Physiology-1

Department of Physiotherapy
BY
Dr.Laraib jameel Rph
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 Basic and cell physiology
• Physiology: it is the branch of biology that deals with normal function
of living organism and their parts.
• Examples:
1. Growth & development
2. Synthesis and distribution of protein and other nutrients
3. Absorption & processing of nutrients (CHOLESTEROL, FATS)
4. Function of different tissues, organs & other anatomic structures.
Functional Organization of human body
Functional Organization of human body
• Physiology is the study of human body function as, how body works from
cell to tissue, tissue to organ, organ to organ system and from organ to
human organization.
1. Chemicals: it include atom (smallest unit of ordinary matter, every solid,
liquid, gas or plasma is composed of atom) and molecule (it is group of
two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds)
2. Cell: it is structural, functional and biological unit of body. A cell is the
smallest unit of life. are often called the "building blocks of life. Human
body contains 100 trillion of cells
3. Tissue: Tissues are groups of cells that have a similar structure and act
together to perform a specific function. There are four different types
of tissues that makes human body: connective, muscle, nervous, and
epithelial.
• Epithelial tissue is made up of cells that lines inner and outer body surfaces, creates
protective boundaries and is involved in the diffusion of ions and molecules. (ex-skin)
• Connective tissue is the most abundant tissue type in the body. In general, connective
tissue consists of cells and an extracellular matrix. The extracellular matrix is made up of
a ground substance and protein fibers. (ex- bone & cartilage)
• Muscle tissue Muscle tissue is both extensible and elastic. The cells are contractile and
are highly organized into fiber bundles.
• Muscle is classified according to the appearance of the contractile cells, into three
types: skeletal, cardiac and smooth. The first two types have a striated appearance due
to the parallel orientation of the fiber bundle. (muscle attached to bone enable the body
to move) ex- smooth muscle(slow movement), cardiac muscle(involuntary), skeletal
muscle (voluntary)
• Nervous tissue is made up of neurons that carries electrical message, transmits and
integrates information through the central and peripheral nervous systems.
 Structure of neuron
• Neurons tend to have a large cell body, or soma, and long projections used in
transmitting information. These projections are referred to as axons or dendrites.

• Axons send impulses away from the soma and dendrites carry incoming information.
• Groups of neurons are referred to as ganglia in the peripheral nervous system and
as nuclei in the central nervous system.
Functional Organization of human body
4- Organ: An organ is a collection of tissues joined in a structural unit to
serve a common function.
Although organs consist of multiple tissue types, many organs are
composed of the main tissue that is associated with the organ’s major
function and other tissues that play supporting roles. The main tissue may
be unique to that specific organ.
For example, the main tissue of the heart is cardiac muscle, which performs
the heart’s major function of pumping blood and is found only in the heart.
The heart also includes nervous and connective tissues that are required for
it to perform its major function.
For example, nervous tissues control the beating of the heart, and
connective tissues make up heart valves that keep blood flowing in just one
direction through the heart.
 Functional Organization of human body
• 5- Organ system: Functionally related organs often cooperate to form whole organ
systems.
• There are 11 human organ system:
1- Integumentary System
• Organs of the integumentary system include the skin, hair, and nails. The skin is the
largest organ in the body. It encloses and protects the body and is the site of many
sensory receptors. The skin is the body’s first defense against pathogens, and it also
helps regulate body temperature and eliminate wastes in sweat.
2- Skeletal System
• The skeletal system consists of bones, joints, teeth. The bones of the skeletal system are
connected by tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. Functions of the skeletal system include
supporting the body and giving it shape. Along with the muscular system, the skeletal
system enables the body to move. The bones of the skeletal system also protect internal
organs, store calcium, and produce red and white blood cells.
3- Muscular System
• The muscular system consists of different types of muscles, including skeletal muscles,
which are attached to bones by tendons and allow for voluntary movements of the body.
• Smooth muscle tissues control the involuntary movements of internal organs, such as the
organs of the digestive system, allowing food to move through the system. Smooth
muscles in blood vessels allow vasoconstriction and vasodilation and thereby help
regulate body temperature. Cardiac muscle tissues control the involuntary beating of the
heart, allowing it to pump blood through the blood vessels of the cardiovascular system.
4- Nervous System
• The nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, which make up the central
nervous system, and nerves that run throughout the rest of the body, which make up the
peripheral nervous system. The nervous system controls both voluntary and involuntary
responses of the human organism and also detects and processes sensory information.
5- Endocrine System:
• The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete hormones into the blood, which
carries the hormones throughout the body. Endocrine hormones are chemical
messengers that control many body functions, including metabolism, growth, and
sexual development. The master gland of the endocrine system is the pituitary gland,
which produces hormones that control other endocrine glands. Some of the other
endocrine glands include the pancreas, thyroid gland, and adrenal glands.
6- Cardiovascular System
• The cardiovascular system (also called the circulatory system) includes the heart, blood,
and three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart pumps blood,
which travels through the blood vessels. The main function of the cardiovascular system
is transport. Oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive system are
transported to cells throughout the body. Carbon dioxide and other waste materials are
picked up from the cells and transported to organs such as the lungs and kidneys for
elimination from the body. The cardiovascular system also equalizes body temperature
and transports endocrine hormones to cells in the body where they are needed.
7- Urinary System
• The urinary system includes the pair of kidneys, which filter excess water and a waste
product called urea from the blood and form urine.
8- Respiratory System
• Organs and other structures of the respiratory system include the nasal passages, a long
tube called the trachea and lungs which carries air between the nasal passages and
lungs. The main function of the respiratory system is to deliver oxygen to the blood and
remove carbon dioxide from the body.
9- Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system is sometimes considered to be part of the immune system. It
consists of a network of lymph vessels and ducts that collect excess fluid (called lymph)
from extracellular spaces in tissues and transport the fluid to the bloodstream. The
lymphatic system also includes many small collections of tissue, called lymph nodes, and
an organ called the spleen, both of which remove pathogens and cellular debris from
the lymph or blood.
10- Digestive System:
• The digestive system consists of several main organs including the mouth,
esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines that form a long tube
called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Food moves through this tract where it
is digested, its nutrients absorbed, and its waste products excreted. The
digestive system also includes accessory organs (such as the pancreas and
liver) that produce enzymes and other substances needed for digestion but
through which food does not actually pass
11- Male and Female Reproductive Systems:
• The reproductive system is the only body system that differs substantially
between individuals. Here reproduction takes place.
Functional organization of human body
6- Organism: All mentioned organ system give rises to organism.
 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis, any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to
maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival.
• the word homeostasis homeo- "similar" and stasis-"standing still", yielding the
idea of "staying the same. The term was coined in 1930 by the physician Walter
Cannon
• If homeostasis is successful, life continues; if unsuccessful, death ensues. The
stability attained is actually a dynamic equilibrium, in which continuous change
occurs yet relatively uniform conditions prevail.
• A familiar example of homeostatic regulation in a mechanical system is the
action of a room-temperature regulator, or thermostat.
