Anatomy and Physiology

Cardio-vascular system & Respiratory system

(Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 13th Edition)

Slide created by Nawal Rabbani

 Cardio-vascular system
The cardio-vascular system consists of blood, heart and blood vessels
1. Heart:
• It is a muscular organ that pumps blood through the body
• It is relatively small, roughly the same size as your closed fist
• It weighs about 250g in adult females and 300g in adult males
• Heart has four chambers. It includes two atria and two ventricles
• Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood and pumps it to the right ventricle
• Left atrium receives oxygenated blood and pumps it to the left ventricle
• Left ventricle is slightly larger in size than the right ventricle
 Cardio-vascular system
2. Pericardium:
• The membrane that surrounds and protects the heart is called pericardium
• It consists of two parts :
i. Fibrous pericardium (superficial bag-like structure attached to diaphragm)
ii. Serous pericardium (provides protection and prevent over-stretching of heart)

Serous pericardium further has outer “parietal layer” and inner “visceral layer”. Between these
two layers is a thin film of lubricating serous fluid known as pericardial fluid and the space
containing this fluid is called pericardial cavity.
 Cardio-vascular system
3. Arteries:
• An efferent blood vessel from the heart, conveying blood away from the heart regardless of
oxygenation status (pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood) is called artery.
• Elastic arteries are the largest arteries in the body ranging from aorta and pulmonary trunk to
the finger-sized branches of aorta.
• Muscular arteries are medium-sized and they are capable of greater vasoconstriction and
vasodilation to adjust the rate of blood flow.
• Most tissues of the body receive blood from more than one artery, so the union of the
branches of two or more arteries supplying the same body region is called anastomosis.
 Cardio-vascular system

Arterioles:
• These are the small branches of an artery, especially the one that connects with capillaries.
• They play a key role in regulating blood flow from arteries into capillaries by regulating
resistance, hence also known as resistance vessels.
• Vasoconstriction reduces the diameter of the vessels thereby increasing the friction between
the blood and inner walls of the vessel which results in increased resistance
• Vasodilation is contrary to vasoconstriction so it decreases the resistance due to increase in
the diameter of blood vessels.
 Cardio-vascular system

Capillaries:
• The smallest blood vessels that connect the arterial outflow to the venous return are called
capillaries.
• Precapillary sphincters control the flow of blood
• The primary function of capillaries is the exchange of substances between the blood and
interstitial fluid. Because of this the thin-walled vessels are referred to as exchange vessels
• The oxygenated blood exchanges nutrients and oxygen with the tissues and the
deoxygenated blood then flows into venules
 Cardio-vascular system

Capillaries:
• They are found near almost every cell in the body, but their number varies with the
metabolic activity of the tissue they serve:
• Brain, Liver, Kidneys and the nervous system have extensive capillary networks.
• Tendons and Ligaments have fewer capillaries.
• Cornea and lens of the eye have no capillaries at all.
 Cardio-vascular system

4. Venules:
• They have thin-walls and they don’t maintain their shape
• They drain blood from capillaries into veins to return deoxygenated blood towards the heart
• They are thicker than capillaries and therefore no exchange of nutrients takes place
• They are larger than capillaries in diameter so they can accommodate large volume of blood.
• Many venules merge together and drain deoxygenated blood in the vein
 Cardio-vascular system

5. Veins:
• The blood vessel that transports blood from the body back to heart is called vein
• They are distensible enough to adapt to variations in the volume and pressure of blood
passing through them, but are not designed to withstand high pressure.
• The pumping action of heart is a major factor in moving venous blood back to the heart
• The contraction of lower limbs also helps boost venous return to the heart
• Veins have valves that prevent the backflow of blood
• The average blood pressure in veins is considerably lower than in arteries
Major Arteries and Veins
 Respiratory System

• The respiratory system contributes to homeostasis by providing for the exchange of gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the atmospheric air, blood and tissue cells.
• It also helps to adjust the pH of body fluids

Division of Respiratory System:

Structurally, the respiratory system consists of two parts:
1. Upper Respiratory System (Nose, Nasal Cavity, Pharynx and associated structures)
2. Lower Respiratory System (Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs and Diaphragm)
 Respiratory System

We will discuss only main parts of upper and lower respiratory system.