• The heart of the thermostat is a bimetallic strip that responds to temperature
changes by completing or disrupting an electric circuit. When the room cools, the
circuit is completed, the furnace operates, and the temperature rises. At a preset
level the circuit breaks, the furnace stops, and the temperature drops
• Example: (temperature, Ph, ion concentration in cell) The control of body
temperature in humans is a good example of homeostasis. In humans, normal
body temperature fluctuates around the value of 37 °C (98.6 °F), but various
factors can affect this value, including exposure, hormones, metabolic rate,
and disease, leading to excessively high or low temperatures.
• The body’s temperature regulation is controlled by a region in the brain called
the hypothalamus.
• Feedback about body temperature is carried through the bloodstream to the
brain and results in compensatory adjustments in the breathing rate, the level of
blood sugar, and the metabolic rate.
• So the range between high and low body temperature levels constitutes the
homeostatic plateau—the “normal” range that sustains life.
• Homeostasis is maintained at many levels, not just the level of the whole
body as it is for temperature.
• For instance, the stomach maintains a pH that's different from that of
surrounding organs, and each individual cell maintains ion concentrations
different from those of the surrounding fluid. Maintaining homeostasis at
each level is key to maintaining the body's overall functions.
• Maintaining homeostasis
• Biological systems like those of your body are constantly being pushed
away from their balance points.
• For instance, when you exercise, your muscles increase heat production,
nudging your body temperature upward. Similarly, when you drink a glass
of fruit juice, your blood glucose goes up. Homeostasis depends on the
ability of your body to detect and oppose these changes.
 Maintenance of homeostasis
• Maintenance of homeostasis usually involves negative feedback loops.
These loops act to oppose the stimulus, that triggers them. For example,
if your body temperature is too high, a negative feedback loop will act to
bring it back down towards the set point, or target value, of 98.6F/ 37.0C
• How does this work?
• First, high temperature will be detected by sensors—primarily nerve cells
with endings in your skin and brain—and relayed to a temperature-
regulatory control center in your brain. The control center will process the
information and activate effectors—such as the sweat glands—whose job
is to oppose the stimulus by bringing body temperature down.
• Homeostatic responses in temperature regulation
• If you get either too hot or too cold, sensors in the periphery and the brain tell the
temperature regulation center of your brain—in a region called the hypothalamus—that
your temperature has strayed from its set point.
• IN HOT TEMP: For instance, if you’ve been exercising hard, your body temperature can
rise above its set point, and you’ll need to activate mechanisms that cool you down.
Blood flow to your skin increases to speed up heat loss into your surroundings, and you
might also start sweating so the evaporation of sweat from your skin can help you cool
off. Heavy breathing can also increase heat loss.
• IN COLD TEMP: On the other hand, if you’re sitting in a cold room and aren’t dressed
warmly, the temperature center in the brain will need to trigger responses that help
warm you up. The blood flow to your skin decreases, and you might start shivering so
that your muscles generate more heat. You may also get goose bumps (to strike)so that
the hair on your body stands on end and traps a layer of air near your skin and increase
the release of hormones (thyroid hormone) that act to increase heat production.
• Disruptions to feedback disrupt homeostasis.
• Homeostasis depends on negative feedback loops. So, anything that interferes
with the feedback mechanisms can and usually will disrupt homeostasis. In the
case of the human body, this may lead to disease.
• Diabetes, for example, is a disease caused by a broken feedback loop involving
the hormone insulin. The broken feedback loop makes it difficult or impossible
for the body to bring high blood sugar down to a healthy level.
• Insulin decreases the concentration of glucose in the blood. After you eat a meal,
your blood glucose levels rise, triggering the secretion of insulin from β cells in
the pancreas. Insulin acts as a signal that triggers cells of the body, such as fat and
muscle cells, to take up glucose for use as fuel. Insulin also causes glucose to be
converted into glycogen—a storage molecule—in the liver. Both processes pull
sugar out of the blood, bringing blood sugar levels down, reducing insulin
secretion, and returning the whole system to homeostasis.
• Feedback loops for homeostasis
• Some biological systems, however, use positive feedback loops. Unlike
negative feedback loops, positive feedback loops amplify the starting
signal. Positive feedback loops are usually found in processes that need to
be pushed to completion, not when the status quo needs to be maintained.
• A positive feedback loop comes into play during childbirth. The neurons
send a signal that leads to release of the hormone oxytocin from the
pituitary gland.
• Oxytocin increases uterine contractions, and thus pressure on the cervix.
This causes the release of even more oxytocin and produces even stronger
contractions. This positive feedback loop continues until the baby is born.
• Blood sugar levels : Blood sugar levels are regulated within fairly narrow limits. In mammals the
primary sensors for this are the beta cells of the pancreatic islets. The beta cells respond to a rise
in the blood sugar level by secreting insulin into the blood, and simultaneously inhibiting their
neighboring alpha cells from secreting glucagon into the blood.
• Levels of blood gases: Changes in the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and plasma pH are sent
to the respiratory center, in the brainstem where they are regulated.
• The partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood is monitored by
the peripheral chemoreceptors (PNS) in the carotid artery and aortic arch.
• A change in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is detected as altered pH in the cerebrospinal
fluid by central chemoreceptors (CNS) in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem.
• Information from these sets of sensors is sent to the respiratory center which activates the
effector organs – the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. An increased level of carbon
dioxide in the blood, or a decreased level of oxygen, will result in a deeper breathing pattern and
increased respiratory rate to bring the blood gases back to equilibrium.
• Blood oxygen content The kidneys measure the oxygen content rather
than the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood.
• When the oxygen content of the blood is chronically low,
• oxygen-sensitive cells secrete erythropoietin (hormone) into the blood.
The effector tissue is the red bone marrow which produces red blood
cells (RBCs)(erythrocytes). The increase in RBCs leads to an
increased hematocrit in the blood, and subsequent increase
in hemoglobin that increases the oxygen carrying capacity.
• This is the mechanism whereby high altitude dwellers have higher
hematocrits than sea-level residents.
• OXYGEN CONTENT—SECRETE ERYTHROPOITEN –EFFECTOR TISSUE (BONE
MARROW)
• Fluid balance
• The total amount of water in the body needs to be kept in balance. Fluid balance involves
keeping the fluid and the levels of electrolytes in the extracellular fluid stable.
• Measurement of the plasma osmolality to give an indication of the water content of the body,
relies on the fact that water losses from the body, (through unavoidable water loss through
water vapor in the exhaled air, sweating, vomiting, normal feces and especially diarrhea) are
all hypotonic,
• Nearly all normal and abnormal losses of body water therefore cause the extracellular fluid to
become hypertonic. Conversely, excessive fluid intake dilutes the extracellular fluid causing the
hypothalamus to register hypotonic
• When the hypothalamus detects a hypertonic extracellular environment, it causes the secretion
of an antidiuretic hormone (ADH) called vasopressin which acts on the effector organ, which in
this case is the kidney. The effect of vasopressin on the kidney tubules is to reabsorb water from
the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts, thus preventing aggravation of the water loss
via the urine.
 Control system in the body
• Anything that must be maintained in the body within a normal range must have a control system. A control
system consists of four components:
1. Stimulus, or physiological variable that changes, is the item to be regulated. Variable in the broad sense
is a value that varies or changes. Two examples of variables that change are body temperature and blood
glucose. Anything that can be measured and varies is a variable.
2. Sensor, or sensory receptor, is the cell, tissue, or organ that senses the change in the stimulus or
physiological variable. For example, sensory nerve cell endings in the skin sense a raise of body
temperature, and specialized cells in the pancreas sense a drop in blood glucose. The sensory receptor or
sensor provides input to the control center.
3. Control center is the body structure that determines the normal range of the variable, or set point. For
example, an area of the brain called the hypothalamus determines the set point for body temperature
(around 37°C, or 98.6°F), and specialized cells in the pancreas determine the set point for blood glucose
(around 70-100mg/dL). To maintain homeostasis, the control center responds to the changes in the
stimulus received from the sensor by sending signals to effectors.
4. Effector is the cell, tissue, or organ that responds to signals from the control center, thus providing a
response to the stimulus (physiological variable that changed) in order to maintain homeostasis. For
example, sweat glands (effectors) throughout the body release sweat to lower body temperature; and
cells of the liver (effectors) release glucose to raise blood glucose levels.
• Most control systems maintain homeostasis by a process called feedback
mechanism
Positive feedback systems
• In a positive feedback system, the feedback is used to increase the size of the
input. By nature, such systems are unstable, and they are most often associated
with pathological conditions.
• An example of a positive feedback system is hemorrhage (internal/ external)
leads to a decrease in blood pressure, which, it turn, leads to a decrease in flow in
coronary arteries. The consequences of the decreased flow are:
• decrease in coronary blood flow
• decreased contraction of the ventricles of the heart, which leads to decreased
cardiac output and further decreased blood pressure
• Child birth is another example
• Negative feedback system
• In a negative feedback system, the feedback is used to decrease the size
of the input. hemorrhage leads to decreased blood pressure, which in turn
leads to increased reabsorption of fluid
• increased constriction of blood vessels
• increased renal conservation of fluid
• All of these lead to increased blood pressure.
• This consequence counters the effect of the initial hemorrhage and is,
therefore, beneficial. This is a negative feedback system because all of the
consequences tend to decrease the effect of the hemorrhage in lowering
blood pressure.
 Negative Feedback Positive Feedback

Regulation of body temperature or

Example Normal childbirth
blood glucose

Reverses a change in a physiological Intensifies a change in physiological

Response
condition condition

Result Return to a set point Reach an end point

Overall Provide stability Accelerates a process to completion

 STRUCTURE OF THE CELL
Cell, the basic membrane-bound unit that contains the fundamental
molecules of life and of which all living things are composed.
These cells cooperate with other specialized cells and become the building
blocks of large multicellular organisms, such as humans and other animals.
Each cell is formed by a cell body and a membrane covering the cell body
called the cell membrane.
Cell body has two parts, namely nucleus and cytoplasm surrounding the
nucleus.
Thus, the structure of the cell is studied under three headings:
1. Cell membrane 2. Cytoplasm 3. Nucleus.
• Structure of the cell
• CELL MEMBRANE:
• Cell membrane is a protective sheath, enveloping the cell body. It is also known as plasma
membrane
• . This membrane separates the fluid outside the cell called extracellular fluid (ECF) and the fluid
inside the cell called intracellular fluid (ICF). The cell membrane is a semipermeable membrane.
So, there is free exchange of certain substances between ECF and ICF. Thickness of the cell
membrane varies from 75 to 111Å .
• COMPOSITION OF CELL MEMBRANE Cell membrane is composed of three types of substances: 1.
Proteins (55%) 2. Lipids (40%) 3. Carbohydrates (5%). (PROTEIN+LIPID+CARBOHYDRATE)
• STRUCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE The electron microscopic study reveals three layers of cell
membrane,
• The central layer is a lipid layer formed by lipid substances. The other two layers are protein layers
both of these are around central layer.
• Cell membrane contains some carbohydrate molecules also.
• Structural Model of the Cell Membrane
• 1. Danielli-Davson model ‘DanielliDavson model’ was the first proposed basic
model of membrane structure. It was proposed by James F Danielli and Hugh
Davson in 1935. And it was accepted by scientists for many years. This model was
basically a ‘sandwich of lipids’ covered by proteins on both sides.
• 2. Unit membrane model In 1957, JD Robertson replaced ‘Danielli Davson model’
by ‘Unit membrane model’ on the basis of electron microscopic studies.
• 3. Fluid mosaic model Later in 1972, SJ Singer and GL Nicholson proposed ‘The
fluid mosaic model’. According to them, the membrane is a fluid with mosaic of
proteins (mosaic means pattern formed by arrangement of different colored
pieces of stone, tile, glass or other such materials). This model is accepted by
the scientists till now.
• In this model, the proteins are found to float in the lipid layer instead of forming
the layers of the sandwich-type model.
• Lipid Layers of the Cell Membrane
• The central lipid layer is a bilayered structure. This is formed by a thin film of lipids. The characteristic
feature of lipid layer is that, it is fluid in nature and not a solid structure. So, the portions of the membrane
move from one point to another point along the surface of the cell. The materials dissolved in lipid layer also
move to all areas of the cell membrane.
• Major lipids are: 1. Phospholipids 2. Cholesterol.
• 1. Phospholipids Phospholipids are the lipid substances containing phosphorus and fatty acids.
Aminophospholipids, sphingo- myelins, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidyletholamine, phosphatidylglycerol,
phosphatidylserine and phosphat idylinositol are the phospholipids present in lipid layer of cell membrane.
Phospholipid molecules are arranged in two layers.
• Each phospholipid molecule resembles the headed pin in shape. The outer part of the phospholipid
molecule is called the head portion and the inner portion is called the tail portion.
• Head portion is the polar end and it is soluble in water and has strong affinity for water (hydrophilic). Tail
portion is the non-polar end. It is insoluble in water and repelled by water (hydrophobic). Two layers of
phospholipids are arranged in such a way that the hydrophobic tail portions meet in the center of the
membrane. Hydrophilic head portions of outer layer face the ECF and those of the inner layer face ICF
(cytoplasm).
• 2. Cholesterol
• Cholesterol molecules are arranged in between the phospholipid
molecules. Phospholipids are soft and oily structures and cholesterol helps
to ‘pack’ the phospholipids in the membrane.
• So, cholesterol is responsible for the structural integrity of lipid layer of the
cell membrane.
• Functions of Lipid Layer in Cell Membrane
• Lipid layer of the cell membrane is a semipermeable membrane and
allows only the fat-soluble substances to pass through it. Thus, the fat-
soluble substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide and alcohol can pass
through this lipid layer.
• The water-soluble substances such as glucose, urea and electrolytes cannot
pass through this layer.
• Protein Layers of the Cell Membrane
• These layers cover the two surfaces of the central lipid layer.
• Protein layers give protection to the central lipid layer. The protein substances present in
these layers are mostly glycoproteins(lipid name)
• Protein molecules are classified into two categories:
• 1. Integral proteins or transmembrane proteins.
• 2. Peripheral proteins or peripheral membrane proteins.
• 1. Integral proteins Integral or transmembrane proteins are the proteins that pass
through entire thickness of cell membrane from one side to the other side. These
proteins are tightly bound with the cell membrane.
• Examples of integral protein:
• i. Cell adhesion proteins ii. Cell junction proteins iii. Some carrier (transport) proteins iv.
Channel proteins v. Some hormone receptors vi. Antigens vii. Some enzymes.
• 2. Peripheral proteins
• Peripheral proteins or peripheral membrane proteins are the
proteins which are partially embedded in the outer and inner
surfaces of the cell membrane and do not penetrate the cell
membrane. Peripheral proteins are loosely bound with integral
proteins or lipid layer of cell membrane. So, these protein molecules
dissociate readily from the cell membrane.
• Examples of peripheral proteins:
• i. Proteins of cytoskeleton ii. Some carrier (transport) proteins iii.
Some enzymes.
• Functions of Proteins in Cell Membrane
• 1. Integral proteins provide the structural integrity of the cell membrane
• 2. Channel proteins help in the diffusion of water soluble substances like glucose
and electrolytes (Cl, Na channels)
• 3. Carrier or transport proteins help in the transport of substances across the cell
membrane by means of active or passive transport GLUT1
• 4. Pump: Some carrier proteins act as pumps, by which ions are transported
actively across the cell membrane (sodium potassium pump)
• 5. Receptor proteins serve as the receptor sites for hormones and
neurotransmitters
• 6. Enzymes: Some of the protein molecules form the enzymes and control
chemical (metabolic) reactions within the cell membrane (trypsin-digest the
protein)
• Carbohydrates of the Cell Membrane
• Some of the carbohydrate molecules present in cell membrane are
attached to proteins and form glycoproteins (proteoglycans). Some
carbohydrate molecules are attached to lipids and form glycolipids.
Carbohydrate molecules form a thin and loose covering over the entire
surface of the cell membrane called glycocalyx.
• Functions of Carbohydrates in Cell Membrance
• 1. Carbohydrate molecules are negatively charged and do not permit the
negatively charged substances to move in and out of the cell
• 2. Glycocalyx from the neighboring cells helps in the tight fixation of cells
with one another
• 3. Some carbohydrate molecules function as the receptors for some
hormones.
• FUNCTIONS OF CELL MEMBRANE
• 1. Protective function: Cell membrane protects the cytoplasm and the organelles present
in the cytoplasm
• 2. Selective permeability: Cell membrane acts as a semipermeable membrane, which
allows only some substances to pass through it and acts as a barrier for other substances
• 3. Absorptive function: Nutrients are absorbed into the cell through the cell membrane
• 4. Excretory function: Metabolites and other waste products from the cell are excreted
out through the cell membrane
• 5. Exchange of gases: Oxygen enters the cell from the blood and carbon dioxide leaves
the cell and enters the blood through the cell membrane
• 6. Maintenance of shape and size of the cell: Cell membrane is responsible for the
maintenance of shape and size of the cell.
 Cell organelles and their function
• CYTOPLASM:
• Cytoplasm of the cell is the jellylike material formed by 80% of water. It
contains a clear liquid portion called cytosol and various particles of
different shape and size.
• These particles are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids or electrolytes in nature.
• Cytoplasm also contains many organelles with distinct structure and
function.
• Cytoplasm is made up of two zones:
• 1. Ectoplasm: Peripheral part of cytoplasm, situated just beneath the cell
membrane
• 2. Endoplasm: Inner part of cytoplasm, interposed between the ectoplasm
and the nucleus.
• ORGANELLES IN CYTOPLASM
• Cytoplasmic organelles are the cellular structures embedded in the cytoplasm. Organelles are
considered as small organs of the cell. Some organelles are bound by limiting membrane and
others do not have limiting membrane. Each organelle is having a definite structure and specific
functions
• ORGANELLES WITH LIMITING MEMBRANE
1- ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
• Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubular and microsomal vesicular structures which are
interconnected with one another.
• It is covered by a limiting membrane which is formed by proteins and bilayered lipids.
• The lumen of endoplasmic reticulum contains a fluid medium called endoplasmic matrix.
• SIZE: The diameter of the lumen is about 400 to 700Å.
• Function: The endoplasmic reticulum forms the link between nucleus and cell membrane by
connecting the cell membrane with the nuclear membrane.
• Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Endoplasmic reticulum is of two types, namely rough endoplasmic
reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Both the types are
interconnected and continuous with one another. Depending upon
the activities of the cells, the rough endoplasmic reticulum changes to
smooth endoplasmic reticulum and vice versa.
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: It is the endoplasmic reticulum with
rough, bumpy or bead-like appearance. Rough appearance is due to
the attachment of granular ribosomes to its outer surface. Hence, it is
also called the granular endoplasmic.
• Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• 1. Synthesis of proteins
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum is concerned with the synthesis of proteins in the cell. It is involved
with the synthesis of mainly those proteins which are secreted from the cells such as insulin from
βcells of islets of Langerhans in pancreas and antibodies from B lymphocytes. Ribosomes arrange
the amino acids into small units of proteins and transport them into the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. Here, the carbohydrates are added to the protein units forming the glycosylated
proteins or glycoproteins, which are arranged in the form of reticular vesicles. These vesicles are
transported mainly to Golgi apparatus for further modification and processing. Few vesicles are
transported to other cytoplasmic organelles.
• 2. Degradation of worn-out organelles
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays an important role in the degradation of worn-out
cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria. It wraps itself around the wornout organelles and forms
a vacuole which is often called the autophagosome.
• Autophagosome is digested by lysosomal enzymes.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• It is the endoplasmic reticulum with smooth appearance. It is also called agranular reticulum. It is formed
by many interconnected tubules. So, it is also called tubular endoplasmic reticulum.
• Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• 1. Synthesis of non-protein substance Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for synthesis of non-
protein substances such as cholesterol and steroid. This type of endoplasmic reticulum is abundant in cells
that are involved in the synthesis of lipids, phospholipids, lipoprotein substances, steroid hormones,
sebum, etc. In most of the other cells, smooth endoplasmic reticulum is less extensive than the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
• 2. Role in cellular metabolism Outer surface of smooth endoplasmic reticulum contains many enzymes
which are involved in various metabolic processes of the cell. (glucose-6-phosphate)
• 3. Storage and metabolism of calcium Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site of storage and
metabolism of calcium. In skeletal muscle fibers, it releases calcium which is necessary to trigger the
muscle contraction.
• 4. Catabolism and detoxification Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also concerned with catabolism and
detoxification of toxic substances like some drugs and carcinogens (cancer-producing substances) in the liver.
 GOLGI APPARATUS
• GOLGI APPARATUS
• Golgi apparatus or Golgi body or Golgi complex is a membrane-bound organelle, involved in the processing
of proteins.
• It is present in all the cells except red blood cells.
• It is named after the discoverer Camillo Golgi.
• Usually, each cell has one Golgi apparatus. Some of the cells may have more than one Golgi apparatus.
• Each Golgi apparatus consists of 5 to 8 flattened membranous sacs called the cisternae.
• Location: Golgi apparatus is situated near the nucleus. It has two ends or faces, namely cis face and trans
face. The cis face is positioned near the endoplasmic reticulum.
• Reticular vesicles from endoplasmic reticulum enter the Golgi apparatus through cis face. The trans face is
situated near the cell membrane. The processed substances make their exit from Golgi apparatus through
trans face.
• Functions of Golgi Apparatus
• Major functions of Golgi apparatus are processing, packing, labeling and delivery of proteins and other
molecules like lipids to different parts of the cell.
• 1. Processing of materials Vesicles containing glycoproteins and lipids are
transported into Golgi apparatus. Here, the glycoproteins and lipids are
modified and processed.
• 2. Packaging of materials All the processed materials are packed in the
form of secretory granules, secretory vesicles and lysosomes, which are
transported either out of the cell or to another part of the cell.
• 3. Labeling and delivery of materials Finally, the Golgi apparatus sorts out
the processed and packed materials and labels them (such as phosphate
group), depending upon the chemical content for delivery (distribution) to
their proper destinations. Hence, the Golgi apparatus is called ‘shipping
department of the cell’.
• Because of this, Golgi apparatus is called the ‘post office of the cell’.
 GOLGI APPARATUS
• Function
• The golgi apparatus modifies proteins and lipids that is receives from
the endoplasmic reticulum. These biochemicals leave the golgi
by exocytosis before being delivered to
different intracellular or extracellular targets.
• Protein processing – carbohydrate regions of glycoproteins are
altered by addition, removal or modification of carbohydrates.
• Lipid processing – adds phosphate groups and glycoproteins to lipids
from the endoplasmic reticulum (such as cholesterol) to create the
phospholipids that make up the cell membrane.
• Exocytosis describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their
contents to the outside of the cell, as shown in the Figure below.
• Exocytosis occurs when a cell produces substances for export, such as a protein, or when the cell
is getting rid of a waste product or a toxin.
• Sorting, Budding and Exocytosis
• Biochemicals are chemically labelled in the golgi to ensure appropriate
delivery to the correct destination. Once they bud off (to push out) the
trans-Golgi they will enter a specific pathway according to this signaling
sequence.
• Lysosomal proteins – such as enzymes are packaged into specific vesicles.
These proteins are typically tagged with mannose-6-phosphate in the
Golgi
• Secretory proteins – such as hormones are packaged into secretory
vesicles ready for exocytosis. This requires ATP as two negatively charged
membranes need to fuse to allow their release. The membrane of the
vesicle will form part of the cell membrane. This is only possible in Golgi of
secretory cells.
 LYSOSOMES
• LYSOSOMES
• Lysosomes are the membrane-bound vesicular
organelles found throughout the cytoplasm.
• HOW LYSOSOMES ARE FORMED???
• The lysosomes are formed by Golgi apparatus.
1. The enzymes synthesized in rough endoplasmic reticulum are
2. processed and packed in the form of small vesicles in the Golgi
apparatus.
3. Then, these vesicles are pinched off from Golgi apparatus and become
the lysosomes.
• Among the organelles of the cytoplasm, the lysosomes have the thickest
covering membrane.
• The membrane is formed by a bilayered lipid material.
• It has many small granules which contain hydrolytic enzymes
 Lysosomes
• Types of Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are of two types:
• 1. Primary lysosome, which is pinched off from Golgi apparatus. It is inactive in spite of having hydrolytic
enzymes
• 2. Secondary lysosome, which is the active lysosome. It is formed by the fusion of a primary lysosome with
phagosome or endosome.
• Functions of Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are often called ‘garbage system’ of the cell because of their degradation activity. About 50
different hydrolytic enzymes, known as acid hydroxylases are present in the lysosomes, through which
lysosomes execute their functions.
• Important lysosomal enzymes
• 1. Proteases, which hydrolyze the proteins into amino acids
• 2. Lipases, which hydrolyze the lipids into fatty acids and glycerides
• 3. Amylases, which hydrolyze the polysaccharides into glucose
• 4. Nucleases, which hydrolyze the nucleic acids into mononucleotides.
• Specific functions of lysosomes
• 1. Degradation of macromolecules
• Macromolecules are engulfed by the cell by means of endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis or receptor
mediated endocytosis).
• The macromolecules such as bacteria, engulfed by the cell via phagocytosis are called phagosomes or
vacuoles.
• The other macromolecules taken inside via pinocytosis or receptor-mediated endocytosis are called
endosomes.
• How secondary lysosomes generates???
• The primary lysosome fuses with the phagosome or endosome to form the secondary lysosome.
• The pH in the secondary lysosome becomes acidic and the lysosomal enzymes are activated. The bacteria
and the other macromolecules are digested and degraded by these enzymes.
• The secondary lysosome containing these degraded waste products moves through cytoplasm and fuses
with cell membrane.
• Now the waste products are eliminated by exocytosis.
• 2. Degradation of worn-out organelles
• The rough endoplasmic reticulum wraps itself around the worn-out organelles like
mitochondria and form the vacuoles called autophagosomes. One primary lysosome
fuses with one autophagosome to form the secondary lysosome. The enzymes in the
secondary lysosome are activated. Now, these enzymes digest the contents of
autophagosome.
• 3. Removal of excess secretory products in the cells
• Lysosomes in the cells of the secretory glands remove the excess secretory products by
degrading the secretory granules. (apoptosis=programmed cell death)
• 4. Secretory function
• secretory lysosomes Recently, lysosomes having secretory function called secretory
lysosomes are found in some of the cells, particularly in the cells of immune system. The
conventional lysosomes are modified into secretory lysosomes by combining with
secretory granules (which contain the particular secretory product of the cell).
• Examples of secretory lysosomes:
• Lysosomes in the cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells
secrete perforin and granzymes, which destroy both viral-infected
cells and tumor cells. Perforin is a pore-forming protein that initiates
cell death. Granzymes belong to the family of serine proteases
(enzymes that dislodge the peptide bonds of the proteins) and
cause the cell death by apoptosis
• ii. Secretory lysosomes of melanocytes secrete melanin
• iii. Secretory lysosomes of mast cells secrete serotonin, which is a
vasoconstrictor substance and inflammatory mediator.
 PEROXISOME
• PEROXISOME:
• Peroxisomes or microbodies are the membrane limited vesicles like
the lysosomes.
• Unlike lysosomes, peroxisomes are pinched off from endoplasmic
reticulum and not from the Golgi apparatus.
• Unlike lysosomes Peroxisomes contain some oxidative enzymes such
as catalase, urate oxidase and Diaminoacid oxidase.
• Functions of Peroxisomes
• i. Breakdown the fatty acids by means of a process called beta-
oxidation: This is the major function of peroxisomes
• ii. Degrade the toxic substances such as hydrogen peroxide and other metabolic products by
means of detoxification.
• A large number of peroxisomes are present in the cells of liver, which is the major organ for
detoxification.
• Hydrogen peroxide is formed from poisons or alcohol, which enter the cell. Whenever hydrogen
peroxide is produced in the cell, the peroxisomes are ruptured and the oxidative enzymes are
released.
• These oxidases destroy hydrogen peroxide and the enzymes which are necessary for the
production of hydrogen peroxide
• iii. Form the major site of oxygen utilization in the cells
• iv. Accelerate gluconeogenesis from fats
• v. Degrade purine to uric acid
• vi. Participate in the formation of myelin (increase conduction of electrical impulses)
• viii. Play a role in the formation of bile acids (digestion)
 Cell and its organelles
• CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES
• Centrosome is the membrane-bound cellular organelle situated almost in the
center of cell, close to nucleus.
• It consists of two cylindrical structures called centrioles which are made up of
proteins.
• Function: Centrioles are responsible for the movement of chromosomes during
cell division.
• SECRETORY VESICLES
• Secretory vesicles are the organelles with limiting membrane and contain the
secretory substances. These vesicles are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum
and are processed and packed in Golgi apparatus.
• Secretory vesicles are present throughout the cytoplasm. When necessary, these
vesicles are ruptured and secretory substances are released into the cytoplasm.
• The organelle duplicates and becomes active during the cell division
portion of the cell cycle.
• Prophase: During a period called prophase, the two pairs move to
opposite sides of the cell.
• Anaphase: The pairs then form the mitotic spindle (or meiotic spindle
in meiosis) which produces long, thin strands called spindle fibers.
The spindle fibers attach onto a cell's chromosomes and drag them to
opposite poles of the cell during anaphase.
MITOCHONDRION
 MITOCHONDRION
• MITOCHONDRION
• Mitochondrion (plural = mitochondria) is a membrane bound cytoplasmic
organelle concerned with production of energy.
• Shape: It is a rod-shaped or oval-shaped structure with a diameter of 0.5 to
1 μ.
• Covering: It is covered by a bilayered membrane. The outer membrane is
smooth and encloses the contents of mitochondrion. This membrane
contains various enzymes such as acetyl-CoA synthetase and
glycerolphosphate acetyltransferase.
• The inner membrane is folded in the form of shelf-like inward projections
called cristae and it covers the inner matrix space.
• Cristae contain many enzymes and other protein molecules which are
involved in respiration and synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• Because of these functions, the enzymes and other protein molecules
in cristae are collectively known as respiratory chain or electron transport system.
• Enzymes and other proteins of respiratory chain
• i. Succinic dehydrogenase ii. Dihydronicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) dehydrogenase
• iii. Cytochrome oxidase
• iv. Cytochrome C
• v. ATP synthase.
• Inner cavity of mitochondrion is filled with matrix which contains many enzymes. Mitochondrion
moves freely in the cytoplasm of the cell.
• It is capable of reproducing itself.
• Mitochondrion contains its own deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is responsible for many
enzymatic actions. In fact, mitochondrion is the only organelle other than nucleus, which has its
own DNA.
• Functions of Mitochondrion
• 1. Production of energy: Mitochondrion is called the ‘power house’ of the cell because
it produces the energy required for cellular functions. The energy is produced during the
oxidation of digested food particles like proteins, carbohydrates and lipids by the
oxidative enzymes in cristae. During the oxidative process, water and carbon dioxide are
produced with release of energy. The released energy is stored in mitochondria and used
later for synthesis of ATP.
• 2. Synthesis of ATP The components of respiratory chain in mitochondrion are
responsible for the synthesis of ATP by utilizing the energy by oxidative phosphorylation.
ATP molecules diffuse throughout the cell from mitochondrion. Whenever energy is
needed for cellular activity, the ATP molecules are broken down.
• 3. Apoptosis Cytochrome C is hemeprotein associated with inner membrane of
mitochondria, when cell receives apoptosis stimulus it release in cytosol & perform
apoptosis through second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases cascade (causes
cleavage of number of proteins)secreted in mitochondria are involved in apoptosis
• CYTOSKELETON
• Cytoskeleton is the cellular organelle present throughout the
cytoplasm.
• Function: It determines the shape of the cell and gives support to the
cell. It is a complex network of structures with varying sizes. In
addition to determining the shape of the cell, it is also essential for
the cellular movements and the response of the cell to external
stimuli.
• Cytoskeleton consists of three major protein components:
• 1. Microtubule 2. Intermediate filaments 3. Microfilaments.
 Microtubule
• Microtubules are the straight, hollow and tubular structures of the cytoskeleton. These
organelles
without the limiting membrane
are arranged in different bundles.
• Each tubule has a diameter of 20
• to 30 nm.
• Length of microtubule varies and it
may be 1000 times more than the
thickness.
• Structurally, the microtubules are
formed by bundles of globular protein called tubulin.
Tubulin has two subunits, namely αsubunit and βsubunit.
• 2. Intermediate Filaments
• Intermediate filaments are the structures that form a network around
the nucleus and extend to the periphery of the cell.
• Diameter of each filament is about 10 nm.
• Shape: The intermediate filaments are formed by ropelike polymers,
which are made up of fibrous proteins.
• 3.Microfilaments
• Microfilaments are long and fine threadlike structures with a
diameter of about 3 to 6 nm. These filaments are made up of non-
tubular contractile proteins called actin and myosin.
• Actin is more abundant than myosin.
• Microfilaments are present throughout the cytoplasm
 RIBOSOMES
• Ribosomes are the organelles without limiting membrane. These organelles are granular and small dot-like
structures with a diameter of 15 nm.
• Composition: Ribosomes are made up of 35% of proteins and 65% of ribonucleic acid (RNA). RNA present in
ribosomes is called ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes are concerned with protein synthesis in the cell.
• Types of Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are of two types: i. Ribosomes that are attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum ii. Free
ribosomes that are distributed in the cytoplasm.
• Functions of Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are called ‘protein factories’ because of their role in the synthesis of proteins.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic code for protein synthesis from nucleus to the ribosomes. The
ribosomes, in turn arrange the amino acids into small units of proteins.
• Ribosomes attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum are involved in the synthesis of proteins such as the
enzymatic proteins, hormonal proteins, lysosomal proteins and the proteins of the cell membrane.
• Free ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of proteins in hemoglobin, peroxisome and mitochondria
 Protein synthesis
• Three kinds of RNA molecules perform different but cooperative functions in protein synthesis
• The three roles of RNA in protein synthesis.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic code for protein synthesis from nucleus to the
ribosomes. The ribosomes, in turn arrange the amino acids into small units of proteins.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into protein by the joint action of transfer RNA (tRNA) and
the ribosome, which is composed of numerous proteins and two major ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
molecules.
• 1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a
series of three-base code “words,” each of which specifies a particular amino acid.
• 2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the key to decode the code words in mRNA. Each type of amino acid has
its own type of tRNA, which binds it and carries it to the growing end of a polypeptide chain if the
next code word on mRNA calls for it. The correct tRNA with its attached amino acid is selected at
each step because each specific tRNA molecule contains a three-base sequence that can base-
pair with its complementary code word in the mRNA.
• mRNA(from nucleus to ribosome)– ribosome arrange aminoacid in small unit of proteins-
tRNA(decode the code in mRNA
• 3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) associates with a set of proteins to form
ribosomes.
• These complex structures, which physically move along an mRNA
molecule, catalyze the assembly of amino acids into protein chains.
They also bind tRNAs and various accessory molecules necessary for
protein synthesis.
• Ribosomes are composed of a large and small subunit, each of which
contains its own rRNA molecule or molecules.
where t.
• PICTURE DISCRIPTION:
• DNA in the cell nucleus carries a genetic code, which consists of sequences of adenine
(A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) (Figure 1). RNA, which contains uracil (U)
instead of thymine, carries the code to protein-making sites in the cell. To make RNA,
DNA pairs its bases with those of the "free" nucleotides (Figure 2). Messenger RNA
(mRNA) then travels to the ribosomes in the cell cytoplasm, where protein synthesis
occurs (Figure 3). The base triplets of transfer RNA (tRNA) pair with those of mRNA and
at the same time deposit their amino acids on the growing protein chain. Finally, the
synthesized protein is released to perform its task in the cell or elsewhere in the bodY
• Messenger RNA Carries Information from DNA in a Three-Letter Genetic Code
• RNA contains ribonucleotides of adenine, cytidine, guanine, and uracil; DNA contains
deoxyribonucleotides of adenine, cytidine, guanine, and thymine. Because 4 nucleotides,
taken individually, could represent only 4 of the 20 possible amino acids in coding the
linear arrangement in proteins, a group of nucleotides is required to represent
each amino acid. The code employed must be capable of specifying at least 20 words
(i.e., amino acids).
• TRANSCRIPTION:
• Transcription is the process of making an RNA copy of a gene
sequence. This copy, called a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule,
leaves the cell nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it directs the
synthesis of the protein, which it encodes.
• transcription is one of the fundamental processes that happens to our
genome. It's the process of turning DNA into RNA.
• In the process of gene expression, transcription involves the
production of messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA template. It takes
place in the nucleus of a cell and is catalyzed by the enzyme RNA
polymerase II.
TRANSCRIPTION
 The steps of transcription
The process of transcription entails several steps:
1. Initiation
• The first step of transcription to form mRNA involves RNA polymerase II binding
to a promoter region just upstream of the gene that is to be transcribed.
Promoters are often classified as strong or weak based on their effects on
transcription rates and thus gene expression. Transcription factors are proteins
that help to position RNA polymerase II and assist in the breaking of the hydrogen
bonds in the DNA helix. 3
• 2. Elongation
• RNA polymerase II breaks the hydrogen bonds connecting two strands of DNA in
the double helix. The enzyme then uses the single DNA strand as a template to
build an RNA strand in the 5' to 3' direction, adding each complementary
nucleotide to the 3' end of the strand. In RNA, the nucleotide thymine is replaced
by the nucleotide uracil.3
• What do we mean by 5' and 3'?
• This refers to the carbon numbers in DNA and RNA's backbone. The 5'
carbon ribose ring frequently
has a phosphate group
attached, and the 3' carbon
end has a hydroxyl (-OH) group
attached. The asymmetry gives
the DNA and RNA strands a
"direction".
• 3. Termination
• Termination marks the end of RNA polymerase II adding nucleotides
to the pre-mRNA strand
and the release of the
pre-mRNA.
 TRANSLATION
• Translation is the process by which an mRNA molecule is used as a template to build a
protein from a specific sequence of amino acids encoded by the mRNA. This takes place
within a complex in the cytoplasm called a ribosome.
• It is the second part in the process of synthesis of proteins. Contrary to transcription that
occurs in the nucleus, translation takes place in the cell cytoplasm. This part is initiated as
soon as the transcribed mRNA enters the cytoplasm.
• Steps of translation:
• The ribosomes present in the cytoplasm immediately attach to the mRNA at a specific
site, called the start codon. An amino acyl tRNA also binds at the mRNA strand. This
phase is called initiation.
• As the ribosomes move along the mRNA strand, the amino acyl tRNA brings amino acid
molecules, one by one. This particular stage is called elongation. At the termination
phase, the ribosomes read the last codon of the mRNA strand. This ends the translation
part, and the polypeptide chain is released.
• In this part, the ribosomes and tRNA get attached to the mRNA,
which reads the coded information present in the strand. Accordingly,
protein synthesis of a specific amino acid sequence takes place.

• Overall, the process of protein synthesis involves transcription of DNA

to mRNA, which is then translated into proteins. This process requires
proper coordination of RNA, DNA, enzymes, and ribosomes. The
stepwise procedure of protein synthesis is also known as ‘central
dogma’ in molecular biology.
 NUCLEUS
• NUCLEUS
• Nucleus is the most prominent and the largest cellular organelle. It has a
diameter of 10 µ to 22 µ and occupies about 10% of total volume of the cell.
• Nucleus is present in all the cells in the body except the red blood cells.
• The cells with nucleus are called eukaryotes and those without nucleus are
known as prokaryotes.
• Presence of nucleus is necessary for cell division.
• Most of the cells have only one nucleus (uninucleated cells). Few types of cells
like skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei (multinucleated cells). Generally, the
nucleus is located in the center of the cell.
• It is mostly spherical in shape.
• However, the shape and situation of nucleus vary in some cells.
• STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
• Nucleus is covered by a membrane called nuclear membrane and contains many
components. Major components of nucleus are nucleoplasm, chromatin and nucleolus.
• Nuclear Membrane:
• Nuclear membrane is double layered and porous in nature. This allows the nucleoplasm
to communicate with the cytoplasm.
• The outer layer of nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of endoplasmic
reticulum. The space between the two layers of nuclear membrane is continuous with
the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum.
• Pores of the nuclear membrane are guarded (lined) by protein molecules. Diameter of
the pores is about 80 to 100 nm. However, it is decreased to about 7 to 9 nm because of
the attachment of protein molecules with the periphery of the pores.
• Exchange of materials between nucleoplasm and cytoplasm occurs through these pores.
• Nucleoplasm
• Nucleoplasm is a highly viscous fluid that forms the ground substance of
the nucleus.
• It is similar to cytoplasm present outside the nucleus.
• Nucleoplasm surrounds chromatin and nucleolus.
• It contains dense febrile network of proteins called the nuclear matrix and
many substances such as nucleotides and enzymes.
• The nuclear matrix forms the structural framework for organizing
chromatin.
• The soluble liquid part of nucleoplasm is known as nuclear hyaloplasm.
 Chromatin
• Chromatin is a thread-like material made up of large molecules of DNA.
The DNA molecules are compactly packed with the help of a specialized
basic protein called histone. So, chromatin is referred as DNA-histone
complex. It forms the major bulk of nuclear material.
• DNA is a double helix which wraps around central core of eight histone
molecules to form the fundamental packing
• unit of chromatin called nucleosome.
• Nucleosomes are packed together tightly with the help of a histone
molecule to form a chromatin fiber.
• Just before cell division, the chromatin condenses to form chromosome.
• nucleosome + nucleosome [with help of histone] = chromatin fiber
 Chromosomes
• Chromosome is the rod-shaped nuclear structure that carries a complete blueprint of all the
hereditary characteristics of that species. A chromosome is formed from a single DNA molecule
coiled around histone molecules. Each DNA contains many genes.
• Visibility: Normally, the chromosomes are not visible in the nucleus under microscope. Only
during cell division, the chromosomes are visible under microscope. This is because DNA becomes
more tightly packed just before cell division, which makes the chromosome visible during cell
division.
• All the dividing cells of the body except reproductive cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Each pair consists of one chromosome inherited from mother and one from father. The cells with
23 pairs of chromosomes are called diploid cells. The reproductive cells called gametes or sex
cells contain only 23 single chromosomes. These cells are called haploid cells
• In humans, the X and Y chromosomes determine a person’s biological sex, with XX for female and
XY for male. While the two X chromosomes in a woman’s cells are genuinely homologous, the X
and Y chromosomes of a man’s cells are not. They differ in size and shape, with the X being much
larger than the Y, and contain different mostly different genes (although they do have small
regions of similarity). The X and Y chromosomes are known as sex chromosomes, while the other
44 human chromosomes are called autosomes.
• Nucleolus
• Nucleolus is a small, round granular structure of the nucleus. Each nucleus contains one
or more nucleoli.
• The nucleolus contains RNA and some proteins, which are similar to those found in
ribosomes.
1. The RNA is synthesized by five different pairs of chromosomes and stored in the
nucleolus.
2. Later, it is condensed to form the subunits of ribosomes.
• All the subunits formed in the nucleolus are transported to cytoplasm through the pores
of nuclear membrane.
• In the cytoplasm, these subunits fuse to form ribosomes, which play an essential role in
the formation of proteins.
• (RNA synthesized in nucleolus- transported to cytoplasm through pores- fuse with each
other to form protein)
 Nucleus
• FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEUS
• Major functions of nucleus are the control of cellular activities and storage of hereditary
material. Several processes are involved in the nuclear functions.
• Functions of nucleus:
• 1. Control of all the cell activities that include metabolism, protein synthesis, growth and
reproduction (cell division)
• 2. Formation of subunits of ribosomes (by the help of nucleolus)
• 3. Synthesis of RNA
• 4. Sending genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis through
messenger RNA (mRNA)
• 5. Control of the cell division through genes
• 6. Storage of hereditary information (in genes) and transformation of this information
from one generation of the species to the next.
 Gene
• Gene is a portion of DNA molecule that contains the message or code for the synthesis of
a specific protein from amino acids. It is like a book that contains the information
necessary for protein synthesis. Gene is considered as the basic hereditary unit of the
cell.
• A gene is a short section of DNA. Your genes contain instructions that tell your cells to
make molecules called proteins. Proteins perform various functions in your body to keep
you healthy. Each gene carries instructions that determine your features, such as eye
colour, hair colour and height.
• A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity.
• Composition: Genes are made up of DNA. In humans, genes vary in size from a few
hundred DNA bases to more than 2 million bases.
• A geneticist is a person who studies genes and how they can be targeted to improve
aspects of life.
• So: Genes are made of DNA, genes make proteins, proteins make cells and cells make
you...
 Gene
• Genes are a section of DNA that are in charge of different functions like making proteins.
• Long strands of DNA with lots of genes make up chromosomes. DNA molecules are
found in chromosomes. Chromosomes are located inside of the nucleus of cells.
• Each chromosome is one long single molecule of DNA. This DNA contains important
genetic information.
• Chromosomes have a unique structure, which helps to keep the DNA tightly wrapped
around the proteins called histones. If the DNA molecules were not bound by the
histones, they would be too long to fit inside of the cell.
• Different living things have different shapes and numbers of chromosomes. Humans
have 23 pairs of chromosomes, or a total of 46.
• A donkey has 31 pairs of chromosomes, a hedgehog has 44, and a fruit fly has just 4.
• (Make pic of DNA then chromosome)
• (insert pic of base pair )
• Genes are made up of DNA. Each chromosome contains many genes.
• DNA contains the biological instructions that make each species
unique.
• DNA is passed from adult organisms to their offspring during
reproduction.
• The building blocks of DNA are called nucleotides likewise human
building blocks are cell.
• Nucleotides have three parts: A phosphate group, a sugar group and
one of four types of nitrogen bases.
• (Insert the pic of nucleotide)
 What are the genes made of ?
• A gene consists of a long combination of four different nucleotide bases, or chemicals. There are many
possible combinations.
• The four nucleotides are:
• A (adenine)
• C (cytosine)
• G (guanine)
• T (thymine)
• Different combinations of the letters ACGT give people different characteristics. For example, a person with
the combination ATCGTT may have blue eyes, while somebody with the combination ATCGCT may have
brown eyes.
• Genes carry the codes ACGT. Each person has thousands of genes. They are like a computer program, and
they make the individual what they are.
• A gene is a tiny section of a long DNA double helix molecule, which consists of a linear sequence of base
pairs. A gene is any section along the DNA with instructions encoded that allow a cell to produce a specific
product – usually a protein, such as an enzyme – that triggers one precise action.
 Where do they come from?
• gene is a basic unit of heredity in a living organism. Genes come from our
parents. We may inherit our physical traits and the likelihood of getting
certain diseases and conditions from a parent.
• Genes contain the data needed to build and maintain cells and pass genetic
information to offspring.
• Each cell contains two sets of chromosomes: One set comes from the
mother and the other comes from the father. The male sperm and the
female egg carry a single set of 23 chromosomes each, including 22
autosomes plus an X or Y sex chromosome.
• A female inherits an X chromosome from each parent, but a male inherits
an X chromosome from their mother and a Y chromosome from their
father.
• Gene therapy
• In gene therapy, genes are inserted into a patient’s cells and tissues to treat a disease, usually a
hereditary disease. Gene therapy uses sections of DNA to treat or prevent disease. This science is
still in its early stages, but there has been some success.
• For example, in 2016, scientists reported that they had managed to improve the eyesight of 3
adult patients with congenital blindness by using gene therapy.
• In 2017, a reproductive endocrinologist, named John Zhang, and a team at the New Hope
Fertility Center in New York used a technique called mitochondrial replacement therapy in a
revolutionary way.
• Gene testing to predict cancer
• Another use of genetic information is to help predict who is likely to develop a disease, for
example, early-onset Alzheimer’s disease and breast cancer.
• Women with the BRCA1 gene have a significantly higher chance of developing breast cancer. A
woman can have a test to find out whether she carries that gene. BRCA1 carriers have a 50
percent chance of passing the anomaly to each of their children.
 Gene Control
• Gene Control
• The process of protein synthesis does not occur constantly in the cell. Rather, it occurs at intervals
followed by periods of genetic “silence.” Thus, the cell regulates and controls the gene expression
process.
• The control of gene expression may occur at several levels in the cell. For example, genes rarely
operate during mitosis, when the DNA fibers shorten and thicken to form chromatin. The inactive
chromatin is compacted and tightly coiled, and this coiling regulates access to the genes.
• Other levels of gene control can occur during and after transcription. In transcription, certain
segments of DNA can increase and accelerate the activity of nearby genes.
• After transcription has taken place, the mRNA molecule can be altered to regulate gene activity.
For example, researchers have found that an mRNA molecule contains many useless bits of RNA
that are removed in the production of the final mRNA molecule. These useless bits of nucleic acid
are called introns. The remaining pieces of mRNA, called exons, are then spliced to form the final
mRNA molecule.
• Thus, through removal of introns and the retention of exons, the cell can alter the message
received from the DNA and control gene expression.