1. Pharynx:
• Pharynx or throat, is a funnel-shaped tube about 13cm (5 inch) long that starts at the internal
nares (internal nostrils) and extends to the level of the cricoid cartilage (the most inferior
cartilage of the larynx)
• Its wall is composed of skeletal muscles and is lined with mucous membrane.
• It serves as a passage way for air and food
• Contraction of skeletal muscles assists in deglutition (swallowing)
 Respiratory System

Pharynx:
• It provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds and houses the tonsils which participate
in immunological reactions against foreign invaders

• It can be divided into three anatomical regions:

1. Nasopharynx (Equalizes pressure between pharynx and middle ear)
2. Oropharynx (Common passageway for air, food and drink/water)
3. Laryngopharynx/Hypopharynx (Both respiratory and digestive pathway)
 Respiratory System

2. Larynx:
• The larynx/voice box, is a short passageway that connects the pharynx with the trachea
• The cavity of larynx is the space that extends from the entrance into the larynx down to the
inferior border of cricoid cartilage
• The portion of the cavity of larynx above the vocal folds is called vestibule of larynx
• The thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple) consists of two fused plates of hyaline cartilage that
form the anterior wall of the larynx and give it a triangular shape. It is present in both males
and females, but is usually larger in males due to the influence of male sex hormones on its
growth during puberty
• The ligament that connects the thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone is called thyrohyoid
membrane
 Respiratory System

Larynx:
• Epiglottis is a large, leaf-shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is covered with epithelium
• During swallowing pharynx and larynx rise and the elevation of larynx causes the epiglottis
to move down and form a lid over the glottis, closing it off
• It diverts liquids and foods into esophagus and keeps them out of airways
• When small particles of dust, smoke, food or liquid pass into the larynx, a cough reflex
occurs, usually expelling the material
• The cricoid cartilage is ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx
• The cricoid cartilage is the landmark for making an emergency airway called tracheotomy
 Respiratory System

3. Trachea:
• Trachea or Windpipe, is a tubular passageway for air. It is located anterior to esophagus
• There are 16-20 incomplete, horizontal rings of hyaline cartilage resemble the letter C, are
stacked one above another, and are connected together by dense connective tissue
• The open part of each C-shaped cartilage ring faces posteriorly toward the esophagus
• These cartilage rings prevent collapsing of tracheal wall (especially during inhalation)
• If during an accident the tracheal wall collapses then tracheotomy/tracheostomy (a skin
incision is followed by a short longitudinal incision into the trachea below the cricoid
cartilage) is performed and then intubation (insertion of tracheal tube to create an emergency
air passageway) is performed
 Respiratory System

4. Bronchi:
• The primary branches of trachea, leading directly into the lungs are called bronchi
• The right primary bronchus is more vertical, shorter and wider than the left. Thus, an
aspirated object is more likely to enter and lodge in the right primary bronchus
• On entering the lungs, the primary bronchi divides into smaller secondary bronchi, one
for each lobe of the lung (Right lung has 3 lobes & Left lung has 2 lobes)
• The secondary bronchi continue to branch, forming still smaller bronchi, called tertiary
bronchi that divide into bronchioles
 Respiratory System

Bronchi:
• Bronchioles in turn branch repeatedly, and the smallest ones branch into even smaller tubes
called terminal bronchioles
• The terminal bronchioles represent the end of the conducting zone of the respiratory system
• The extensive branching from the trachea through the terminal bronchioles resembles an
inverted tree and is commonly referred to as the bronchial tree
 Respiratory System

5. Lungs:
• The lungs are paired cone-shaped organs in thoracic cavity. They are separated from each
other by the heart and other structures of the mediastinum, which divides the thoracic cavity
into two anatomically distinct chambers.
• As a result, if trauma causes one lung to collapse, the other may remain expanded
• Each lung is enclosed and protected by a double-layered serous membrane called the pleural
membrane
• The superficial layer, called the parietal pleura, lines the wall of the thoracic cavity
• The deep layer, the visceral pleura, covers the lungs themselves
 Respiratory System

Lungs:
• Between these two layers is a small space, the pleural cavity, which contains a small
amount of lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes called pleural fluid
• The pleural fluid reduces friction between the membranes, allowing them to slide easily over
one another during breathing
• Inflammation of the pleural membrane, called pleurisy or pleuritis, may in its early stages
cause pain due to friction the parietal and visceral layers of the pleura
• If the inflammation persists, excess fluid accumulates in the pleural space, a condition
known as pleural effusion.
 Respiratory System

Lungs:
• Due to the space occupied by the heart, the left lung is about 10% smaller than the right lung
• Lungs have lobular structure, the right lung has 3 lobes and the left lung has 2 lobes
• Lungs have alveolar sacs which contain two or more alveoli (functional unit of the lungs),
where exchange of gases takes place

• Air moves in this direction:

Terminal bronchioles  Respiratory bronchioles  Alveolar ducts  Alveolar Sacs  Alveoli
 Respiratory System

6. Diaphragm:
• It is a dome-shaped skeletal muscle that forms the floor of the thoracic cavity
• During inhalation, contraction of diaphragm causes it to flatten, lowering its dome. This
increases the vertical diameter of the thoracic cavity
• During exhalation, diaphragm relaxes and its dome moves superiorly owing to its elasticity.
This decreases the vertical diameter of the thoracic cavity
 Respiratory System

Respiratory Mechanics:
 Respiratory System

Gas Transport and Exchange Mechanism:

 Respiratory System

Control of Respiration:
 Respiratory System

Respiratory capacities and Volumes:

 Respiratory System

Non Respiratory Function of Lungs: