BasicScienceYear10textbook PDF

BASIC SCIENCE
SCIENCE BOOK 2
LOWER SECONDARY
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT UNIT

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
SUVA, FIJI 2014
Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 1

Acknowledgement
Science Book 2 – Lower Secondary has been produced for use at the Year 10 level by the Basic
Science Section at the Curriculum Development Unit of the Ministry of Education.
The following teachers and officials are acknowledged for their contribution to the development
of this text book: Mrs Alena Chong, Mrs Talei Mavi, Mrs Luisa Sigawale, Mrs Ruci Soko and the 2014
Basic Science Curriculum Workgroup.
A special thanks goes to the CDU Secondary Science KLA Officers and family members of writers
for their cooperation and support, and also for the final designing of the text book.
Copyright @ Ministry of Education, Fiji

All Rights Reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
Retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or means,
Electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
Otherwise without the permission of the
Curriculum Development Unit of The Ministry of Education, Fiji
2 : Basic Science
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

UNIT 1: Structures and life Processes
1.1.1 Anatomy of a Digestive System 6
1.1.2 Digestive System 11
1.1.3 Circulatory System 17
1.1.4 Respiratory System 21
1.1.5 Excretory System 24
1.1.6 Reproductive System 26
UNIT 2: Living Together
1.2.1 Taxis and Kinesis 31
1.2.2 Feeding Relationships 32
UNIT 3: Biodiversity, Change and Sustainability
1.3.1 Marine Ecosystem 37
1.3.2 Marine Resources 41
1.3.3 Importance of Marine Ecosystem 45
1.3.4 Human Impact on Marine Ecosystem 48
1.3.5 What is Conservation? 50
CHAPTER 2: MATTER
UNIT 1: Investigating Matter
2.1.1 Structure and Constituents of an Atom 59
2.1.2 Properties of Common Elements: 1st Twenty 64
2.1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties 66
UNIT 2: Materials
2.2.1 Properties of Metals and Non Metals 68
2.2.2 Uses of Metals and Non Metals 69
2.2.3 Effect of Heating and Cooling of Metals 72
2.2.4 Work on Metals 74
UNIT 3: Reactions
2.3.1 Chemical Reactions 76
2.3.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 78
2.3.3 Types of Chemical Reactions 80
2.3.4 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate 84

CHAPTER 3: ENERGY
UNIT 1: Energy Source and Transfer
3.1.1 Behaviour of Light on Lenses and Prisms 88
3.1.2 Long - Sightedness and Short – Sightedness 93
UNIT 2: Energy Transformation, Use and Conservation
3.2.1 Electricity 95
UNIT 3: Forces
3.3.1 Machines 104
CHAPTER 4: EARTH AND BEYOND

UNIT 1: Solar System
4.1.1 Our Solar System 121
UNIT 2: The Earth
4.2.1 Origin of the Earth 124
4.2.2 Our Changing Earth 125
4 : Basic Science
CHAPTER 1: LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
1. STRUCTURE AND LIFE PROCESSES
2. LIVING TOGETHER
3. BIODIVERSITY CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY
INTRODUCTION
The study of living things and the environment basically involves the study of the relationship
between living things themselves and also with their environment. This is shown by how they
interact, how they depend on one another for survival and how they influence one another.
Living things have various structures that enable them to survive: for example, transport structures
in plants allow water and nutrients to move. Similarly there are digestive structures and respiratory
structures in animals and reproductive structures in plants and animals that assist in organisms
functioning within their environment. Each organism has particular forms of these structures that
assist their survival. In all environments, organisms with similar needs may compete with one
another for limited resources, including food, space, water, air and shelter.

UNIT 1: STRUCTURES AND LIFE PROCESSES
INTRODUCTION
This unit will help us examine the internal structures of animals and account for the structure and
functions of parts of the human system that relate to life processes – digestion, blood circulation,
respiration, excretion and reproduction.
1.1.1 ANATOMY OF A DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
We don’t know how man first learned about the digestive systems in animals. It was probably an
accident. As hunters cut open their prey, they probably noticed some long tubes and pouches
inside the animals. Grazing animals probably had some grass in various states of ‘decay’ in the
pouches. Predators may have had pouches containing the remains of their prey. There is no
way of telling what early man thought of these observations. But cutting open an animal, he was
beginning to learn something about the animal’s internal anatomy (inside structures).
Your study of the use of food will begin in much the same way. First you will examine the anatomy
of a digestive system. Then you will investigate in more detail how that systems works. An organ
system is made from a group of different organs, which all work together to do a particular job.
A frog’s digestive system is easy to observe. Much of what you learn of the frog’s anatomy will be
true for many other animals, including man.
Did You Know?
Activity 1: Dissecting a Frog

Frogs don’t drink water;
they absorb water through
Materials
their skin.
• frog (unconscious frog using methylated spirit)
• safety goggles, gloves, and a lab apron
• dissecting forceps
• scalpel (sharp razor blade) /dissecting scissors
• dissecting pins (10- 20)
• dissecting tray and paper towels
• dissecting probe/ needle
• plastic storage bag
6 : Basic Science
Method
1. Put on safety goggles, gloves, and a lab apron.

2. Place frog in tray. Rinse the frog with water then place it in the dissection pan. The frog should
be lying on its back side with the belly facing up.
3. Pin the frog. Pin the frog for dissection by securing each of the four limbs to the pan. Place
the pins through the hands and feet to secure them to the pan.
4. Once the legs of the frog are securely pinned to the dissection tray begin to cut the skin and
use the forceps to lift the skin midway between the rear legs of the frog. Using the scalpel,
make a cut along the centre, or midline, of the frog, bisecting it equally.
5. Continue cutting the skin by using the scissors all the way up the frog’s body to the neck. Be
very careful not to cut too deeply.
6. Still using the scissors, make horizontal cut just above the rear legs and between the front legs
of the frog as shown in figure 1.A
7. Once you have finished the cutting between the front and rear legs of the frog you need to
separate the skin flaps from the muscle below. To do this:
8. Pick up the flap of skin with the forceps, and use a scalpel to help separate the skin from the
muscle below.
9. Once the skin flaps have been cut pin them to the dissection tray using several pins as shown
in figure 1 B.

10. This section will describe the procedures for cutting through the frog’s abdominal muscles.
11. Now that the skin has been removed, begin by cutting the abdominal muscle and using the
forceps to lift the muscle midway between the rear legs of the frog. Next use the scalpel to
start cutting in the direction of the chin.
12. Using the scissors, continue carefully to cut the midline of the frog, but do not cut too deeply
as to damage the organs.
13. This is very important. When you reach a point just below the front legs, turn the scissors blades
sideways to cut through the bones in the chest. This should prevent damage to the heart or
other internal organs. When your scissors reach a point just below the frog’s neck you have
cut far enough.
14. Next, using the scissors, make horizontal incisions through the muscle between both the front
legs and above the back legs.
15. To finish opening up the frog’s body cavity therefore exposing the abdominal region, use the
forceps to hold the muscle flaps while separating the muscle from the tissues below with a
scalpel.
16. Once the muscle flaps have been separated from the underlying tissue, they must be pinned
back. This will allow easy access to the frog’s internal organs. If your frog is female, the body
cavity maybe full of black eggs. You may have to remove one side in order to continue your
dissection.
17. Open the mouth of the frog. Observe the tongue and the place where it is attached to the
lower jaw. The two bumps on the roof of the mouth between the internal openings of the
nostrils are the teeth. At the back of the mouth, find the openings of a tube. This tube leads to
the stomach and is called the oesophagus. Use the dissecting probe to push organs aside
without damaging them.
18. Identify the liver. It is large, dark structure found under the bone you cut. The lungs are the sac
like structures at the back of the heart. The heart is a small triangular shaped between the
8 : Basic Science
front legs and back to the liver. The gall bladder is a small, round sac attached to the middle
part of the liver. Move aside the left part of the liver. At the end of the oesophagus is the J
shaped stomach. At the bottom of the stomach, you should notice the beginning of a small
tube, the small intestine. The pancreas is located near where the stomach and small intestine
join. It is small, flat, light yellow body held in a thin membrane that is attached to both the
stomach and the small intestine. You may also see a mass of yellow, finger like structures
attached to the membranes near the intestine of your frog. These are fat bodies where the
frog stores fats. The spleen is small, round reddish organ. Follow the small intestine until it joins
a somewhat larger tube near the lower end of the abdomen. This is the large intestine. The
large intestine leads to the outside of the frog.
19. Carefully remove the frog from the dissecting tray. Wrap some wet paper towel around the
frog or place it the plastic storage bag and dispose it according to the direction from your
teacher.
Result
Organ Description Function
1. Lungs reddish pink, sponge like site for oxygen and carbon dioxide
structures exchange
2. Liver dark maroon, lobe shape makes bile (aids in digestion)
3. Pancreas thin, yellowish ribbon like makes insulin (aids in digestion)
4. Heart reddish, triangular shape pump blood to all parts of the body
5. Stomach greyish white, J shaped first site of chemical digestion,

temporary stores food, breaks down
food
6. Large intestine greyish white, long tube like collects waste, absorbs water
7. Oesophagus greyish white, tube like carries food to the stomach
8. Spleen dark reddish brown, round and part of circulatory system, stores
small sac blood
9. Small intestine greyish, long folded tube like absorb nutrients from food
10. Gall bladder greenish sac stores bile
11. Fat bodies bright yellow, finger like stores fats

structure.

Review Exercise
1. What is the purpose of your body’s digestive system?

A. to help your blood move through the body
B. to help you breathe
C. to help your body make food
D. to help your body break down food
2. Place these events in the correct order. Number each sentence 1 - 5.

_____ Food ends up in the small intestine.
_____ Food is chewed up.
_____ Food is in the large intestine.
_____ Food travels through the oesophagus.
_____ Food waste leaves the body.
3. How would you determine what the frog has eaten?
4. Label the drawing of the digestive system with the following structures: mouth, oesophagus,
stomach, liver, small intestine, and large intestine, salivary gland, rectum, pharynx,
pancreas, gall bladder.
5. Why do foods have to be digested?
6. The physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces is referred to as digestion.
7. The breakdown of large food molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed into
the bloodstream is called digestion.
10 : Basic Science
1.1.2 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestion and Absorption
Carbohydrates, proteins and fat are the main nutrients in our food. They are large molecules
which the body cannot absorb directly. To be useful they must be broken down into simpler
substances which the body can absorb.
Nutrient Absorbed as……..

Carbohydrates/starch Glucose
Protein Amino acids
Fat Fatty acids and glycerol
The chemical and mechanical processes of digestion convert these foods into absorbable
substances in the intestine. Vitamin and minerals in food are absorbed unchanged during
digestion.
The chemical processes of digestion depend on different enzymes. Enzymes are catalysts that
speed up the chemical reactions. Without them nutrients in the food you eat would be broken
down slowly that you would starve to death. The absence of even one enzyme can cause illness.
The human gut is a tube. At one end food is put in the mouth – ingested. At the other end
the undigested remains of the meal are removed through the anus – egested. In between
mouth and anus the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion break down food into
substances suitable for absorption
Different parts of the gut perform different tasks in processing food as it passes through. The
human gut is 7-9m long. The longest part of it is composed of the smallest intestine and the
large intestine. These lie folded and packed in the space of the abdominal cavity.
There are two types of digestion:
1. Chemical digestion
this occurs in the mouth, stomach and intestines, where there are enzymes to break down the
food.
2. Mechanical digestion
this occurs in the mouth, where teeth grind and break up food, and in the oesophagus, stomach
and small intestine, where a process called peristalsis (muscular contractions) pushes the food
around causing it to break up further.
After we swallow, our food passes through these organs in turn:

• oesophagus or gullet
• stomach
• small intestine
• large intestine

Stages of digestion
• Food is digested in the mouth, stomach and small intestine.
• Digested food is absorbed into the bloodstream in the small intestine.
• Excess water is absorbed back into the body in the large intestine.
• Any undigested food is stored in the rectum and passes out of the anus as faeces when we
go to the toilet.
Liver and Pancreas

The liver and the pancreas play important part in digestion. The liver produces bile, which helps
the digestion of fat. The pancreas produces chemicals called digestive enzymes.
Pathway of food through an animal
Ingestion Phyical digestion Chemical digestion

(taking food in) (grinding up of food) (break down of large food molecule
into simple molecules)
Absorption
(simple molecules are absorbed into
the bloodstream and transported
round the body)
Egestion Assimilation
(undigested food (making new compounds from the
removed) absorbed molecules, for normal
cell functioning or to produce
energy)
12 : Basic Science
(adapted from text book)
Activity 2: Breakdown of Starchy Foods by Saliva
• Take 3 small pieces of bread/cassava/roti/biscuit and place one piece on a watch glass.
• Add 2 drops of iodine solution on it. What do you observe? What does this test indicate?
• Place a second small piece of bread/cassava/roti/biscuit into your mouth and chew it for
minutes but do not swallow it. Do you notice any change in the taste?
• Spit the chewed food material into a clean test tube and add distilled water to make up 10
mL.
• Put the third piece of bread/cassava/roti/biscuit into another test tube and add distilled water
so that the volume adds up 10 mL. This act as a control. The control is a test of what happens
when you do nothing. You need one for comparison.
• Filter the contents of both the test tube s and test the liquids that pass through glucose. Which
test tube showed the presences of glucose? Explain what happens to starch when mixed with
saliva?
Food test – to find out what the food usually contain.
1. Starch test – add small drop of iodine solution. Starch present – dark blue black or bluish
black colour.
2. Simple sugars/glucose test – add small amount of Benedict’s solution or Fehling’s solution
A and B to the sample and heat gently in a water bath. Glucose present – brick red or
reddish orange colour (depending on the concentration)
3. Protein test – add several drops of Biuret solution or Copper sulphate and Sodium hydroxide
solution to the food solution. Protein present – purple colour will develop.
4. Fats test – rub the food sample on to a small area of brown paper or if liquid, a drop is
placed on the brown paper and the test area is allowed to dry. Fat present – greasy spot will
remain on the paper.
14 : Basic Science
Exercise Model Gut Experiment
Visking tubing is a material with extremely small holes in it, too small for us to see. It acts as a
sieve, and allows only very small molecules to pass through it. Glucose molecules were able to
pass through these holes, but starch molecules were unable to do so. This suggests that glucose
molecules are smaller than starch molecules.
The walls of your alimentary canal behave like visking tubing, and only allow small molecules
to pass through them. The food that you eat must pass through the walls of the intestine so that
it can go into your blood stream. However, most of the food you eat contains large complex
molecules such as starch. These molecules are too big to pass through the walls your intestine
into your blood vessels. In the intestine these large complex molecules are broken down into
molecules small enough to pass through the walls. This breaking down process is called digestion.
Materials
• Starch solution (cassava water or rice water)
• 30 cm visking tubing (cellophane)
• Cotton thread
• Glucose solution
• Test tube
• Iodine
• Fehlings / Benedicts solution
Method
1. Soak the visking tubing strip in water until it has softened.
2. Separate the sides of the tube by rubbing it between your fingers. It should form a tube.
3. Knot one end of the tube. Half fill the tube with the mixture of starch and glucose solution.
4. Knot the other end securely. Carefully rinse the outside of the tube with water. Put the tube in
a test tube of water as shown in figure below.
5. Remove a sample of water from the test tube and test for the presence of glucose and
starch.
6. Take samples of liquid from the test tube at 2 minute intervals until a further 5 samples have
been removed. Each time test the liquid for the presence of glucose and starch.

7. Enter your results in a table like the one below.
Time Glucose Starch
Start
2 min
4 min
6 min
8 min
10 min
Review Questions
(a) Which substance, starch or glucose, passed through the tubing?

(b) What does this suggest about the walls of the tubing?
(c) Why are some molecules able to pass through and others not?

(d) Which molecule do you think is larger – starch or glucose?
(e) What is the visking tubing similar to in our body?
16 : Basic Science
1.1.3 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The components of the circulatory systems are: heart, blood vessels and
blood. Blood carries digested food to the cells of the body. It also brings
them other vital substances such as oxygen and water, and it carries away
their waste materials.
Blood
Blood is a mixture of red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets all suspended
in water liquid called plasma.
Red Blood Cells

These are made in the red marrow inside the bones. Red cells are
partly made from a protein called haemoglobin which contains iron
and gives blood its dark red colour. Haemoglobin is important because
it can attract and carry molecules of oxygen. Blood which is carrying
oxygen is bright red in colour.
White Blood Cells

White blood cells are an important
component of the blood system. Although
white blood cells account for only about
1 percent of the blood, their impact is
significant. White blood cells, also called
leukocytes, are essential for good health
and protection against illness and disease.
They flow through your bloodstream to battle viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders that
threaten your health. When the body is in distress and a particular area is under attack, white
blood cells rush in to help destroy the harmful substance and prevent illness.
White blood cells are produced inside the bone marrow and stored in your blood and lymphatic
tissues. Because some white blood cells have a short lifespan of one to three days, your bone
marrow is constantly producing them.
Platelets
These are pieces of broken up blood cells which come from red
bone marrow. They help the blood to clot when the skin is cut.

Plasma
Plasma is mainly water but contains many dissolved substances including
digested food (glucose, amino acids, minerals and vitamins), hormones,
antibodies and waste materials such as carbon dioxide and urea.
A bag of blood plasma
Circulation and the Blood

The heart pumps blood round the body through a system of tubes. Blood travels away from the
heart to the organs through arteries, and returns through veins.
Arteries Capillaries Veins
Arteries
• Carry blood away from the heart (always oxygenated apart from the pulmonary artery which
goes to the lungs)
• Have thick muscular walls
• Have small passageways for blood (internal walls)
• Contain blood under high pressure
Veins
• Carry blood to the heart (always de-oxygenated apart from the pulmonary vein which goes
from the lungs to the heart)
• Have thin walls
• Have larger internal walls
• Contain blood under low pressure
• Have valves to prevent blood flowing backwards
18 : Basic Science
Capillaries
• Join arteries to vein
• Found in the muscles and lungs
• Microscopic – one cell thick
• Very low blood pressure
• Where gas exchange takes place. Oxygen
passes through the capillary wall and into the
tissues, carbon dioxide passes from the tissues
into the blood http://www.examiner.com/slideshow/main-blood-components-
and-vessels#slide=1
The Heart
The circulatory system is powered by the body’s hardest-working organ - the heart, which is only
about the size of a closed fist. Even at rest, the average heart easily pumps over 5 litres of blood
throughout the body every minute.
The heart pumps blood around the body. The wall of the heart contains muscle fibres.
The diagram below shows the structure of the heart.
http://carolgiglioibbio2.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/bio-6-2-12.jpg
Blood returns to the heart from the body in veins. It enters the right atrium, which contracts
forcing the blood into the right ventricle.
When this contracts it forces blood out of the heart through the pulmonary artery to the lungs,
where carbon dioxide is removed and oxygen is absorbed.
Blood from the lungs enters the left atrium of the heart and is forced into the left ventricle. This
chamber has a very thick muscular wall to push blood out of the heart into the main artery, the
aorta, and around the body.
There are valves in the heart to make sure that blood flows in the correct direction or it prevents
the backflow of the blood.
The heart is said to be a double pump, because the right side of the heart pumps blood to the
lungs, and the left side pumps it around the body. This is called a double circulation.
Experiment: Blood
1. Take 3 clean glass slides. Put a very small drop of blood on two of them.
2. Using the other slide quickly spread or smear the blood over the slides as shown.
3. Examine the blood smear on one of the slides under the microscope using high power.
4. Draw what you saw.
5. Add a drop of Leishmann’s stain to your blood smear and leave stain on the slide for about
minutes.
6. Rinse the excess stain from the slide with water, and then examine the stained smear under
the microscope.
7. Draw what you saw.
Poster – Construct an information poster on heart problems in Fiji. Include:

• What causes this disorder?
• How can it be prevented?
• What are the main symptoms to look out for?
• How can it be helped?
1. Name the blood vessel that supplies the heart with its own blood supply.
2. State how many blood groups are there?
3. Where are worn out red blood cells destroyed?
20 : Basic Science
3. Where are worn out red blood cells destroyed?
1.1.4RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
In the lung, oxygen is added to the blood and carbondioxide is removed. It’s all part of the process
by which the body releases the energy in digested food.
1.1.4 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiration
In the lung, oxygen is added to the blood and carbondioxide is removed. It’s all part of the
The cells (building blocks of all living things) of the body get their energy they need by combining
process by which the body releases the energy in digested food.
digested food with oxygen brought to them by the blood. The process is called respiration – like
Respiration
burning of other fuels, it produces water and carbondioxide gas.
The cells (building blocks of all living things) of the body get their energy they need by combining
digested
As bloodfood with
passes oxygen
through the brought to themfresh
lungs, it absorbs by the blood.
supplies The process
of oxygen, is called
and releases therespiration
unwanted – like
burning of other fuels, it produces water and carbondioxide gas.
carbondioxide carried away from the cells.
As blood passes through the lungs, it absorbs fresh supplies of oxygen, and releases the unwanted
carbondioxide
The Lungs carried away from the cells.
The lungs are two spongy bags of tissue filled with millions of tiny air spaces called alveoli. These
The Lungs
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very thin two spongy
and eachbags of tissueby
issurrounded filled with
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millions
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from the These are
air you
very thin walls and each issurrounded by a dense
breathe diffuses through the thin walls and into the
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blood atdiffuses
breathe the same time; carbondioxide
through the thin walls diffuses
and intofrom the
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bloodat outtheintosame
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of a thorax.
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The tiny called
muscle air spaces lie at endsthe ofsides
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passage which Around connect of thethe
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Breathing
The lungs hang in an air tight space called thorax. At the
Breathing in (inhaling) – When you breathe in, 2 things
bottom of the thorax is a curved sheet of muscle called
diaphragm.
happen at once:Around the sides of the thorax is the rib cage,
with the sheets of muscles between the ribs – these are
known
¾ as
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upwards or ventilation.
and outwards.
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(exhaling)–When youbreathe
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happen at once:
diaphragm muscles and the muscles between the ribs relax,
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thedownwards
thorax returns to its original
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volume of thorax.
the
• theThe external
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decreasing muscles contract, pulling the rib cage upwards and outwards.
the volume.
During light breathing, the breathing action is mainly

produced by movement of the diaphragm muscles. The Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 21
muscles between the ribs are used when greater amounts of

¾ The external intercostal muscles contract, pulling the
rib cage upwards and outwards.
Breathing out (exhaling)–When you breathe out, the

diaphragm muscles and the muscles between the ribs relax,
Breathing
the thoraxout (exhaling)
returns – When
to its original youairbreathe
size and is pushedout,
out the
of
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the lungs decreasing the volume.
relax, the thorax returns to its original size and air is pushed
out of the lungs decreasing the volume.
During light breathing, the breathing action is mainly
During lightbybreathing,
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diaphragm muscles. is mainly
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muscles between of the
the ribs are useddiaphragm
when greatermuscles.
amounts of The
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air are moved in and out of the lungs – during running for
of air are moved in and out of the lungs – during running
for example.
example. Withmore
With moreair air flowing
flowing in and
in and outtheoflungs,
out of the lungs,
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absorb oxygen
oxygen and release
and release carbondioxide
carbondioxide at faster
atComparison
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Comparison of Inspired
Comparison and Expired
of Inspired Air Air
and Expired
Experiment: Making aa model

Experiment:Making lungs
model lungs
Whatyou
What youwill
willneed
need
Experiment:Making a model lungs
• A plastic bottle
• • A What
strawyou will need
A straw
• • AnAn elastic
elasticband
band
• • Scissors
Scissors
• A straw
• • 2 2balloons
balloons
• An elastic band
• • Playdough/plasticine
Playdough/plasticine
• Scissors
• 2 balloons
Method
• Playdough/plasticine
1. Remove the bottom of your bottle.

Method
22 : Basic Science
2. Tie1.a Remove
knot in one
theend of a of
bottom balloon and snip of the fat end
your bottle.
Method
1. Remove the bottom of your bottle.
2. Tie a knot in one end of a balloon and snip of the fat end
3. Stretch this end around the bottom of your plastic bottle
4. Put a straw in the neck of the other balloon and secure tightly with the elastic band but not so
that you crush the straw.The air must flow through so test it with a little bow through the straw
to see if the balloon inflates.
5. Put the straw

s and thhe balloon innto the neckk of the botttle and secuure with the playdough making a
seal aroundd the bottle – make surre that againn, you don’tt crush straw
w.Your lungg model is finished
f
and now foor the actionn
6. To see your
y model lung work you
y need too pull down on the ballooon at the bbottom and if
i you
watch the water
w ballooon you can see it inflate. If you lett go of the balloon
b or ppush it back in you can
see it deflaate.
5. Put the straw and the balloon into the neck of the bottle and secure with the playdough
making a seal
5. Put s around
the straw the
and th bottle in
he balloon –ntomake sure
k of that
the neck again,
tle andyou
the bott don’t
secuure withcrush straw.Your
the playdough lung a
making
model is finished
seal aroundd the and now
bottle for the
– make suraction
re that againn, you don’tt crush straw
w.Your lungg model is finished
f
6. To see your model lung work you need to pull down on the balloon at the bottom and if you
and now foor the actionn
watch the water balloon you can see it inflate. If you let go of the balloon or push it back in
you Review
can seeQu ituestions
deflate.
6. To see your
y model lung work you y need too pull down on the ballooon at the bbottom and if i you
1.watch
Fromthe
thewater
wmodel,
ballooonrepresen
whhat you cannts:
see it inflate. If you lett go of the balloon
b or ppush it back in you can
Review Questions
see it deflaate.
(i) Ribbcage
1. From the model, what represents:
(ii) Diaaphragm
(i) Ribcage
(ii) Diaphragm
(iii) Lunngs
(iii) Lungs
2. In your lungs,
l whatt gas is remooved from your
y blood?? What simpple test coulld you carryy out to
show that this
t gas is present
p in thhe air you breathe out?
?
2. In your lungs,Qu
Review what gas is removed from your blood? What simple test could you carry out to
uestions
show that this gas is present in the air you breathe out?
1. From the model, whhat represennts:
http://heaalthylogica.bloggspot.com/201
12/08/tips-to-cllean-lungs-of-ssmokers.html
(i) Ribbcage
(ii) Diaaphragm
(iii) Lunngs
2. In your lungs,
l whatt gas is remooved from your
y blood?
? What simpple test coulld you carryy out to
show that this
t gas is present
p in thhe air you breathe out?
?
R
Research: How does sm
moking dam
mage the lunggs?
http://heaalthylogica.bloggspot.com/201
12/08/tips-to-cllean-lungs-of-ssmokers.html
3. Circle the letter of each sentence that is true about blood flow through the heart.
a. Blood enters the heart through the right and left atria.
b. Blood enters the heart through the right and left ventricles.
c. Blood flows from the ventricles to the atria.
d. Blood flows out of the heart through the right and left atria.
4. Flaps of connective tissue called _________________________ prevent blood from flowing

backward in the heart.
5. What does a sudden increase in the number of white cells tell a physician?
6. Match each structure of the respiratory system with its description.
Structure Description
(i) pharynx a. Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs
(ii) trachea b. Tiny projections that sweep trapped particles and mucus
(iii) cilia away from the lungs
(iv)l arynx c. Tube that serves as a passageway for both air and food
d. Large passage ways in the chest that lead to the lungs
1.1.5 EXCRETORY SYSTEMS
As a result of all chemical processes which occur in the body, waste products are constantly
being formed. If they are allowed to accumulate in cells and tissues they would slow down
chemical processes and poison cells.
Excretion – the removal of waste products from the body.
The lungs and the kidneys are organs for excretion – they remove from the body substances
which it makes but does not need.
Lungs – remove carbondioxide from the blood. They also add oxygen to the blood.
Kidney – remove from the blood nitrogen rich compounds such as urea. They also remove
excess salts and water which the body has no use for. Together, these substances form urine
which is collected in the bladder and released when you urinate.
Structure of the Human Urinary System

Human kidneys are compact, bean shaped structures located in the area behind the back.
They produce urine, a yellowish fluid composed of materials removed from the blood as it
passes through them.
24 : Basic Science
produce urine, a yellowish fluid composed of materials removed from the blood as it passes
through them.
Human kidneys are compact, bean shaped structures located in the area behind the back. They
produce urine, a yellowish fluid composed of materials removed from the blood as it passes
through them.
http://www.ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-11-human-health-and/113-the-kidney.html
ves the kidneys via the ureters and is stored in a muscular bag, the bladder. The bladder
as it fills and can hold about 400mL of urine.
out of the bladder is athe

Urine leaves tube called
kidneys via the urethra.
the ureters There
and is storedis
in aa muscular
sphincter muscle
bag, at the
the bladder. Thetop of
bladder
a, which isexpands
usuallyas tightly
it fills andclosed.
can holdWhen
about 400mL of urine.is full, the sphincter muscle opens, so
the bladder
flows along the
Urine
Leading
urethra
leaves
out ofthe
and outisofa the
thekidneys
bladder via
the called
body.the
tubeureters
Adult
and
canThere
is stored
urethra.
consciously
in aismuscular
control
bag,
a sphincter
this
the at
muscle
sphincter
bladder. The bladder
the top of
expands
hereas inUrine
babies, itasopens
leaves
the urethra, it fills
the
which isand
kidneys canvia hold
the about
automatically
usually tightly when400mL
ureters
closed. the
When isofstored
andbladder
the urine.isin
bladder a muscular
isfull.
full, bag,
the sphincter the bladder.
muscle opens, so The bladder
expands asout
that urine
Leading
it fills
flows andthe
of along
canurethra
the bladder
hold about
is aand out400mL
tube
of urine.
of the body.
called Adult can consciously control this sphincter
brought tothe
theurethra.
kidneys
muscle There
whereas is a sphincter
inin ababies,
branch muscle at when the bladder is full.
of renal
it opens automatically
the topout
Leading of the urethra,
of the which
bladder is ais tube
usually tightly
called the urethra. There is a sphincter muscle at the top of
he blood isclosed.
filtered into
When thetiny tubules
bladder is full,called
the sphincter
theBlood is brought
urethra, whichtoistheusually
kidneystightly
in a branch of renal
closed. When the bladder is full, the sphincter muscle opens, so
inside themuscle
kidneys.
artery.
opens, so that urine flows along
TheAll ofisthe
blood glucose
filtered andtubules
into tiny somecalled
theurine
that urethra and
flows out of
along thethe body.and
urethra Adult
outcan
of the body. Adult can consciously control this sphincter
consciously
ts, that have gone
nephron into control
insidethe
the this sphincter
tubules
kidneys. areoftaken muscle
back,and somewhen the bladder is full.
muscle whereas in babies, itAll
openstheautomatically
glucose
whereas in babies, it opens automatically
orbed, ofthe
intowhentheblood.
salts, that
Thehaveremaining
gone into thefluid
tubules
in are
thetaken back,
the bladder is full.
or reabsorbed,
Blood is broughtinto the blood.
to the Thein
kidneys remaining
a branchfluid
of in the
renal
water with urea and some salts dissolved in it.
Blood is brought to the kidneys in a branch
tubulesThe
artery. is water
bloodwith
is urea and some
filtered into salts
tinydissolved in it.
tubules called
of renal artery. The blood is filtered into tiny
tubules inside
nephron called the
nephron
kidneys.inside
All the kidneys.
of the glucose and some
is urine.ofAll
Theoffluid urine. and some of thehttp://www.bupa.co.uk/individuals/health-information/directory/k/kidney-stones
the glucose salts, http://www.bupa.co.uk/individuals/health-information/directory/k/kidney-stones
the salts,isthat have gone into the tubules are taken back,
that have gone into the tubules are taken
orback, or reabsorbed,
reabsorbed, into the into theThe
blood. blood. The remaining
remaining fluid in fluid
the in the tubules is water with urea and
some salts dissolved in it. The fluid is urine.
tubules is water with urea and some salts dissolved in it.
Activity:How
Activity: How Does
Does The
The Body
BodyGet GetRid
Ridofof
Soluble
SolubleWaste?
Waste?
How Does The Body Get Rid of Soluble
• Place a few small fish in a beaker of water.Waste?
The fluid is urine. http://www.bupa.co.uk/individuals/health-information/directory/k/kidney-sto
• AddPlace
• 2 drops
a fewofsmall
universal
fish inindicator
a beaker oftowater.
the water. Let this be Beaker A.
• Add the same amount of the indicator to another beaker which has water only. Let this be
•
ace a few small Add 2indrops
fish of universal
a beaker indicator to the water. Let this be Beaker A.
of water.
Beaker B. This is the control.
dd 2 drops• ofLeave the beaker
universal for about
indicator to the30water.
minutes.LetThen
this see if there isA.any change in the colour.
be Beaker
• Is theHow
Activity: changeDoesin The
colour noticeable
Body Get Ridinof both beakers?
Soluble Waste?
• What can you infer from the colour change?
• Add about 5 drops of ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) to the control beaker B. What happens?
• • From
Placeyour observation,
a few small fishwhat in acan youof
beaker infer about excretion in a fish?
water.
• Add 2 drops of universal indicator to the water. Let this be Beaker A.
happens?
• From your observation, what can you infer about excretion in a fish?
Review Questions
Review Questions
1. Dialysis is a procedure used on a person who has:
1. Dialysis is a procedure used on a person who has:

A. kidney stones B. overactive bladder C. kidney failure D. low blood sugar
A. kidney stones B. overactive bladder
C. kidney failure D. low blood sugar
2. The primary function of the kidney is to
2. The primary function of the kidney is to
A.
A. filter
filter wastes fromthe
wastes from theblood
blood B. remove
B. remove
excessexcess water
water from thefrom
bodythe body
C. protect the body against infection D. maintain blood sugar levels
C. protect the body against infection D. maintain blood sugar levels
3. The filtering unit of the kidney is the:
A. 3.
neuron
The filtering unit of B.
thepeptide
kidney is the: C. nephron D. ureter
A. neuron B. peptide C. nephron D. ureter

1.1.6 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
One of the most important things that help us to tell something living from something non-living
is that living things can reproduce themselves. Cats can have kittens, dogs can have puppies,
sheep can have lambs, and humans REPRODUCTIVE
1.1.6 can have babies, but your desk will never have a brood of
SYSTEM
little desks. You can see that without reproduction life would come to a stop.
One of the most important things that help us to tell something living from something non-living is
The Female
that livingReproductive Systemthemselves. Cats can have kittens, dogs can have puppies, sheep
things can reproduce
The female gametes called eggs or ova are
can have lambs, and humans can have babies,
made in the two ovaries. Leading away from the
ovariesbut are
yourthe
deskoviduct or have
will never fallopian tubes.
a brood They
of little
do not connect
desks. You candirectly towithout
see that the ovaries, but have
reproduction
a funnel shaped opening just a short distance
life would come to a stop.
away. The oviducts lead to the womb or uterus.
This has a very thick wall, made of muscle. It is
The Female Reproductive System
quite small – only about the size of a clenched
fist but it can stretch a great deal when a woman
The female
is pregnant. gametes
At the base called
of theeggs or ova
uterus is a are
narrow
openingmadeguarded
in the twoby muscles.
ovaries. Thisaway
Leading is the neck
from
of the womb, or cervix. It leads to the vagina,
http://dummyguidesforhealth.weebly.com/the-reproductive-system.html
which opens to the outside. The opening from
the bladder, called urethra runs in front of the vagina, while the rectum is just behind it. The 3
tubes open quite separately to the outside.
At birth, a girl has hundreds of thousands of partly developed eggs or ova in her ovaries. From
the time she reaches puberty, she releases a mature egg from one of her ovaries about every
28 days. The egg is drawn down the oviduct and into the uterus. The release of an egg is called
ovulation. Just before this happens, the ovaries put into the blood a hormone called oestrogen
which sets off changes in the lining of the uterus – the lining thickens and a dense network of tiny
blood tubes forms within it. The uterus is then ready to receive a fertilised egg and to nourish it as
it develops into a baby.
26 : Basic Science
forms within it. The uterus is then ready to receive a fertilised egg and to nourish it as it develops
into a baby
Menstruation
Menstruation
If the Ifegg
the isegg
notis fertilised, it dies
not fertilised, andand
it dies thethe
lining of of
lining thetheuterus
uterusbegins
begins to breakup.
to break up.Within
Withintwo
twoweeks,
weeks,
ovumovum lininglining
andand blood passes
blood passesout
out through
through the thevagina
vagina during
during a period
a period – the –process
the process
is calledis called
menstruation.Menstruation usually last about 5 days. The 28 day cycle of ovulation, uterus lining
menstruation.Menstruation usually last about 5 days. The 28 day cycle of ovulation, uterus lining
growth and menstruation is called the menstruation cycle.
growth and menstruation is called the menstruation cycle.
https://wikis.engrade.com/a96science/reproduction
TheReproduct
The Male Male Reproduct tivemSystem
tive System m
TheA
A man man
Male
pro prooducesmale
Reproductive
oducesmale gametes gametes
System caalled
caalled sperm minsperm
hismin his
teste testetestes
s.The s.The testes
s also s also
produ uceprodu
theuce the
male malee sex
e sex
A man
hormone, t producesmale
hormone, t
testosteron
testosteron gametes
e. Tohis
e. To leave leave called
body, histhhe spermin
body, thhe
his sperm
testes.The testes
firstt throu
travel also the produce the wmale
sperm first t travel ughthrou
theugh speermwhere
speerm ducts wducts where
sex hormone, testosterone. To leave his body,
theythe theyw mixliquid
w produced
with pliquid through
p in the semina
produced in thealseminaal
mix sperm
with first travel the sperm ducts
where
vesicles anndthey
vesicles anndmix
prostate g with The
prostate
gland. gliquid
gland. l Theproduced
liquid land and
liquid in the
seminal vesicles and prostate as gland.
men. TheThe liquid
spermssperms aree together
aree together k
known kas semen.
known seThe
and sperms are together known as semen. The
liquid liquid
nour nourthe
rishes rishes the sp
spperms perms
and s and
sets offsets
s the off the
liquid nourishes the sperms and sets off the
swimming
swimming
swimming movement
movements
movement s in their
s in theirintatheir ta ils which
elps he
tails which
ils which he elps
helps
themthem
tothem tototravel
traavel the up
traavel
up theoviduct
oup the
oviduct ooviduct of of
of thhe woman.thhethe woman.
woman.
LikeLike
urine, semen
urine, , semen leaves
leavves the
the body
body through
y through thhethe
Likeurethra,
urine,, semen leav ves the body y through
the tube that passes through the penis. th
he
http://www.bioartfertility.co.zaa/wp-content/up
ploads/2013/06/M
Male-Reproductivve-System.jpg
urethra, http://www.bioartfertility.co.zaa/wp-content/up
ploads/2013/06/M
urethra, thhe tubethhe tube
that thatt passes
t passes throoughthro
ough the
the
penis. penis.
Fertilisatio
Fertilisatio
on on
DuringDuring
sexxual sex
xual intercou
urse theurse
intercou the penis
maan's maan'sreeleases
penis reeleases
semeen seme
intoen
theinto
w the woman's
w vaagina.vaSperm
woman's agina.
m Sperm
Science cells2m- Lower
Book
cells
Secondary: 27
travel in se
emen
travel in seemen from thefrom t
the penis an
nd into the to
op of the va
agina. They
y enter the u
uterus
t penis annd into the toop of the vaagina. Theyy enter the uuterus throug throug
gh the gh the
cervix and travel to thhe oviduct. If
I a sperm cell
c meets with
w an egg cell
c there, feertilisation can
c
http://www.bioartfertility.co.zaa/wp-content/up
ploads/2013/06/M
urethra, thhe tube thatt passes throough the
penis.
Fertilisatioon
Fertilisation
During
Duringsexual
sexxual intercourse thema
intercouurse the man’s penis
an's penis releases
reeleases semen
semeen into
into the w the woman’s
woman's vaagina. vagina.
Sperm Sperm cells
m cells
travel
travelin
insemen fromthe
seemen from t thepenis
penis
anndand
intointo the
the to top
op of theofvaagina.
the vagina. Theythe
Theyy enter enter thethroug
uuterus uterus through the
gh the
cervix and travel to the oviduct. If a sperm cell meets with an egg cell there, fertilisation can
cervix and travel to thhe oviduct. IfI a sperm cell
c meets withw an egg cell c there, feertilisation can
c
happen. Fertilisation happens when an egg cell meets with a sperm cell and joins with it.
happen. Feertilisation happens
h whhen an egg cell
c meets withw a sperm m cell and jooins with it.
The fertilised egg divides to form a ball of cells called an embryo. This attaches to the lining of
the
Theuterus andegg
fertilissed begins totodevelop
diviides form intoofacfoetus
m a ball (pronounced
ells called a embryo. “fee-tuss”)
an and
This attachhes finally
to the lin a baby.
ning of the
uterus and begins to develop
d intoo a foetus (ppronounced "fee-tuss") and finallyy a baby.
http://en.w
wikipedia.org/wikii/Human_fertilizaation#mediaview
wer/File:Human_FFertilization.png
Developmment of the foetus

f
Development of the foetus
The foetus relies upon its mother as it develops. These are some of the things it needs:
• protection
• oxygen
• nutrients (food and water).
The foetus is insulated and protected by the uterus and the amniotic fluid, a liquid contained in
a bag called the amnion.
The placenta is responsible for providing oxygen and nutrients, and removing waste substances.
It grows into the wall of the uterus and is joined to the foetus by the umbilical cord.
The mother’s blood does not mix with the foetus’s blood, but the placenta lets substances pass
between the two blood supplies:
• oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the placenta from the mother to the foetus
• waste substances, such as carbon dioxide, diffuse across the placenta from the foetus to the
mother.
28 : Basic Science
The mother's blood does not mix with the foetus's blood, but the placenta lets substances pass
between the two blood supplies:
• oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the placenta from the mother to the foetus
• waste substances, such as carbon dioxide, diffuse across the placenta from the foetus to the
mother.
Birth
Birth
After nine months the
After nine baby
months is ready
the baby is readyto
to be born.
be born. The The
cervixcervix relaxes
relaxes and musclesand
in themuscles
wall of the in the wall of the
uterus contract,
uterus pushing the baby
contract, pushing the babyout
out ofofthethe mother’s
mother's body. body.
The reproductive system of a child is not mature and needs to change as a boy or girl develops into
Puberty Puberty
an adult, so that the system is fully working. These changes begin between the ages of ten and
The reproductive system of a child is not mature and needs to change as a boy or girl develops
fifteen. The time
The when thesystem
reproductive changes
of ahappen is called
child is not mature puberty.
and needs to change as a boy or girl develops into
into an adult, so that the system is fully working. These changes begin between the ages of ten
an adult, so that the system is fully working. These changes begin between the ages of ten and
and fifteen.The
The time when the changes happen is called puberty.
changes happen because of sex hormones produced by the testes in boys and by the ovaries in
fifteen. The time when the changes happen is called puberty.
girls. Some changes happen in boys and girls, while others just happen in boys or girls.
The changes happen because
The changes happenof sex of
because hormones
sex hormonesproduced bytestes
produced by the theintestes
boys andinby boys and
the ovaries in by the
ovaries in girls. Some changes
girls. happen
Some changes inboys
happen in boysandand
girls, girls, whilejust
while others others
happenjust happen
in boys or girls. in boys or girls.
Here are some

Here arechanges
some changes thatthat
happen
happen toto
both boys both
andboys
girls:and
Heregirls:
are some changes that happen to
• underarm hair growsboth boys and girls:
• pubic hair •grows
underarm hair grows
• underarm hair grows
• body smell• gets
pubicstronger.
hair grows
• pubic hair grows
• emotional•changes
body smell gets stronger.
• body smell gets stronger.
• growth rate• increases
emotional changes
• emotional changes
• growth• rate increases
growth rate increases
The time when the physical changes and
emotional The
changes happen
The time
time when the when ischanges
called
the physical
physical changes
adolescence. and emotional changes happen is
and emotional changes happen is
http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/ks3/science/organisms behaviour health/reproduction/revisi
Boys called adolescence. http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/ks3/science/organisms behaviour health/reproduction/revisi
called adolescence.
Here are some changes that happen only to boys:
Boys
• voice breaks (gets deeper)
Boys
• testes and penisHeregetarebigger
some changes that happen only to boys:
• testes start to produce sperm cells
Here are some changes that happen only to boys:
• shoulders get wider • voice breaks (gets deeper)
• testes and penis get bigger
• hair grows •onvoice
facebreaks
and (gets
chestdeeper)
area
• testes and penis get bigger Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 29
• shoulders get wider
• hair grows on face and chest area
• shoulders get wider
Girls
Here are some changes that happen only to girls:
• breasts develop
• ovaries start to release egg cells (periods start)
• hips get wider.
• menstrual cycle to begin.
Review Questions
Copy and complete using the words
• menstrual cyclefrom the word list.
to begin.
1. In the man the testes make the ………………..cells. The ……………becomes erect during
sexual intercourse. The sperms are carried through a long ………………called the sperm
duct to the top of the penis.
Review Here glands produce fluids that help the sperms to ………………
Questions
The urethra is a tube that carries sperms and ………………out of the body.
Copy and complete using the words from the word list.
In the woman the ovaries make the ……………… One ovum is produced every ………………
The ovum is carried
1. In thealong testes
man thethe ……………… down towards
make the ………………..cells. Thethe ……………….erect
……………becomes Theduring
uterus
sexual
protects the developing baby. A special organ called the p………………grows in the uterus top
intercourse. The sperms are carried through a long ………………called the sperm duct to the
during pregnancy. penis.
of theThis Here glands
supplies produce fluidsbaby
the developing that help
withthe………………and
sperms to ……………… The urethra is a
o………………
tube that carries sperms and ………………out of the body.

urine ova food Inmonththe woman tube sperm
the ovaries makeswim oviduct One
the ……………… placenta penis every
ovum is produced oxygen uterus The
………………
ovum is carried along the ……………… down towards the ………………. The uterus protects the
2. During puberty special
developingchemicals are organ
baby. A special released
calledinto the bloodstream.inThese
the p………………grows chemicals
the uterus are
during pregnancy.
called s……………… h………………… The hormone produced in the boy’s testes is called
This supplies the developing baby with ………………and o………………
t…………………urine
The ova
hormone produced
food month tubebysperm
the ovaries
swim is calledplacenta
oviduct o…………………penis oxygen uterus
oestrogen
2. During hormones
puberty special chemicals are testosterone sex
released into the bloodstream. These chemicals are called
s……………… h………………… The hormone produced in the boy’s testes is called …………………
The hormone produced by the ovaries is called o…………………
3. (i) How does a developing foetus get the oxygen it needs?
(ii) Differentiate the function of placenta and umbilical
oestrogen cord.
hormones testosterone sex
(iii) What happens to the lining of the uterus just before ovulation takes place?
(v) How are identical twins
3. (i) How produced?
does a developing foetus get the oxygen it needs?
4. The table below contains a list of changes during puberty. Tick the correct columns to show
which changes happens to boys, girls or both. (ii)Differentiate the
Changes at Puberty Boys Girls function of placenta and

umbilical cord.
Hips become wider
Feeling of sexual attraction begins
(iii)What happens to the
Sperm are produced
lining of the uterus just
The breast grows larger
before ovulation takes
Voice breaks and becomes deeper place?
Hair grows under the armpits
The shoulder grows broader (v) How are identical
Ova(eggs) are produced twins produced?
30 : Basic Science
4. The table below contains a list of changes during puberty. Tick the correct columns to show
which changes happens to boys, girls or both.
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, the growth and movement of organisms in response to their environment is
UNIT 2: LIVING TOGETHER
investigated. The feeding relationship that exists between organisms within a community is
INTRODUCTION
described.
In this unit, the growth and movement of organisms in response to their environment is investigated.
The feeding
1.2.1Taxis relationship that exists between organisms within a community is described.
and Kinesis
1.2.1 TAXIS AND KINESIS

Taxes and kinesis are examples of orientation behaviours. Such behaviours describe the way
Taxes
in and
whichkinesis
motileare examples
(moving) of orientation
organisms or gametesbehaviours. Such behaviours
position themselves and move indescribe the way
response to
in which motile
external (moving) organisms or gametes position themselves and move in response to
stimuli.
external stimuli.
Common stimuli are gravity, light, chemicals and temperature. Some animals and many
Common stimuli are gravity, light, chemicals and temperature. Some animals and many
protozoa e.g. paramecium respond to certain stimuli simply by changing the rate of movement
protozoa e.g. paramecium respond to certain stimuli simply by changing the rate of movement
or byorrandomly turning
by randomly without
turning actually
without actuallyorientating
orientating to thestimulus.
to the stimulus.
Undirected movement
Undirected movementis iscalled
calledkineses
kineses (sing.kinesis).
(sing.kinesis). Directed movement
Directed movement towards
towards or away from
or away
stimulus
fromisstimulus
called is
taxes (sing.taxis)
called taxes (sing.taxis)
http://click4biology.info/c4b/E/E3.htm
1.2.2 FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

Every organism needs food in order to live and has to get that food from somewhere. Every
1.2.2 FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
organism can be classified by where it fits into the food chain. Most broadly, all organisms fit into
Every one of threeneeds

organism camps: food
producers, consumers,
in order to live andanddecomposers.
has to get that food from somewhere. Every
Every organism needs food in order to live and has to get that food from somewhere. Every
one of(i)threeProducers/Autotrophs
camps: producers, consumers,
– organismsand whichdecomposers.
make their own food from simple substances
such as carbon dioxide and water e.g. green
one of three camps: producers, consumers, and decomposers.
(i) Producers/Autotrophs – organisms which make their own food from simple substances such
plants
as carbon dioxide and water e.g. green plants
(i) Producers/Autotrophs – organisms which make their own food from simple substances
such as carbon dioxide and water e.g. green
plants
Primary Source
Primary Source
(ii) Heterotrophs
(ii) Heterotrophs – organisms
– organisms which cannot
which cannot make make their food
their own own food but rely
but rely on readily
on readily madefood.
made
food. Also known as consumers. The different types of consumers are:
Also known (ii)as consumers.
Heterotrophs –The different
organisms types
which cannotofmake
consumers are:but rely on readily made
their own food
food. Also known as consumers. The different types of consumers are:
¾ Primary
• Primary Consumer/Herbivores
Consumer/Herbivores are organisms
are organisms that feed
that feed directly
directly on on greenplants
green plantse.g.
e.g. cows,
cows,
¾ Primary Consumer/Herbivores are organisms that feed directly on green plants e.g. cows,
horses,horses,
and goats.
and goats.
horses, and goats.
http://www.experienceproject.com/stories/Want-People-To-Share-My-Poetry/2641385
http://www.experienceproject.com/stories/Want-People-To-Share-My-Poetry/2641385
¾ Secondary Consumers/Carnivores are organisms that eat herbivores e.g. birds, lizards.
• Secondary ¾ Consumers/Carnivores
Tertiary are are
Consumers/Carnivores organisms thateateat herbivores e.g.eg.sharks,
birds, lizards.
¾ Secondary Consumers/Carnivores areorganisms that
organisms thatsecondary carnivores
eat herbivores e.g. birds, lizards.
• Tertiary Consumers/Carnivores are organisms that eat secondary carnivores eg.sharks,
snakes.
¾ Tertiary Consumers/Carnivores are organisms that eat secondary carnivores eg.sharks,
snakes.
snakes.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Great_white_shark
32 : Basic Science
¾ Omnivores are organisms that eat both plants and animals e.g. humans, chimpanzees
¾ Omnivores are organisms that eat both plants and animals e.g. humans, chimpanzees
• Omnivores areare
¾ Omnivores organisms
organisms that eatboth
that eat both plants
plants and and animals
animals e.g. humans,
e.g. humans, chimpanzees
chimpanzees
Primary Source
¾ Parasites are organisms that eat living organisms (without killing them) e.g. mosquitoes,
fleas
Primary Source
¾ ¾Scavengers areorganisms
Parasites are organismsthat
thateat
eatliving
foodorganisms
scraps, waste products
(without and
killing deade.g.
them) bodies. e.g. seagull,
mosquitoes,
• Parasites are organisms that eat living organisms (without killing them) e.g. mosquitoes,
crabs.
fleasfleas
• ¾Scavengers
¾Carrion
Scavengers areareorganisms
feeders are thateat
organisms
organisms that eat
that food
feed
food on scraps,
dead
scraps, waste
productsproducts
bodiese.g.hawk,vultures
waste and dead
and dead bodies. bodies. e.g.
e.g. seagull,
¾seagull,
crabs.crabs.
Decomposersorganisms that breakdown the complex compounds of dead and decaying
• Carrion feeders are organisms that feed on dead bodiese.g.hawk,vultures
¾plants
Carrion feeders are
and animals intoorganisms that feed on
simpler molecules dead
that canbodiese.g.hawk,vultures
be absorbed e.g. fungi, bacteria,
• Decomposers are organisms that breakdown the complex compounds of dead and
¾earthworm.
Decomposersorganisms
decaying plants and animalsthat breakdown the complex
into simpler compounds
molecules of dead
that can beand decaying e.g. fungi,
absorbed
bacteria, earthworm.
plants and animals into simpler molecules that can be absorbed e.g. fungi, bacteria,
earthworm.
http://webquest-foodchain.weebly.com/process.html
Energy
Energyflowsflowsthrough an
an ecosystem ininone
one directionfrom
throughhttp://webquest-foodchain.weebly.com/process.html
ecosystem directionfrom producers
producers to various
to various levelslevels of consumer.
of consumer.
Food Chaiin – is a chaain of organnisms througgh which fo
ood and
energy flow
ws. It shows ‘who is eaating who’. The arrowss
Food
between eaChain
Energy flows – chain
ach item in the is aallways
through chain of the
an ecosystem
pointt from organisms
fo
ood to through which
in one directionfrom food to various levels of consumer.
producers
and energy
the feeder. This is the flows.
direction innItwhich
shows ‘who
eneergy flows n theis eating who’. The arrows
in
between
food chainn. each item in the chain always point from the food
to the feeder. Food This isChai thein – is a chaain of organnisms througgh which fo
direction in which energy flows ood and
in the
Food Chaiin – is a chaain of organnisms througgh which fo
ood and
food chain. energy flow ws. It shows ‘who is eaating who’. The arrowss
energy flow
ws. It shows ‘who is eaating who’. The arrowss
between eaach item in the chain allways pointt from the fo
ood to
As the energy is passed between
along ea the chain,
ach item in theeach organism
chain allways
the feeder. This is the direction inn which eneergy flows in
uses
pointt from
n the
the foood to
some of it. So the further along
the feeder. Thisthe chain
is the you
direction go, ene
inn which the
ergy less
flows inn the
food chainn. http://heightsstechnologyy.edublogs.o
org/tag/fooddchain/
energy there is. food chainn.
http://heightsstechnology
http://heights y.edublogs.o
stechnology org/tag/food
y.edublogs.o dchain/
org/tag/food
dchain/
As the energy is passeed along thee chain, eachh organism uses some of it. So thee further alo
ong the
As the energy is passeed along thee chain, eachh organism uses some of it. So thee further alo
ong the
chain you go,
g the less energy therre is.
Food Web shows all possible feeding relationships in a community. It represents a network of
Food Web
bshows all possible
p feeding relatioonships in a communityy. It represennts a network of
interconnected food chains.
interconnected food chhains.
Symbiotic Relationship–
Symbiotic when
Relationship– two two
when species live live
species together
together
The The
distribution and and
distribution abundance of living
abundance things
of living are affected
things not only
are affected by physical
not only factors
by physical but by
factors but by
Symbiotic Relationship– when two species live together
otherother
living things.
living When
things. theythey
When are found together,
are found organism
together, maymay
organism either increase
either or decrease
increase eacheach
or decrease
Symbiotic Relationship
other’s chances
other’s chances –ofwhen
of survival.
The distribution twoThese
These
survival.
and abundancespecies
interactions live
may
interactions
of living things together
are be between
may benot
affected members
between
only of factors
bymembers
physical the
of same
the kindkind
butsame
by or or
other
members living things.
of different
members When
kind.
of different kind.they are found together, organism may either increase or decrease each
The distribution other’s
and abundance
chances of survival.of living
These thingsmay
interactions are be affected notofonly
between members by kind
the same physical
or factors but by
other living things.
Types ofWhen
members of
of Symbiosis
Types they are found together, organism may either increase or decrease
different
Symbiosis kind.
each other’s chances of survival. These interactions may be between members of the same
Types of Symbiosis
kind or members
These
These of different
are relationships
are relationships kind.
between living
between things
living that that
things increase theirtheir
increase chances of survival
chances and and
of survival
reproduction. The
These are
reproduction. organisms
relationships
The involved
between
organisms are
living
involved likely
things
are thattoincrease
likely betofound
betheirinchances
found the
in same area.area.
of survival
the same Animals
and that that
Animals live live
in in
Types of groups
Symbiosisreproduction.
improves
groups theThe
improves theorganisms
individual involved are
chances
individual chances likely to be
of finding found avoid
a mate,
of finding in the same
a mate, area.
being
avoid Animals
eaten
being and that
eaten live in
getting
and enough
getting enough
These are relationships
groups improvesbetween
the individualliving
chances things
of finding that
a mate, increase their
avoid being eaten chances
and getting enough of survival and
food.food.
reproduction. The food.organisms involved are likely to be found
in the same area. Animals that live in groups improves the
(i) (i) Commensalism
(i) Commensalism
Commensalism – relationship that
– relationship benefits
thatthat one one
benefits
individual chances of finding a– relationship
mate, avoid benefits
beingone
eaten
organism
organismand and
doand
organism not
dodoharm
not the the
not harm
harm other. The
theother.
other. organisms
TheThe organisms
organisms arenot
are not
are not
and getting enough food.
dependent
dependent ononthis
on this
dependent thistype
type type of
of relationship:
of relationship: theythey
they
relationship: could
could survive
survive
could survive
without each other e.g. orchid on tree.Orchid gets support not
(i) Commensalism
without eacheach
without –other
other relationship
e.g. orchid
e.g. on that
on tree.Orchid
orchid benefits
getsgets
tree.Orchid support one
not not
support
nutrients and the tree is not affected.
organism andand
nutrients do
nutrients thenot
and theharm
tree is the
is not
tree other. The organisms are
affected.
not affected.
not dependent on this type of relationship: they could
survive without each other e.g. orchid on tree.Orchid http://ecodan.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/orchid1.jpg
gets support not nutrients and the tree is not affected. http://ecodan.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/orchid1.jpg
http://ecodan.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/orchid1.jpg
(ii) Mutualism – relationship where both organisms benefit from the association e.g.
(ii) Mutualism –lichen;they
relationship where both organisms benefit from the association e.g. lichen;they
are formed by algae and fungi living together. Algae can photosynthesise and make
are formed
(ii) (ii) by Mutualism
algae and
Mutualism – fungi living
relationship
– relationshipwhere together.
bothboth
where organisms Algae
organisms can
benefit from
benefit photosynthesise
the association
from e.g.and
the association
food, which is shared by the fungus. The fungus in turn shelters the algae from a harsh climate.
e.g. make food,
whichlichen;they
is lichen;they
shared areby
Cleaner' arethe
formed
fish fungus.
formedbyfeed
- these algae
byoff The
and
algae
the fungus
fungi
and
dead living
fungi
skin in
andliving turn
together.ofshelters
Algae
together.
parasites larger can
Algae
fish the algae from
photosynthesise
can
such as photosynthesise
sharks This a and
and
providesharsh
makemakeclimate.
Cleaner’ fish
food,food,
which -cleaner
these
is shared
thewhich feed
isfish by the
shared
with offfungus.
by
food thethe
and dead
The
fungus.
keeps theThe skin
fungus inand
fungus
larger fish turn parasites
shelters
in turn
clean. of
the larger
the algae
shelters afish
fromfrom
algae a such
harsh as sharks This
climate.
harsh climate.
Cleaner' fish fish
Cleaner' - these feedfeed
- these off the
off dead skinskin
the dead and and
parasites of larger
parasites fish fish
of larger suchsuch
as sharks ThisThis
as sharks provides
provides
the cleaner fish fish
the cleaner withwith
foodfood
and and
keeps the larger
keeps fish fish
the larger clean.
clean.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichen#mediaviewer/File: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S
Flavoparmelia_caperata_-_lichen_-_Caperatflechte.jpg 0960982208014978
34 : Basic Science
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichen#mediaviewer/File:
provides
(iii) the cleaner– is
Predation fish with food
a feeding and keeps
relationship where thethelarger fish
clean.Predation – is a feeding
(iii) relationship
(iii)its food
Predation
where the
(iii) predator
Predation(hunter)
– is a feeding
obtains relationship by –killing
where isthe
a feeding
other relationship where the
predator
predator (hunter)
(hunter) obtains
obtains its predator
itspredator
food food by(hunter)
by killing killing
other other
obtains its food by killing other
(iii) Predation
animals –(prey).The
is a feeding relationship benefits where
by the
getting
animals (prey).The predator benefitspredator
foodby getting(hunter)
food
animals
obtains
animals (prey).The
its
(prey).The food predator
by
predator killing benefits
benefits other
by by getting
animals
getting food food
(prey).The predator
and the prey is affected e.g. and cat andis rat.
the prey affected e.g. cat and rat.
and
and benefits
theprey
the preybyaffected
is isgetting
affected food
e.g. e.g.
cat and and
cat and
rat. therat.
prey is affected e.g. cat and
rat. (iv)Parasitism–one organism (parasite) generally lives http://www.catster.com/the-scoop/unlikely-ally-cat-news-
killer-cats-buzzfeed
(iv)Parasitism–one organism on or in(parasite)
another organism generally
(host). Thelives http://www.catster.com/the-scoop/unlikely-ally-cat-news-
parasite benefits
(iv)Parasitism–one
(iv)Parasitism–one organism (parasite) generally lives http://www.catster.com/the-scoop/unlikely-ally-cat-news-
http://www.catster.com/the-scoop/unlikely-ally-cat-news-
(iv) Parasitism – one organism
on or in another organism
organismusually
(parasite)
(parasite)
(host).
generally
The generally
by getting
liveslives
food and thebenefits
parasite host one.g.
suffers or
killer-cats-buzzfeed in another
ticks, ring worm, lice organism
and intestine(host).
worms. The
on parasite
or in another organism (host). The parasite benefits killer-cats-buzzfeed
(iii)on orPredation benefits
in another is ausually
–organism
feeding by
(host). getting food
whereand
The parasite
relationship the the host suffers e.g. ticks, ring worm, lice and
benefits
usually
intestine
usually by
worms.
by getting getting
food food
and its
thefood and
host by the host suffers
suffers e.g.other ticks, ringe.g.worm,
ticks,liceringandworm, liceworms.
intestine and intestine worms.
predator
usually(hunter)
by getting obtains
food and the hostkilling suffers e.g. ticks, ring worm, lice and intestine worms.
animals (prey).The predator benefits by getting food
and the prey is affected e.g. cat and rat.
(iv)Parasitism–one organism (parasite) hgenerally lives http://www.catster.com/the-scoop/unlikely-ally-cat-news-

ttp://yottafire.com/2014/06/large-number-of-lyme-parasites-to-appear-soon-in-new-england/
on or in another organism (host). The parasite benefits
(v)Competition– an act of rivalry between organisms for resources that are in short supply. These
usually by getting food and the host suffers e.g. ticks, ring worm, lice and intestine worms.
may include food, space, light, water, mates and other things vital for life. Clearly only those
individuals able to compete successfully will survive so competition decreases the number of
http://yottafire.com/2014/06/large-number-of-lyme-parasites-to-appear-soon-in-new-england/
individuals. Competition between individuals is of two types:
(v)Competition– an act of rivalry between organisms for resources that are in short supply. These
(v) Competition
(v)Competition– – an act an actof of
rivalry
rivalry
• between
Intra between
competition organisms
– competition for
organisms resources
resources
between organismsthatthat
of theareare in e.g.
inkind
same short
short dog supply.
supply. These
and dog,
may include
(v)Competition– food, space,
an light,
act of water,
rivalry mates
betweenand other things
organisms vital
for for life.
resources Clearly
that only
are inthose
short supply. These
Thesemaymay include
include food,food,
space, space, light, water,
lizard
light, will
and
water,
lizard.
mates mates
and otherand othervital
things things vital Clearly
fornumber
life. for life. Clearly
only those only
individuals able to compete successfully survive so competition decreases the of
maythose individuals able light,
to compete successfully
and other will survive
vital sofor competition
include food, space, water, mates things life. Clearly only decreases
those the
individuals
number of individuals.
individuals. able
Competition to compete successfully
Competition
between individuals will
between for
is of two survive so competition
individuals isthat
types: of two decreases
types: the number of
(v)Competition–
individuals ableantoact of rivalry
compete between organisms
successfully will survive resources
so competition aredecreases
in short supply. Theseof
the number
may includeindividuals. Competition
food, space, between
light, water, matesindividuals
and other things is of two
vitaltypes:
for life. Clearly only those
individuals.
•
• Intra
Intra Competition
specific
competition between
competition
– competition individuals
– competition
between is of
organisms
individuals able to compete successfully will survive so competition decreases
two
between
oftypes:
the organisms
same kind e.g. ofthe
the
dog same
and
numberdog,ofkind e.g. dog
individuals.and
lizard dog,
and
Intra lizard
lizard.
•Competition and lizard.
competition
between – competition
individuals is of between
two types: organisms of the same kind e.g. dog and dog,
• Intra competition – competition between organisms of the same kind e.g. dog and dog,
• lizard and lizard.
Intra competition – competition between organisms of the same kind e.g. dog and dog,
lizard and
lizard and lizard. lizard. • Inter competition – competition between organisms of different kind e.g. frog and lizard.
Frog and lizard compete for insects except they hunt
in different places.
•
• Inter
Inter specific – competition–between
competition
competition competition between
organisms organisms
of different kind e.g.offrog
different kind e.g. frog
and lizard.
• Inter competition – competition between organisms of different kind e.g. frog and lizard.
and
Frog lizard.
and lizard compete for insects except they hunt
in • Inter
indifferent
different places.
places.
competition – competition between organisms of different kind e.g. frog and lizard.
• Inter competition – competition between organisms of different kind e.g. frog and lizard.

ReviewReview
Questions
Questions
Review Questions
1. From
1. the food
From theweb
foodshown:
web shown:
1. From the food web shown:
(a) Construct a food chain with (i) three links and (ii) four links.
(b) Write
(a) Construct downchain
a food the name
withof(i)
thethree
herbivores
links and (ii) four links.
(a) Construct a food chain with (i) three links and (ii) four links.
(c) Whichthe
(b) Write onename
of theofcarnivores has the least varied diet?
(b) down
Write down thethe herbivores
name of the herbivores
(c) Which
(c) oneWhich
of theone of the carnivores
carnivores hasvaried
has the least the least varied diet?
diet?
2. Which competition is more fierce, intra or inter competition? Give a reason.
2. Which Construct a food
3. competition web from
is more fierce, intra reef
a coral or inter competition?
environment Give a reason.
or forest.
2. Which competition is more fierce, intra or inter competition? Give a reason.
3. Construct a food
4. Suppose web
that the from a coral ceased
sun suddenly reef environment or forest.
to shine so that the world was plunged into permanent
4.
3. Suppose
Constructthata food websuddenly
the sun ceased
from a coral reeftoenvironment
shine so thatorthe world was plunged into permanent
forest.
total darkness. Which kinds of organisms would you expect to die last – decomposers,
4. total
Supposedarkness.
that theWhich kinds ofceased
sun suddenly organisms would
to shine youthe
so that expect
world to
wasdie last – into
plunged decomposers,
permanent
producers, herbivores or carnivores?
producers, herbivores or carnivores?
total5.darkness.
5. Describe ways inWhich
Describe which
ways
kinds
in which
ofanimals
animals organisms
depend would
on
depend
youapart
plants,
on plants,
expect to dieforlast
apartfrom
fromfor food. – decomposers,
food.
6. The diagramherbivores
producers, below shows part of a woodland food web.
or shows
carnivores?
6. The diagram below part of a woodland food web.
5. Describe ways in which animals depend on plants, apart from for food.
6. The diagram below shows part of a woodland food web.
Use the words increase, decrease or stay the same to describe theeffect on the populations
Use the words increase, decrease or stay the same to describe the effect on the populations of
of greenflies and stoats if all the mice werekilled by a disease.
greenflies and stoats if all the mice were killed by a disease.
Use the words increase, decrease or stay the same to describe theeffect on the populations
36 : Basic Science
of greenflies and stoats if all the mice werekilled by a disease.
UNIT 3: BIODIVERSITY, CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, the importance of the marine ecosystem will be discussed and how man’s activities
have influenced the resources of the different communities of this ecosystem. Conservation
measures taken will be described.
1.3.1 MARINE ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem is a system formed by living things interacting with each other and with their physical
environment. Ecosystems vary in size – from the very small (such as the fish, snail, weeds, rocks
and water of an aquarium) to very large (such as the tropical forest and ocean). Understanding
the structure of ecosystems makes it possible to use resources more efficiently and to conserve
resources. Marine ecosystems have distinct organisms and characteristics that result from the
unique combination of physical factors that create them. Oceans cover almost three-fourths of
Earth’s surface. Scientists call the ecosystems in the ocean marine ecosystems.
Marine ecosystems, like all ecosystems, areaffected by abiotic factors.Oceans play crucial roles
in regulating the atmosphere and modulating weather, storing carbon, cycling nutrients, and
providing other ecosystem services. Coastal areas provide essential resources, buffer land from
storms, and provide living spacefor almost half of the global population
(i) Temperature - The water near the surface is much warmer that the rest of the ocean because
it is heated by the sun. Deep ocean water is much colder. Water temperatures at the surface
are also affected by latitude. Water near the equator is generally warmer than water closer
to the poles. The water at the surface is also warmer in summer than winter.Temperature
affects the animals in marine ecosystems.For example, fish that live near the poles have a
chemicalin their blood that keeps them from freezing. Most animals that live in coral reefs
need warm water to live.
(ii) Water Depth and Sunlight - The average depth of the oceans is 4,000 m, but sunlight does
not reach deeper than 200 m. Producers that carry out photosynthesis, such as algae, can
live only in water less than about 200 m deep. Planktons are tiny organisms that float near
the surface of the ocean. Many kinds of plankton are producers. These phytoplankton uses
photosynthesis to make their own food.They are the base of most ocean food chains. Large
consumers, such as whales, feed on these tiny producers.
Ocean Zones is divided basedon

Ocean thingsbasedon
Zones is divided such things
as water
such asdepth, thethe
water depth, amount
amount ofofsunlight
sunlight and water
and water
temperature.
temperature.
THE INTERTIDAL ZONE
THE INTERTIDAL ZONE The intertidal zone is where the ocean meets the
The intertidal zone is shore.
where The the ocean
organisms of the meets the are
intertidal zone shore.
The organisms of the intertidal zone are covered with water
covered with water at high tide and exposed to air at
at high tide and exposed to air at low tide.Rocky shores,
low tide.Rocky shores, mudflats and sandy beaches
mudflats and sandy beaches all fall within this area.
all fall within this area.

THE NERITIC ZONE
The neritic zone is further from shore. In this zone,
shore.
shore.The
Theorganisms
organismsof
ofthe
theintertidal
intertidalzone
zoneare
are
covered
coveredwith
withwater
wateratathigh
hightide
tideand
andexposed
exposedtotoair
airatat
low
lowtide.Rocky
tide.Rockyshores,
shores,mudflats
mudflatsand
andsandy
sandybeaches
beaches
all
allfall
fallwithin
withinthis
thisarea.
area.
THE NERITIC ZONE THE THENERITIC

NERITICZONE ZONE
The neritic zone is The further

The neriticfrom
neritic zone shore.
zoneisisfurther
furtherfromInshore.
from this InIn
shore. zone,
this the
thiszone,
zone,
water becomes deeper as the ocean floor starts to slope
the
thewater
water becomes
becomes deeper
deeper as
asthe
the ocean
ocean floor
floor starts
startstoto
downward. This water slopeisdownward.

slope warmer This
downward. than
This deep
water
water ocean
isiswarmer
warmer than
thandeepwater
deep
and receives a lot ofoceansunlight.
ocean water
water andCorals
and receives
receives and
aa lot producers
lot of sunlight. thrive
Corals
of sunlight. Corals and
and
in this zone. Sea turtles, sea thrive
producers
producers urchins, and
thriveininthis
thiszone.fishes
zone. Sea are sea
Seaturtles,
turtles, some of
seaurchins,
urchins,
the consumers of this andzone.
and fishes
fishesare
aresome
someof ofthe
theconsumers
consumersof ofthis
thiszone.
zone.
THE OCEANIC ZONETHE THEOCEANIC

OCEANICZONE ZONE
In the oceanic zone, In
Inthethe
the sea zone,
oceanic
oceanic floorthe
zone, thedrops
sea
seafloor off
floor dropsquickly.
drops off The
offquickly.
quickly.
oceanic zone extends The fromzone
Theoceanic
oceanic the
zone surface
extends
extends from
fromthethetosurface
the totodeep
surface the
thedeep
deep
water of the open water
ocean.
waterof thePhytoplankton
ofthe open
openocean.
ocean.Phytoplankton lives lives
Phytoplankton near
livesnearthe
near the
the
surface, where theresurface,
is sunlight.
surface, where Consumers
wherethere
thereisissunlight. such
sunlight.Consumers
Consumersas such
fishes,
suchas as
whales, and sharks live
fishes,in the
whales, oceanic
and sharks zone.
live in the Some
oceanic
fishes, whales, and sharks live in the oceanic zone. of the
zone.
animals live in deep Some
Some waters,
of
ofthe where
theanimals
animals livethere
live deepis
inindeep no where
waters,
waters, sunlight.
wherethere
there
These animals feedisison no each
nosunlight. other
sunlight.These and
Theseanimals on
animalsfeedfeedonmaterial
oneach
eachother that
otherandand
sinks from the surface
on waters.
onmaterial
materialthat
thatsinks
sinksfrom
fromthethesurface
surfacewaters.
waters.
THE BENTHIC ZONE THE THEBENTHIC

BENTHICZONE ZONE
The benthic zone isThethe ocean
Thebenthic
benthiczone
floor.
zoneisisthe
It does
theocean
oceanfloor.
notdoes
floor.ItItdoes
get
not any
notget
get
sunlight and is very any
cold. Fishes,
anysunlight
sunlightand
worms,
andisisvery
verycold.
and
cold.Fishes,
crabs
Fishes,worms,
have
worms,andand
special features to crabs
live have
in this zone. Many of them feed
crabs havespecial
specialfeatures
featurestotolive
liveininthis
thiszone.
zone.Many
Many
on material that sinks
of
from above. Some organisms, such
of them feed on material that sinks from above.Some
them feed on material that sinks from above. Some
as angler fish, eat smaller fish. Other organisms, such as
organisms,
organisms,such
suchasasangler
anglerfish,
fish,eat
eatsmaller
smallerfish.
fish.Other
Other
bacteria, are decomposers and help break down dead
organisms,
organisms,such
suchasasbacteria,
bacteria,are
aredecomposers
decomposersand and
organisms.
help
helpbreak
breakdown
downdead
deadorganisms.
organisms.
38 : Basic Science
Tropical ShoreliineA shoreliine is formeed when thee water mergges with thee land. Land
d is often
submeerged in watter and gets exposed when
w the watter pulls bacck. This parrt of the landd and
Tropical ShoreliineA shoreliine is formeed when thee water mergges with thee land. Land d is often
Tropical ShoreliineA shoreliine is formeed when thee water mergges with thee land. Land
d is often
submeerged in watter and gets exposed when
w the watter pulls bacck. This parrt of the land
d and
Tropical is a habitat Atoshoreline
waterShoreline: many livvingis formed
organissmswhen the
and aqu uaticwater merges
animal ls. As knowwith
wn the land.of
to many o Land
us, is often
submerged
water is ainsource
waterofand getsas
life and a exposed
it makes its when
way the t water
to the land itpulls
allso back. This part
brings aalong ofent
differe the
lifeland and
water is a habitat to many living organisms and aquatic animals. As known to many of us,
forms with it. Eveen the shalloow portion of the shoree is home too many diffe ferent, uniqu ue and
water is a source of life and as it makes its way to the land it also brings along different life forms
with it. Even
interes theanima
sting shallow
ls andportion
plantts. of the shore
Shores arre notisonly
home to many
shelter different,
to nuumerous unique
liffe forms buttand
also interesting
a
animals and
source e of plants.
food to Shores
humansareandd not
birdsonly
likeshelter to There
seagulls. Tnumerous life forms
are diffferent typebuts of also
shores a source of food
all over the
to humans and birds like seagulls. There are different types of shores all over the world. Some
world.. Some are rockyr whilee some are sandy
s shorees and life foorms are diffferent on th hese two
are rocky while some are sandy shores and life forms are different on these two types of shores.
types area
Shoreline o shores.Sh
of horeline
that falls arrea that
between the fall ls between
high tide andthe lowhigh
tidetid
de and low w tide in
mark.Animals mark k.Animals
this area are able
to adapt
in thistoarea
being both
are abble tounderwater
adapt to being and in underwa
booth open air. aterCommon o lifeair.
and in open forms
Coommoninclude: fcrabs, urchins,
life forms
starfish, clams,
includde: crabs,snails, seaweeds
urchins, starfiish,and mussels.
clams, s
snails, seawweeds and mussels.
m
Coral Reefs Coral reefs are a precious resource in

Coral Reeefs Coral reeefs are a preecious
the ocean because of their beauty and biodiversity.
resource inn the ocean because of their beautyy
Coral reefs provide shelter for a wide variety of
and biodivversity. Coraal reefs provvide shelter
marine life, they provide humans with recreation,
for a wide variety of marine
m life, they providde
they are a valuable source of organisms for potential
medicines, and they create sand for beaches,
humans wi ith recreatio
on, they are a valuableand
serve as a buffer for shorelines. Coral reefs are built
source of o
organisms fo
for potential l medicines, ,
by millions of coral polyps,
and they small
crreate sand colonial
f beaches,
for andanimals
serve as
a
resembling overturned a bufferjellyfish thats.use
forr shorelines Coralexcess
reeffs arecarbon
built
dioxide in the water from sthe
by millions atmosphere
of coral poolyps, small and turn it
colonial
into limestone. Coralsanimalsare in fact
ressembling animals.
ovverturned Theythatare
jeellyfish
relatives of jellyfishuse
and anemones.
excess carbon dioxxide in the water
w from
the atmospphere and tuurn it into lim
mestone. Coorals
Corals can exist as individual
are in polyps,
fact animals. Thhey areor in colonies
relaatives and
of jelllyfish communities that contain hundreds
and anemones.
to hundreds of thousands of polyps. Corals can be divided into two groups: hard coral and
soft coral. Hard corals, also known as stony coral,c produce
Corals cann exist as inddividual pollyps, or in colonies and
a rigid skeleton made of calcium
d communities that conntain hundreeds to
carbonate (CaCO3) important for reef-building. Alternatively, soft corals, including sea fans, do
hundreds ofo thousandss of polyps. Corals cann be divided d into two grroups: hard
d coral and soft coral.
not produce a rigid calcium carbonate skeleton and do not form reefs, though they may be
Hard corals, also know
wn as stonyy coral, prodduce a rigid skeleton made of calciium carbon
nate
(CaCO3) im mportant for reef-buildding. Alternaatively, softt corals, including sea ffans, do nott produce a
rigid calciuum carbonaate skeleton and do not form reefs, though they may be prresent in a reef r
ecosystem. Most reef--building coorals have a mutually beneficial
b r
relationship
p with microscopic
present in a reef ecosystem. Most reef-building corals have a mutually beneficial relationship
with microscopic unicellular algae called zooxanthellae that live within the cells of the coral.
As much as 90% of the organic material the algae manufacture photosynthetically is transferred
to the host coral tissue. In addition to the symbiotic relationship with algae, most corals capture
and consume live prey ranging from microscopic zooplankton to small fish, depending on coral
size. Using its tentacles that extend outside it body, the coral uses its nematocysts, or stinging
cells, to stun and kill its prey before passing it to its mouth. Once the food has been digested,
the waste is expelled from the same opening. Corals are unique in that they are capable of
reproducing both sexually and asexually.
Coral reefs can (i)Hard

be found Corals (stonyyshallow
in both corals) -andH deep
Hard coralss, waters
also called
d reef-
and are classified into 2 general
categories: building coorals, produuce a rock-liike skeletonn made of th
(i)Hard Corals (stonyy corals) - Hard
H coralss, also called
d reef-
he same
material
building coorals, as
produs classroom
uce chalk n(calc
a rock-liike skeleton cium
made carbon
of th nate). Thesee
he same
(i) Hard Corals skeletons
(stony corals) -vari
Hard corals,ofalso called reef-building corals, produce a rock-
material ass classroom andachalkthe
(calcciumous shapes
carbon different
nate). These e t colonies foorm the
like skeleton made of the same material as classroom chalk (calcium carbonate). These
skeletons and
afamiliar
the vari ous
str shapesofofth
ructure different
he reef.t Har
colonies fo
orm rel
rd corals thely on symbiotic
skeletons and the various shapes of different colonies form the familiar structure of the reef.
familiar strructure of thhexanthellae)
reef. Harrd corals
livingrel(zooxanthellae)
ly on in
symbi otictissu
Hard corals rely algaeon symbiotic algae
(zoox with their uesliving within
rition their tissues for nutrition and
for nutr
algae (zooxxanthellae) living within their tissuues for nutrrition
energy to build andtheir
energy skeleton.
y to build th They must n.
heir skeleton therefore
They musst live in shallow
therefore clear water to allow sunlight
live in
and energyy to build thheir skeletonn. They musst therefore live in
to reach the shallow
algae. cleear water too allow
shallow cleear water too allow
sunlight tosunlight
reach the to
a reach the algae.
algae. a
rd coralss, also called
d reef-
skeletonn made of th
he same
m carbonnate). Thesee
differentt colonies fo
orm the
orals relly on symbiotic
heir tissuues for nutrrition
hey musst therefore live in
(ii) Soft Coorals -Soft corals lookk like colourrful plants or

o graceful trees
t and aree not reef-bu
uilding
(ii) Soft Corals
since theydo
Soft corals look
harrdlike colourful
skeletonplants
manyorreef-
gracefulcoorals.
treesHowe
andver,aresoftnot reef-building
(ii)not
Softprodduce the
Coorals -Soft calcified
corals look k likeoffcolour rful -building
plants oro graceful t
trees and aree not reef-bu uilding
sincecorals
theydo doproduce
p not produce the
smaaller amounnts hard calcified
of calciu m carbonatskeleton tof many
e that help them reef-building
keep ttheir corals. However,
shape. Soft corals
soft corals do since they do smaller
produce not prodduce the harrd of calcified skeleton off many reef--building coorals.keep
Howetheir
ver, soft
can be disttinguished f
from hard cooralsamounts calcium
by thee fact that so carbonate
oft coral pollyps alwayss havethat help them
eight tentacles,
shape. Soft corals
corals do can p be distinguished
produce smaaller amounnts from
while hardd coral polypps have mulltiples of sixx tentacles.
hardmcorals
of calciu carbonat by thehelp
e that factthem
t thatkeepsoftttheir
coral polyps
shape. Soft corals
always have can eightbe tentacles,
disttinguishedwhile f
from hard
hard co coral
orals bypolyps have
thee fact multiples
that sooft coral poloflyps
six always
tentacles.
s have eight tentacles,
while hardd coral polypps have mulltiples of sixx tentacles.
e colourrful plants or
o graceful trees
t and aree not reef-bu
uilding
alcified skeleton off many reef--building coorals. However, soft
of calcium carbonate that help them
t keep ttheir shape. Soft corals
ls by thee fact that so
oft coral pollyps alwayss have eight tentacles,
les of sixx tentacles.
40 : Basic Science
Coral reefs are under threat from overexploitation especially destructive fishing, mining of corals
and sands. Activities on land pose the greatest threat, with increasing rate of sediment and
nutrient pollution caused by growing populations in coastal areas.
Now an increasing range of global threats are driven by climate change. Increased sea surface
temperatures are stressing and killing corals through bleaching. This occurs when corals lose their
symbiotic algae – zooxanthellae that provide them with most of their energy, resistance to UV
radiation and their colour.
Carbondioxide concentration in seawater also increases, making it more acidic and reduces
the calcium in corals. To make matters worse, an increase incidence in coral diseases and
plagues of coral predators such as crown of thorns starfish.
Blue Planet
Students to work in small groups to identify basic information about coral polyps and
coral reefs, coral reef habitats, and natural threats to coral reefs; create a poster
related to one of these topics; and explain the topic to the class via a presentation.
1.3.2 MARIN
NE RESOU
URCES
1.3.2 MARINE RESOURCES
1. Mangroves 1. Maangroves
Mangroves are trees that
Mangroves s aregrow
trees thhatingrow
intertidal
inn intertidalsalty
1.3.2 MARIN NE RESOU URCES
environments because they
salty envir can’t
onments beecausetolerate
they can’t frequent
fooding and are abletolerate
to obtain fresh
freequent oodwater
ding andfrom 1.
are salt
e able towater.
Maangroves
Mangroves secrete obtain

excess fressalt through m salttheir leaves and
Mangrovess are trees thhat grow inn intertidal
h water from wate r. environments
salty beecause they can’t
block absorption of Mangroves
salt at stheir roots sometolerate
secrete exxcess salt thr
more
rough
than
theiroodding and aree able to
freequent
others. obtain fresh water from m salt water.
leaves and block absoorption of sa
alt at their
Mangrovess secrete exxcess salt thrrough their
roots somee more than others. leaves and block absoorption of saalt at their
Mangroves are an important habitat, providing food,
roots somee more than others.
shelter and nursery areas for fish, birds, crustaceans and
Mangrovess are an impportant habi itat, s are an impportant habiitat,
Mangroves
other marine life. They also provide a source of livelihood
providing f
food, forerymany
shelteer and nurse humans around the world,
providing food,
f shelteer and nurseery areas forr fish, birds, ,areas forr fish,
crustacean birds,, crustacean
ns and other ns and otherr marine
r marine lifee.life e. They
They
including wood for fuel, charcoal and timberalsoand areas
providde a source of for fishing.
livelihoo
od for manyMangroves
y humans around the wo also form
orld, includ a buffer
ding wood for
fo fuel,
also providde a source of livelihoo od foranndmany y humans
annd areas forar oundMangroves
Mthe wo orld, includ bdingthatwood for
focoafuel,
that defends coastlines from flooding and erosion,land charcoal timber
stabilization,
r fishing.
nutrient cycling,
allso form a buffer
processing
ddefends stlines
from floodding and eroosion,land sttabilization,, nutrient cy ycling, processing polluutants (incluuding
pollutants (including charcoal annd timber
absorption annd areas
of heavy forr fishing. Mangroves
metals). M
absorption of heavy metals).
m
allso form a buffer b that ddefends coastlines
from floodding and eroosion,land sttabilization,, nutrient cy
ycling, processing polluutants (inclu
uding
Many typees of marinee and terresttrial life utillize mangro
oves. Animaals inhabit thhe mangrov
ve’s leafy
Many types of marine and terrestrial
absorption mlife utilize
of heavy metals). mangroves.
canopy Animals
andd waters underneath inhabit
the mangrovee’s the
root systtem, mangrove’s
ve in nearbyy tidal waterrsleafy
and liv and
canopy and waters underneath the mangrove’s mudflats.root system, and live in nearby tidal waters and
mudflats. Many typees of marinee and terresttrial life utillize mangro

Types of Mangroves
M
oves. Animaals inhabit thhe mangrov ve’s leafy
canopy andd waters underneath the mangrovee’s root systtem, and livve in nearbyy tidal waterrs and
Red Manggroves (“Tiiri”) grow at
a the
Types of Mangrovesmudflats. water’s edgge, with “prrop” roots that
t
Red Mangroves (“Tiri”) grow at the water’s edge, with
stabilize trees in soft“prop”
m and waave
mud roots
zones.
that stabilize trees in soft mud and wave zones. The sap isred in
Types of M
Mangroves The sap isrred in colouur.Have stiltt roots
which grow w like archees from highh up in
colour.Have stilt roots which grow like arches from high up in the
the tree.
Red Manggroves (“Tiiri”) grow at
a the
tree.
water’s edgge, with “prrop” rootsBlack
t Manngroves(“DDogo”) are usually
that
found behiind Red Maangroves, inn muddy areas that flood at high tidde. They maay have “prrop”, or
stabilize trees in soft mud
m and waave zones.
“elbow” rooots that stiick up out of
o the mud, sometimes
s both.
b The frruits and seeeds are blacck and
The sap isrred in colouur.Have stilt
t roots
used in dyees.
immediately behind the wet mangrove areas,
and can survive occasional salt-water
flooding, and salty soil. Salt is sent out
White Mangroves(‟Sagali”, ‟Kedravivinayalewakalou”, ‟Sinu gaga”, ‟Dabi”)are often not
through the leaves, giving the underside of
recognized by the layman as part of the
Black Mangroves
the leaves (“Dogo”) arepencil
a white colour.Have usually
likefound behind Red Mangroves, in muddy areas that flood
mangrove community. They are very salt-
at high tide. They may have “prop”, or “elbow” roots that stick up out of the mud, sometimes
roots growing up from the ground. tolerant trees that grow on dry land
both. The fruits and seeds are black immediately
and used in dyes.
behind the wet mangrove areas,
and can survive occasional salt-water
White Mangroves (“Sagali”, “Kedravivinayalewakalou”, “Sinu gaga”, “Dabi”)are often not
flooding, and salty soil. Salt is sent out
recognized by the layman as part ofthrough the mangrove
the leaves, givingcommunity.
the underside of They are very salt-tolerant trees
that grow on dry land immediately behind the leavesthe wet
a white mangrove
colour.Have pencil areas,
like and can survive occasional
salt-water flooding, and salty soil. Salt is growing
roots sent out through
up from the
the ground . leaves, giving the underside of the
leaves a white‟Sinu
li”, ‟Kedravivinayalewakalou”, colour.Have penciloften
gaga”, ‟Dabi”)are like notroots growing up from the ground.
as part of the
ey are very salt-
dry land
et mangrove areas,
l salt-water
alt is sent out
the underside of
Have pencil like
e ground.
2. Fisshes
2. Fishes Fish are aqquatic animaals. Most haave

Fish are aquatic animals. Most have streamlined
streamlinedd bodies forr fast swimm ming, are
bodies for fast swimming, are covered with scales with
two sets of pairedcovered wiith scales with
fins, have w two setss of
gills throughout their lives
(to extract oxygenpaired
from finswater), several
, have gills unpaired
throughout t their fins
and lay eggs. Most livesfish
(to exare
xtract“cold-blooded”
oxygeen from watter),- adjust
body temperature to environment.Fish
several a layrange
unppaired fins and eggs. Most in size.
Coastal communities are the first d”
fish are "coold-blooded
to -benefit
adjust body
b
from the
different fish species that forage for food in estuaries,
temperaturre to environnment.Fish range in
marshes, wetlands, mangroves and bay areas.
size. Coasttal communnities are thee first to
42 : Basic Science benefit from
m the differrent fish speecies that
forage for food in estuuaries, marsshes, wetlannds, mangrooves and bayy areas.
temperaturre to environnment.Fish range in
size. Coasttal communnities are thee first to
benefit from
m the differrent fish speecies that
forage for food in estuuaries, marsshes, wetlannds, mangrooves and bayy areas.
However, human beings However,

foundhuman
h morebeinngs found
uses m uses
more
for marine life fo r
aside
from their function inmarine
the food chain.
lifee aside from The funct
m their demand for fish
tion in the
supply became greater foodthan
chainn.before.Many
The demaand for fishers
s arebeca
fish supply aware
ame
of the threats of overfishing toanthe
greater tha seasany
before.M and theirarebusinesses.
fishers aware of
o
Some are moving towards sustainable management of fish
the threats of overfishhing to the seas and theiir
resources. This recognises that there is also a responsibility to
businesses. Some are moving tow wards
look after the marine environment, and ensure that fishing
sustainabl
practices are in balance withlethemanagem ment
local of fish
ecology. h resourcess.
This recoggnises that thhere is also a
A polluted section ofresponsibil
the sea (e.g.
lity to look from
after thean oil spill) might blockout sunlight which kills the
maarine
phytoplankton, whichenvironme
are tinyaquatic
nt, and ensuureplants athing
that fish thepractic
bottom
ces areofin the food
baalance withchain.
Didlocal
the YouThis meansthere
eccology.
are fewer plants for shrimp and small fish to feed on, sosome starve. Larger fish have fewer shrimp
A pollutedd section of thet sea (e.g. from an oiil spill) migght blockoutt sunlight w which kills thhe
or small fish tofeed on and so they may starve too, or move to another feeding ground. This
phytoplankkton, whichh are tinyaquuatic plants at the bottoom of the fooodSea turtles
chain. This cry
T salty
meansth heretears to
are few
wer
increases the pressure on other species trying to share the same food source.Growing human
populations f gethave
ridchains.
of theshrimp
extra orsalt they
3. Turtlesare demanding more food, and this puts pressure on many fooddrink In psome
plants for shrimp
s and small fish tot feed on, sosome
s starvve. Larger fish fe
ewer small fish
areas, fishers may catch tofeedtoo a many
on and fish.
so they mayInstarve
sometoo, parts
or movveoftothe
anotheworld many
er feeding g of the
ground. from
Thiss big the
fish
increases sea.
thave
the pressuree on
been
Sea caught so one
turtles are fishers
of are
the
other now
Earth's
speci catching
ies tryingmost smaller,
ancient
too share younger
s creatures.
the same food s The fishseven
source.Grow before
wing they
species
human reach
that can
n population their
ns arebe fullnding
found
deman size.
today
moree
These younger fish may not
food, have
and this
t years,had a chance
puts preessure on to
m time
many produce
food chthe their
hains.dinosaurs.
In som own
me areas,young.Overfishingmeans
fiishers may ccatchshell
too many
mor fish. Inn
have
that beentypes
some around for
of fish million
have been sinceso
fished the much,of they cannot The
maintain seatheir
turtle's
population, so
some partss of the worlld many of the big fishh have been caught so fishers f are nnow catching smaller,
there are fewer
"carapace" fish year after
is streamlined foryear.
swimming through the water. Unlike other turtles, sea turtles cannot
younger fissh before thhey reach thheir full sizee. These youunger fish may
m not have had a channce to produuce
retract their legs and head into their rfishingmea
shells. Their colour varies fbetween yellow,greenish and black
3. Turtles their own young.Overf
y ans that som
me types of fish have beeen fished sso much, theey cannot
Sea turtles are
depending onone of the Earth’s
the species.
maintain Turtles most
eattion,
thheir populat ancient
jellyfish, creatures.
seaweed,
so therre are Theafter
fewerr fishcrabs,
year a shrimp,
year. sponges, snails, algae and
seven species
molluscs. Seathat canare
turtles befound
foundintodayall warmhaveand been aroundwaters
temperate for throughout the world and migrate
million years, since the time of the dinosaurs. The sea turtle’s
hundreds
shell of miles between
or “carapace” nesting for
is streamlined andswimming
feeding grounds.
throughMost the sea turtles undergo long migrations,
water.
someUnlike
as farother turtles,
as 1400 sea
miles, turtles their
between cannot retract
feeding their legs
grounds and and head into
the beaches their
where shells.
they nest.Their
Sea
colour varies between yellow,greenish and black depending on the species. Turtles eat jellyfish,
turtles spend most of their lives in the water and will return to the same nesting grounds at which
seaweed, crabs, shrimp, sponges, snails, algae and molluscs. Sea turtles are found in all warm
and temperate
they were born.waters
Whenthroughout
females come the toworld and migrate
the shore they dig hundreds
out a nest of miles
in the between
ground with nesting
their back
and feeding grounds. Most sea turtles undergo long migrations, some as far as 1400 miles,
flippers, bury their clutch of eggs and return to the ocean. After hatching, the young may take as
between their feeding grounds and the beaches where they nest. Sea turtles spend most of
their lives
long as ina week
the water and
to dig will return out
themselves to the same
of the nest.nesting
They grounds
emerge atatnight,
whichmove
they were
toward born.
the When
ocean and
females
remaincome there, to the shore
solitary, untilthey
it is dig
timeoutto a nest in the ground with their back flippers, bury their
mate.
clutch of eggs and return to the ocean. After hatching, the young may take as long as a week
to dig themselves out of the nest. They emerge at night, move toward the ocean and remain
there, solitary, until it is time to mate.
Types of Turtles
Types(i) of Turtles
Green Turtle (Vonudina) – largest and best
(i) Green Turtle (Vonudina) – largest and best known
known
turtles in Fijiturtles
and isinan
Fiji and is an
excellent excellent
source source
of food. It is of food.
greenish
brown in colourbrown
It is greenish with in
darker
colourmarkings.
with darkerThey are called
markings.
Green Turtles, but when you look at them they aren’t really
They are called Green Turtles, but when you look at
green. Green is the colour of the fat inside their bodies.
Greenthemturtles have really
they aren't alwaysgreen.
beenGreen
popular as colour
is the food. Maybeof the
theirfat name
inside came from what
their bodies. Greenthey lookhave
turtles like always
on the been inside.
popular as food. Maybe their name came from what
They are called Green Turtles, but when you look at
them they aren't really green. Green is the colour of the
fat inside their bodies. Green turtles have always been
popular as food. Maybe their name came from what

The green turtles’ numbers have dropped since
they like
they look andontheir eggs were
the inside. The green captured turtles' bynumberspeople.
have Green
dropped turtles are herbivores
(ii)Loggerhead
since they Turtle and their (Vonu although
eggs damu)were–is the theyoung
captured
can be carnivores eating animal food such as
crabs. Green
by people most common turtles of theherbivores
turtles in Fiji. It is brown in
and jelly fish.areFound in shallow although
waterthe where
(ii)Loggerhead Turtle (Vonu damu) –is the
youngthey find
cancolour plenty
and about
be carnivores of turtle
a metre
eating grasslongand
animal whenfoodseafully weed
such as their
maingrown.
food.
mostTheycommon
They usually
moveoffreely lay turtles
the their
in theeggsin
openFiji.insea
Ittheir
isand eightin
brown
crabsyears
and jelly
and fish. Found
continue in
for up shallow
to 60long water
years where
laying they
may colour
be andinabout
found deep awater.
metre They when
are fullyabout
(ii)Loggerhead
900 averages Turtle (Vonu damu) –isis the
find plenty turtleevery
ofgrown. grass
They
3andyears.
move
sea Green
weed
freely in
turtle
their
the open
main listed as
sea and
an endangered
carnivorous,
most common organism.
feeding on fish, crabs and
of the turtles in Fiji. It is brown in other
food. They usuallymay belay foundtheir in eggs
deep in theirThey
water. eight areyears
marine
colour animals.
and aboutThe meat long
a metre is notwhen oftenfully eaten but
(ii) Loggerhead
and continue for up to 60
carnivorous, years(Vonu
Turtle
feeding laying damu)
on pinkish
fish, about
crabs –is the
900
and othermost every 3 years. Green turtle is listed as an
averages
their
grown. eggsTheywhich moveare faintly
freely in the open in colour
sea and
common
endangered of theanimals.
organism.
marine turtles in The Fiji.meat
It is isbrown
not often in colour
eaten but and
were
may valued
be found as food
in deep in the
about a metre long when fully grown. They move
water. past.Loggerhead
They are
in their
freelyturtle the eggs
open
is listed
carnivorous,
which
as sea are
and
an endangered
feeding
faintly
on fish, may crabs
pinkish
beand found
organism. in colour
otherin deep
water. They wereare valued carnivorous,
as food in the feeding on fish, crabs
past.Loggerhead
marine animals. The meat is not often eaten but
and other turtlemarine
is listed animals.
as an(Taku) The meat
endangered is not often
(iii)Hawksbill
their eggs which Turtle
are faintly – is theorganism.
pinkish insmaller
colour
eaten but their eggs which are faintly pinkish in colour
werespecies
valued
were ashas
and
valued food
as afood in in
the
distinctivethepast.Loggerhead
and very
past.Loggerhead turtle is
listedbeautiful
as anisendangered
(iii)Hawksbill
turtle shell made
listed uporganism.
Turtle (Taku)
of brownorganism.
as an endangered
– is the
and yellow smaller
species and
overlapping has They
plates. a distinctive and very
are omnivores,
(iii) Hawksbill Turtle (Taku) – is the smaller species
beautiful shell made up of brown and yellow
and feeding
has on both
a distinctive
(iii)Hawksbill plant
Turtleandand animal.
very
(Taku) – isThey
beautiful eat
the smallershell made
overlapping
up ofseagrass,
brown and plates.
yellow
seaweed, They fish,
overlapping
shellfish, are omnivores,
plates.
jelly fish They are
species and has a distinctive and very
omnivores,
and feeding
feeding
other on both
marine onplant
bothand
animals. plant andThey
animal. animal.eat They
beautiful shell made up ofHawksbill
brown andturtle yellow
eat seagrass,
seagrass, seaweed,
seaweed, shellfish, fish,
shellfish, fish,jellyjellyfish
fish and
have hooked plates.
overlapping jaws toThey
enable arethem to get
omnivores, crabs
other marine animals. Hawksbill turtle have hooked
andcrevices
other marine animals. Hawksbill turtle
jaws out
to enable
of
feeding them
on both totopull
orplant get crabs
animal.out
andmolluscs off
They of eat
the crevices or
to pull molluscs
rocks.have
seagrass,
hooked
They off the
live
seaweed,
jaws
near rocks.
the They
to enable
shore
shellfish, and
fish,live
them laynear
jelly fishthe shore
toabout
get crabs
and lay out about 100 toor140
of crevices eggs
to pull at a time.
molluscs off the Hawksbill
100
and to 140
other eggs atanimals.
marine a time. Hawksbill
Hawksbill turtles
turtle are listed as an endangered organism.
turtles are listed as an endangered organism.
rocks. They live near the shore and lay about
have hooked jaws to enable them to get crabs
(iv) (iv) 100Leathery
to 140Turtle
eggs at a time. Hawksbill turtles are listed as an endangered organism.
Leathery
out of crevices to (Ikadina)
orTurtlepull(Ikadina)
molluscs– is –offthe
is thelargest
the and
most distinctive of the sea turtles. The length of this turtle
largest
rocks. andTheymostlive distinctive
near the shore of theand sealayturtles.
about
may exceed (iv) 2 Leathery
metres and is sometimes
Turtle (Ikadina) – mistaken
is the for
The
100 length
to 140 of this
eggs atturtle
a time.may exceed
Hawksbill 2 metres
an upturned boat. It has a relatively smooth leathery as an endangered organism.
turtles are listed
skin, and
whichlargest and most
is spotted
is sometimes distinctive
with
mistaken for anof
white. the sea
It upturned
lives in turtles.
the deep
sea and
boat. travels
The awidely
length of this over themay
turtle ocean.
exceedskin, 2 metres
(iv) It has relatively
Leathery Turtle smooth leathery
(Ikadina) – is the
which and isspotted
sometimes mistaken for an inupturned
largestisand mostwith white.
distinctive It
oflives
the sea the
turtles.
deep boat. It has a
sea andoftravels relatively
widely smooth leathery skin,
The length this turtle mayover the ocean.
exceed 2 metres
which is spotted with white. It lives in the
and is sometimes mistaken for an upturned
deep sea and travels widely over the ocean.
boat. It has a relatively smooth leathery skin,
which is spotted with white. It lives in the
deep sea and travels widely over the ocean.
44 : Basic Science
1.3.3 IMPOR
RTANCE OF
O MARIN
NE ECOSY
YSTEM
Habitats
1.3.3 IMPOR
RTANCE OF
O MARIN
NE ECOSY
YSTEM
•
The edges of the sea are
a the hatchheries and
1.3.3 IMPORTANCE OF MARINE ECOSYSTEM
Habitats
nurseries of
o many impportant orgaanisms of
Habitats• Themarine lifee.

edges of the sea are a the hatchheries and
• The edges of the sea are
• Coastal weetlands and estuaries the hatcheries (aareasand nurseries
where
of many important organisms of marine life. of
nurseries o
of many imp portant orga anisms
rivers enterr the ocean)) also serve as nesting,
• Coastal marine
wetlands lifee. and estuaries (areas where rivers
feeding
enter• theCoastal
ocean) andalso resting sppots as for migratory
weetlandsserve and estuaries nesting,(aareasfeeding
where and
resting spots for migratory
waterfowl and they waterfowl
reeduce erosio andon andthey reduce
rivers enter r
erosion and flooding inlands. the ocean) ) also serve as nesting,
flooding innlands.
• Along the intertidal
feeding and zones,
resting the sppotsarea between
for mig ratory the high
•
and low waterfowl
tide marksand manytheykinds oferosio
plants and animals
Along the intertidal zoones, the are ea between the
reeduce on and
thrive. high and lo ow tide marrks many kinnds of plantts
• Mudflatsflooding
occur where innlands. the water moves slowly enough
and animalls thrive.
• Along
to deposit sediment of small
the intertidal zoones, particles.
the areea Algae
betweencover the
•
the particles andlo provide
tide marfood for many
kinnds ofburrowing
Mudflats o
occur where e the water m
moves slow
wly
high and ow rks many plantts
molluscs,enough
wormstoand crustaceans.
deposit sediment of sm mall particlees.
and animal
• Sandy beaches arels thrive.
less stable than mudflats for sand
Algae coveer the particcles and proovide food for f
shifts •constantly
Mudflats and o
occur dry
whereoute the faster
waterthan m mud
moves slowwhen
wly
the tide many
is out.
enough
burro
to
owing
Most
deposit of moll
the luscs,
sedimenttiny worm ms and
protists,
of sm mall worms
particlees.and
crustaceans thatns.live between the sand grains eat
crustacean
Algae
marine plankton cove er the partic
stranded cles and
when thepro ovide
tide goesfoodout,
for
f or
• Sandy beacches are lesss stable thaan mudflats for
algae attached
many burro to the sand
owing mollluscs,grains.worm Amswide and variety of
shore birds
sand feed ns.
shifts
crustacean on these organisms.
constantly and dry out t faster thann
• Rocky shores
mud when support a wider
the tide o variety
is out. Most of organisms
of the tiny as
• Sandy beac ches are lesss
they hide themselves in crevices, anchor themselvesstable thaan mudflats for
protists, woorms and crrustaceans that t live bettween the saand grains eeat marine plankton
p
firmly tosandrocksshiftsor constantly
seaweeds. andBirdsdry out feed
t fasteronthanthese
n
organisms stranded
during w
when the tidee goes out, or o algae attaached to thee sand grainns. A wide variety
v of
mud whenlow tide.
the tide is out.
o Most of the tiny
• Beachesshore providebirdssfeeding
feed on grounds
these organism for migratory
ms. birds,
protists,
provide nesting habitat wo orms and crrustaceans t
that live bettween the saand grains eeat marine plankton
p
• Rocky shores support a wider varriety of
• Seagrassstranded
provides w a the
when range
tidee goesof ecosystem
out, or o algaeservices
attaached to thee sand grainns. A wide variety
v of
includingshore
habitat
organisms
birdssand
as
feedfood
they
on thservices
hid de themselve
ese organism forms.
es coral reef fish
in crevice es,
and• invertebrates
Mangroves
anchor them are anfirm
mselves important
mly to rockks habitat,
or
• Rocky sho res support
• Mangroves are an important habitat, providing a wider var riety of food,
seaweeds. Birds
providing food, feed
shelteron these andorg ganismsareas
nursery
shelter and nurseryas areas
organisms they hid for fish, birds,
de themselve es incrustaceans
crevicees,
and other during
for marinelow
fish,themw tide.
life. crustaceans
birds, and other
anchor mselves firm mly to rock ks or
• marine
Beaches prrovide
life.
seaweeds. feediing
Birds feed grounds
on these sganisms
org for
• Mangroves
migratory
duringare btide.
birds,
wan
low proviidehabitat,
important nesting habitat
h
•• Seagrass
providing food,provides
Beaches pr
shelter and
provide nursery
a raange
feedi
areas
of ecos
ing groundsssystem
for serv
vices includiing habitat aand food seervices for
for fish, birds,
coral reefcrustaceans
fbirds,
fish and other
migratory b and invvertebrates
provi ide nesting habitat
h
marine life.
• Seagrass provides
p a raange of ecossystem serv
vices includiing habitat aand food seervices for
coral reef fish
f and invvertebrates

Tourist Attractions
Tourist Attractions
Tourist Attractions
Tourist Attractions
• Island• nations
Island often
• Island
have
oftenfew
nationsnations havenatural
often few resources
havenatural
and and
resources
few natural
coral
resources
reefreef
coral is reef
and coral
an important
is an
is important
tourist
tourist
an important tourist
attraction. attraction.
Tourist Attractions attraction.
• Island
• Large• number
nations
Large• Large
ofoften
tourist
number of have
number travel
tourist few travel
travel
of tourist natural
resources
across the and
across
Pacific coral
across
the the
Pacific
to reef
dive Pacific
to
and is see
dive an
to dive
and important
and see
see
tourist attraction.
the thereefs
coral coral reefs
the coral
• Large reefs
number of tourist travel across the
• Tourism
• to Tourism the is thecoral
largest business
• Pacific
Tourism dive
is theand is see
largest the
largest
business reefs
business
• Tourism issector the sector
largest
as as itbusiness
it provides provides
foreign sector as it
foreign
sector as it provides
provides foreignexchange foreign
exchangethe forcountry.
the country.
exchange for thefor country.
• Healthy
exchange coral
for the reef ecosystems and other
country.
•
marine• Healthy
Healthy coral reef ecosystems and
habitatscoraldirectly reef ecosystems support and the
• tourism
Healthy industry
coral reefotherbyecosystems
marineproviding
habitats and attractions
directly support
other marine habitats directly support
for beachgoers,
other marine thedivers,
tourism
habitats snorkelers,
industry
directly and the
by providing
the tourism industry by support
providing
recreational fishing attractions sector, among divers,
for beachgoers, other
the tourism
interested public.
industry
attractions for by providing
beachgoers, divers,
snorkelers, and the recreational
• Itattractions
generates income
for beachgoers,
snorkelers, and both on nationally and
divers,
the recreational
privately fishing sector, among other interested
snorkelers, and sector,
fishing the recreational
among other interested
• The tourism industry public. encompasses many
different public.
areas,• Itsogenerates
it alsoothercreates
income jobs in many
fishing sector, among interested
both on nationally
different
public.• areas.
It generates With tourism
income both comes
on hotels,
nationally
and privately
restaurants, andcar rental agencies, tour companies, service stations, souvenir shops, sports
privately
• equipment • income
It generatesrentals, andbothmuch
The tourism on nationally
industry more. All of thismany
encompasses creates many different levels of employment
for •
people The tourism
in a different industry
given community. encompasses
areas, so it also creates jobs inmany
and privately
• In manydifferent places
manyareas, theso itintroduction
different also
areas.creates
With jobs andin comes
tourism
• development
The tourism industry of tourismencompasses allows many local
many different
hotels,
levels
areas.
restaurants,
of
With
employment car tourism
rental
for
comes
agencies,
people in atour
given community.
people an opportunity for
different areas, so it also creates jobs in economic and
hotels,•companies,
restaurants, car
service rental agencies,
stations, tour
souvenir
educational growth In that
manywould places the not otherwise
introduction and development of tourism allows local people an
many different areas. With tourism comes
be available. companies,In addition,
shops, service it for
sports equipment
opportunity allows
stations, both
souvenir
economic rentals, the
and and much growth that would not otherwise be available.
educational
tourist
hotels,and the local
restaurants,
shops, sports
more. community
car rental
equipment
All of this a chance
agencies,
rentals,
creates tour
and
many to
much
In addition, it allows both thedifferent
tourist and the local community a chance to experience
experience other cultures, which broadens
companies, more. service ofstations,
Allother this creates
cultures, souvenir
manybroadens
which differentunderstanding.
understanding.
• Ifshops,
properly used,
sports • tourism
equipment
If properly generated
rentals, and income
used, tourism much
generated income can be tremendously beneficial to the host
can
more.be Alltremendously
of this country
creates beneficial
andmany its localto communities.
differentthe host Tourism generated income can be used on a national
country and its local and localcommunities.
level to betterTourismeducation, improve infrastructure, to fund conservation efforts,
generated income can be used on a national and local level to better education, improve
and to promote more responsible tourism.
infrastructure, to fund conservation efforts, and to promote more responsible tourism.
Source of Income
Source of Income
• Marine ecosystem
• Marineprovides many
ecosystem services
provides manytoservices
humans
which has generated billions of dollars to the country.
to humans which has generated billions of dollars
• Employment services in the fishing industries, tourism
sector, to
timber industry, seaweed farming, pearl
the country.
farming and aquaculture.
• Employment services in the fishing
• It provides income
industries, for local
tourism sector,fisherman selling along
timber industry,
the road or in the market place.
seaweed farming, pearl farming and aquaculture.
• Pharmaceutical compounds derived from marine
• It provides income for local fisherman
46 : Basic Science selling along the road or in the market place.

• Pharmaceutical compounds derived from
marine algae and invertebrates (organisms without
industries, tourism sector, timber industry,
seaweed farming, pearl farming and aquaculture.
• It provides income for local fisherman
selling along the road or in the market place.
algae and • Pharmaceutical
invertebratescompounds (organisms without
derived from
backbones)
marine algae and invertebrates (organisms without
Source o Food benefit from leasing out their island or
of
• Landowners
backbones)
land for tourism
• Development
• The ocean •of the fisheries
Landowners
covers sector
benefit
apprroximately from include
70%leasing export
of Earout their
rth's ofe, which meeans it is thee largest
surface
an expandedisland ornt
environme variety
land forof
for living g fresh
things fish,cultured
tourism on seaweed
urce o Food
of and other marine products such as giant clams,
Earth. Ther • Development m of the
re are five major oceanfisheries
n sector include
cultured black pearls and tuna.
exportsouvenirs
• Localshabitats:
selling of an expanded
trropical or and variety of fresh
handcrafts
reeef habitat, forfish,cultured
tourists.
• The ocean
• Generatecovers
seaweed
temperate appr
foreign roximately
wand currency
waters, other
Opeen marine 70%
forproducts
Ocean, the of Ear
he nation
th rth's surfacee, which meeans it is thee largest
through
such as giant
tourism
environme nt and
deepclams,fishing
forsea,
living
and industries.
acultured
gPolarblack
things pearlsMos
on
Reegions. and
st tuna.
• It is mined for Source
mineralsof o (salt,
Foodsand, gravel, and some manganese, copper, nickel, iron, and
seaare • Locals
life five
live es in selling souvenirs and handcrafts for
Earth.cobalt
Therrecan be mtheintop
found
major pocean
the
150 nmeterrs
deep sea) and drilled for crude oil.
(500tourists.
feet) ofo the •oceanThe n. ocean
From covers
the apprroximately 70% of Earrth's surfacee, which meeans it is thee largest
habitats: trropical or reeef habitat,
• Generate foreign currency for the nation
Source ofwarm, Foodsunllit waters environme off coral reefs nt for
s tolivingg things on
• The ocean
temperate w
waters,dark,covers
thethrough Ope
co en
tourism
old watersapproximately
Ocean,
Earth.
and o fishing
of the thhe
Ther reindustries.
deep aresea, 70%
five m of
major Earth’s
ocean n
surface, which meanshabitats: it is the largest environment
deep for sea,living
a things
and Polar • ItReisegions.
mined forMos trropical
minerals
st or reeef
(salt, sand,habitat,
gravel,
the ocean teems t on Earth.
with l There
life. are five major ocean
temperate w nickel,
waters, Opeen SOUR RCE: Primary
Ocean, thhe
habitats: and some
tropical manganese,
or150reefmeter copper,
habitat, iron,
temperate waters, and
sea life live es
• Thecobalt in the
oceancan top p
is an impor deep sea, rs a ePolar
and Reegions. Mosst reso
Open Ocean, thebedeep foundrtantsea,
in the source
and
deepPolarof
sea)food and
Regions.
and d other
drilled for ources. Sincce well before recorded
Most
d
(500 feet)
vers apprroximately 70% ofof
sea ohistory,
life the
crudeocean
Earrth's
lives surface
in
hu the
umans
oil. n. top
e, whichFrom
have sea
me eans
150
used the
life live
it is esesea
the
meters
the inathe
largest atop
as(500 p 150cemeter
sourc feet)ofof rs
food.the
for livingg things on ocean. From the warm, sunlit con waters
warm, sunllit Whilewatersonlyy 5% (500
of the protein
off coral
feet)
reefs
o
of
s to nsumedofbycoral
the ocean n. From
world
w the reefs
oceannto the dark, cold waters of the the deep
waterssea,
i is still anthe ocean
are five major
m warm, sunllit off coral reefs s to
populationns comes froom sea, it important
the dark,
ical or reeef habitat, teems coold withwaters
life. of o thethedeep dark, co sea,
old waters of o the deep sea,
contributioon to the dieet of millionns of the wo orld's
• The ocean is an important source of food and other
ters, Opeen Ocean, th
he
Polar Reegions. Mosresources.
st Since
inhabitants s well before the ocean recorded
t
teems with history,
l
life. humans SOURRCE: Primary
the ocean t
teems with l
life. SOUR RCE: Primary
in the topp 150 meterrshave • used Fisheries theofo seatoday •asproa vide
The source
ocean about is of
an16% food.
impor ofrtantWhile
sourceonly 5%and
e of food of the reso
d other protein
ources.consumed by
Sincce well befo world d
re recorded
• n. From
the ocean populations
Thetheocean is an
the comes
totalimpor
world's rtantfrom
prote inthe
source
history, with sea,
ehu of
umans it have
food
highher is still
and
usedan
d theimportant
other
seaa asreso contribution
ources.
a sourc Sinccetowell
ce of food. the befo
diet of
re millions
recorded of
d
waters off coral reefssthe
to world’s inhabitants While only
d waters of
history,
• Fisheries
o the deep sea,
huumans of have
percentage
todayused
es occurringgthe
provide sea
in develop ay as
about
5%
pingaof16%the protein connsumed by world
sourc ce
of of thefood.total
w
populationns comes froom the sea, it i is still an important
While world’s
only y 5%protein
nations.
of the with
Fisheries higher
are
protein still enormo
con percentages
nsumed ously
by occurring
world
w
in developing RCE: Primary nations.contributio Fisheries
on to the dieet of millionns of the wo orld's
and are still enormously
ms with life.
l SOUR
important t the econoomy
to
an imporrtantpopulation nsand
sourceeimportant comes toresofro om the cesea,
inhabitants is is
it still an important
o the economy
of food d other ources. Sinc well befo reand
recorded dwellbeing of
wellbeing of commun nities.
ans have used the seacommunities.
a as a sourcce of food. • Fisheries of o today provide about 16% of
contributio
% of the protein• connsumed • on It to the
provides s die et
food of
in million
thee form nsof of
fissh,the wo orld's
It provides w food in the the
by world form totalofworld'sfish, prote
shellfishin with (clams,
highher oysters, and bivalves), beach der mer,
the sea, molluscs,
omes froom inhabitants lobsters, crabs,
shellfish
i is stills an important
it (c
clams, oyste seaweed
ers,
percentage and biva and goctopus.
alves),
es occurring in developping
• ns
to the dieet of million It of
also provides
the beach
wo mfoodmollus
orld's der mer, fornations.
other
scs, lobsters marine s, organisms
crabs, seaaweed and obirds.
and octopus.
• Fisheries of
o today provide about 16% of Fisheries are still enormo ously
• It also provvides foodimportant
f otherto
for t maarine
the econoomy and
the
oday provide total
about 16% w
of orld's protein with highher
organisms and birds.wellbeing of
o communnities.
d's protein with highher
percentagees occurringg in• develop
occurringg in developping
ping
It provides
s food in thee form of fissh,
eries are stillnations.

enormoouslyFisheries
shellfish (cclams, oysteers, and bivaalves),
are still enormoously
the econoomy and beach der mer,
m mollusscs, lobsterss, crabs, seaaweed and octopus.
o
communnities.
important to
t the econoomy and
• It also provvides food for
f other maarine
wellbeing
od in thee form of fissh, o communnities.organisms and birds.
of
ms, oysteers, and bivaalves),
SO
OURCE: Primaryy
• scs,Itlobsters
r, mollus provides
s, crabs,ssea
food
aweed in
andthe
o e form
octopus. of fissh, Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 47
f shellfish
es food for other maarine (cclams, oysteers, and bivaalves),
atmospheric pollution is causing global warming and raises ocean temperatures. On top of this,
Today, the oceans
marine life has of to
thecopeworld witharenatural
under changes,
threat from suchmanyas El different sources,
Nino effects thatnot just direct
produce an unusually high
marine life has to cope with natural changes, such as El Nino effects that produce an unusually high
pollution by sewage,
sea surface rubbish and
temperature overradioactive
the easternwaste tropical butandfrom indirect changes. For example,
sea surface temperature over the eastern tropical and
atmospheric
equatorial pollution
PacificisOcean.
causingMany global coralwarmingreefs are andthreatened
raises ocean temperatures. On top of this,
equatorial Pacific Ocean. Many coral reefs are threatened
marine bylifethehas to copeofwith
dumping natural
wastes fromchanges,
nearby tourist such asareas El Ninoand effects
by that produce an unusually high
1.3.4 sea by the dumping of wastes Human fromImpact
nearby tourist on Marine areas Environment
and by
surface
drilling temperature
for underlying over thedeposits.
oil eastern tropical and
drilling for underlying oil deposits.
equatorial Pacific Ocean. Many coral reefs are threatened
Today, the oceans of the world are under threat from many
by the
different Itdumping
sources,
is easynot toofdump
wastes
just direct from
something nearby
pollution in the tourist
bywater, areas
sewage, and
for tides by
rubbish
and
and drilling It
radioactive is easy to dump
waste wash something
butdeposits. in the water, for tides and
for underlying
currents quickly oil itfrom
out ofindirect
sight. Forchanges. many years,For
example, atmospheric
currents quicklypollution wash it out is causing
of sight. For globalmanywarming
years,
coastal towns and cities have used the oceans as convenient
and raisescoastaloceantowns temperatures.
and cities have On used top the of this,
oceans marine life
as convenient
It is easy to dump something in the
has to cope with natural changes, such as El Nino effects that
place to dispose of sewage and water,
general for tides
rubbish. and
place to dispose of sewage and general rubbish.
produce anAs
currents unusually
quickly
human wash highitsea
population surface
out grows,
of sight.soFortemperature
hasmany years,
the pollution overinthe the
eastern tropical
coastal
As human
towns and equatorial
population
andshallow
cities have Pacific
grows,
used
so Ocean.
has
the oceans
the Many
pollution coral
in the
seas. Most coastal waters. Such as water convenient
is thoroughly mixed by the currents and winds so the
reefs are threatened
seas. Most shallow by the coastal
dumping of wastes
waters. Such water fromisnearbythoroughly mixed by the currents and winds so the
place pollution
to disposeaffectsof sewage and general rubbish.
tourist areas and by drilling for underlying oil deposits. the world’s sewage ends up in the ocean. Raw
all marine life. More than half of
pollution affects all marine life. More than half of the world’s sewage ends up in the ocean. Raw
As human
sewage population
of coursegrows,carriesso has thethat
bacteria pollution
contaminate in the the
It is easy sewage
to dump of course
something carries in bacteriawater, that contaminate the
seas. Most
water, shallow
making coastal
shellfish unfitthe
waters. Such
to eat waterand causefor tides
illnessandmixed by the currents and winds so the
is thoroughly
currents quickly
water,wash making it out of sight.
shellfish unfitFor to eatmany years,illness
and cause coastal
pollution affects all Sewage
in swimmers. marine life. whether Moretreatedthan half of the world’s
or untreated are sewage ends up in the ocean. Raw
towns and in cities have used
swimmers. Sewage thewhether
oceanstreated as convenientor untreated place
are
sewage
to dispose ofofsewage
rich course
in carries
nutrients bacterianitrates
andespecially
general that contaminate
rubbish. and phosphates. the
rich in nutrients especially nitrates and phosphates.
water, making shellfish unfit to eat and cause illness
As human
in swimmers. populationSewage grows, sotreated has theuntreated pollution in the
Some come fromwhether
organic matter,or the rest fromare soap
seas. MostSome shallow come coastal
from organicwaters.matter, Such the water is thoroughly
rest from soap
rich inpowders
nutrientsand especially nitrates and phosphates.
mixed by the currents detergents.
and windsWhen so the pollution
nutrients enteraffects
the all
powders and detergents. When nutrients enter the
marine life.water,Morethey thancause halfnutrient
of theenrichment
world’s sewage or ends up
in theSome
ocean.water, they cause nutrient enrichment or
comeRaw fromsewage
eutrophication. organic of course
This,matter,
in turnthe
carries
rest
causes from
the
bacteria
soapgrowththat
rapid
contaminate the water, This,
eutrophication. making in turn shellfish
causesunfit the rapid to eat growthand cause illness in swimmers. Sewage
powders of and detergents.
algae, creating When
algal nutrients
blooms over enter
the the
surface of the water, which
whether treatedof algae, or creating
untreated algalare rich inover
blooms nutrients
the surface especially nitrates
of the water, and affect
which
marine food web.
phosphates.
affect marine food web.
water,As theyalgaecausedie,nutrient
they areenrichment
decomposed or by millions of
Asfrom
Someeutrophication.
come algae die, theymatter, are decomposed by millions of
bacteria organic This,
that robinthe turn causes
water the rest
of its from
theoxygen.
rapid soap
Algalpowders
growth blooms
and detergents.bacteriaWhen
of algae,
that rob
creating algal nutrients
the water
bloomswatersenterof itsthe
over the
oxygen.water,Algal
surface they
of the cause
blooms
water, which affect marine food web.
are common in shallow or lagoons in which
nutrient enrichment or eutrophication.
are common in shallow waters or lagoons in which This, in turn causes
As algae
the rapid theredie,
growth they
of or
is no are
algae, decomposed
little creating
current by millions
algal
to spread blooms
the of overThis
pollution. the
there is no or little current to spread the pollution. This
surface of causes
bacteriathethat water, which
rob the
shellfish water affect
of its marine
poisoning oxygen.
in humans food andweb.
Algal blooms
high death
causes shellfish poisoning in humans and high death
are common in shallow
rate of clams. Slashwaters
and burn or lagoons
agriculture in whichcauses soil
As algae die, rate they are Slash
of clams. decomposed by millionscauses
and burn agriculture of bacteria
soil
there erosion,
is no or littleas current
heavy to spread
rainfall washes theexcessive
pollution.amount This of
that rob the water of its oxygen. Algal blooms are common in
erosion, as heavy rainfall washes excessive amount of
shallow waters
causes or lagoons
shellfish
soil into andinout
poisoning
rivers which
into humans
sea.there and
This isreduces
no
highordeath little current
sunlight and chokes coral polyps.
to spread soil into rivers and out to sea. This reduces sunlight and chokes coral polyps.
rate ofthe pollution.
clams. Slash and This burn
causes shellfishcauses
agriculture poisoning soil in humans and high death rate of clams.
Slash and burn agriculture causes soil erosion, as heavy rainfall washes excessive amount of soil
erosion, as heavy rainfall washes excessive amount of
into rivers and out to sea.
Fertilisers used This
by reduces
farmers also sunlight
contribute and chokes
to the
coral polyps. problem. These fertilisers are soluble in water, sochokes
soil into rivers and out to sea. This reduces sunlight and they
coral polyps.
drain from the fields and into the rivers, eventually

Fertilisers used by farmers also contribute to the problem.
washing into the sea.
These fertilisers are soluble in water, so they drain from the
Pesticides that are sprayed onto crops and the pest
fields and into the rivers, eventually washing into the sea.
animals that they kill also end up in the sea becoming
Pesticides that are sprayedinto
incorporated onto
thecrops andLevels
food chain. the pest animals
of pesticide in
the water may be very low, but they are taken up into
48 : Basic Science the bodies of planktons which are eaten by fish and other herbivores.
the water
animals that may
they be
killvery
alsolow,
end but they
up in theare
seataken up into
becoming
Carnivores
the
incorporated ofthen
bodies into theeat
planktonsthewhich
food herbivores.
chain. are Each
eaten
Levels ofbytime
fish the
andinother herbivores.
pesticide
pesticide
the water maybecomes
be very more concentrated
low, but in theup into
they are taken
theCarnivores
animal’s
bodies then eatThe
of tissues.
planktons the herbivores.
animals
which are that Each timeand
arebyworst
eaten fish the other herbivores.
pesticide becomes more concentrated in the
that they killaffected
also end areuptheintop
thepredators
sea becoming
– sharks,incorporated
whales,
animal’s
into theCarnivores
food chain. tissues.
thenLevels The animals
eat theofherbivores.that
pesticideEachare worst
in the water
time the may
tuna, sea gull and many others have died from
be verypesticide
low, but
affected they
are
becomesthe are
top
more taken
predatorsup– sharks,
intointhe
concentrated bodies of
whales,
the
planktonstuna,
which
pesticideare
gulleaten
poisoning. by fish andhave
other herbivores.
animal’ssea tissues. and
Themany others
animals died
that are worst from
A vast amount
pesticide of rubbish still ends up in the ocean particularly plastics. Most marine animals often
Carnivores
affected are poisoning.
then eattopthe
the herbivores.
predators – sharks,Each
whales,time the
pesticide Abecomes
die
tuna, seafrom
vast amount
gull more
either
and of concentrated
becoming
rubbish
many entangled
still
others ininfrom
endsdied
have up the
in theanimal’s
the plastic
ocean particularly plastics. Most marine animals often
tissues. The
die animals that are worst affected areplastic
the top
or from
from
pesticide either
eatingbecoming
poisoning. it. entangled in the
predators – sharks, whales, tuna, sea gull and many others have died from pesticide poisoning.
or from
A vast eating
amount of it.
rubbish still ends up in the ocean particularly plastics. Most marine animals often
A vast die amount
from of rubbish
either becoming still ends up
entangled in andin plastic
the the ocean
Oil spills covers the ocean surface when
particularly plastics. Mostthe marine animalsand often
whendie from
or Oil
fromspills
eatingcovers
it. ocean surface
either becoming
washed entangled
up onto shorelines in the coating
plastic the or from
sand and eating
washed up onto shorelines coating the sand and
it.
rocks. Thiskills kills theanimals
animalsstraight
straightaway away as they
Oilrocks.
spills This
covers thethe ocean surface and when as they
Oil spillswashed
covers
cannot
cannot upthe ocean
breathe.
breathe.
onto Birdssurface
Birds
shorelines
are
are andthe
unable
unable
coating towhen
tofly washed
flyasas
sand oil
and
clogup
oilclog
onto shorelines coating the sand and rocks. This kills the
their
their
rocks. feathers
feathers
This kills andandanimals
the whenthey
when they trytotoaway
try
straight cleanas
clean their
their
they
animals straight away as they cannot breathe. Birds are
tofeathers
unablecannot fly as
feathers they
oil
breathe. clog
they swallow
their
swallow
Birds the
theoiloiland
arefeathers
unable and
and
to die.
fly Sea
when
die.
as Seaseals
oil they try to clean their feathers they swallow the
seals
clog
oil andtheir
die.
loseSea
theirseals
feathers andlose
protectivewhen their protective
insulation
they try toandclean insulation
freeze
theirtotodeath. andCoral freeze reefs toaredeath.beingCoral damaged reefs byare being
tourists
lose their protective insulation and freeze death. Coral reefs are being damaged by tourists
damaged by tourists
diving, snorkellingdiving, and snorkelling
anchoring and
of anchoring of boats. Apart from these, litters and
boats.
feathers they swallow the oil and die. Sea seals
sewage alldiving,
contribute to theand
snorkelling lossanchoring
of diversity of on the reefs.
boats.
Apart
lose theirfrom these, insulation
protective litters and and sewagefreeze all to death. Coral reefs are being damaged by tourists
Apart from these, litters and sewage all
The primary
diving, threats
contribute totothealland
snorkelling mangrove
loss of diversity
anchoring species
ofon are habitat
the reefs.
boats.
destructioncontribute
and removal to theofloss
mangrove
of diversityareas on for
theconversion
reefs.
Of these, clear-felling, aquaculture and over-exploitation of fisheries in Mangroves are expected to
Apart from these, litters and sewage all
to aquaculture, agriculture, freshwater diversion,forest be the greatestuse
The primary
contribute to the threats
loss of todiversity
all mangroveon the species
reefs. are threats to mangrove species over the next 10–15 years.
urban and coastal development, and overexploitation.
habitat destruction
The primary threatsandtoremoval
all mangroveof mangrove
species are
Of these, clear-felling, aquaculture and species
The areas
habitat fordestruction
primary conversion
threats to allto aquaculture,
and removal
mangrove ofover-exploitation
agriculture,
mangrove are
of fisheries in Mangroves are expected to be the greatest
freshwater diversion,forest useofurban and
threats habitat to mangrove
areas destruction species
for conversion and removalover
to mangrove
the next
aquaculture, 10–15
agriculture, years.
coastal development, and
areas for conversion to aquaculture, agriculture, overexploitation.
freshwater diversion,forest use urban and
Causesfreshwater of degradation diversion,forest of coastal use urbanhabitats and include inappropriate agricultural activities,
mining,sewage coastalpollution,
development, inappropriate solid waste disposal, fishing activities, use of destructive
and overexploitation.
coastal development, and overexploitation.
Offishingpractices, beach
these, clear-felling, aquaculture and sand
over-exploitation mining,
of fisheries building
in Mangroves are expected toof jetties and, commercial harvesting of coral,soil
beerosion and
the greatest threats siltation,
to mangrove species overimproper disposal of industrial waste, and natural hazards such asclimate
the next 10–15 years.
change and sea level rise and hurricanes.
Causes of degradation of coastal habitats include inappropriate agricultural activities,

Review Exercise
What can I do?
Mangroves reforestation can be an interesting and very exciting activity. There are several ways
to get involved and to help protect the mangroves. Find the pairs that belong together!
1. Keep the water clean Confront them with the benefits of mangroves
2. Look for planting sites Don’t dump your waste into the sea
3. Watch the mangroves Help planting and maintaining mangroves
4. Talk to people Keep them clean and protect them from animals
5. Get involved Monitor their growth and survival
1.3.5 What is Conservation?
Habitat destruction and exploitation have meant that

Take nothing but photographs
thousands of species of plants and animals have
been 1.3.5Conservation
brought to the verge of extinction. In the face Leave nothing but footprints
of economic development, the growth of human Kill nothing but time.
population and the increase in agriculture to feed
them, habitats are vanishing quickly and their species
What is Conservation?
with them.
Habitat destruction and exploitation have meant that thousands of species of plants and animals
The destruction of tropical rain forest means that 500 -1000 species of plants are becoming
have been brought to the verge of extinction. In the face of economic development, the growth of
extinct every year. They are disappearing even before they are discovered by man and their
potential
humanvalue, for instance
population in providing
and the increase new medicines,
in agriculture to feed them,is habitats
wasted.areAnimal species
vanishing quicklyare
andnow
disappearing atwith
their species the rate
them.of one species per day.
Humans, through greed

The destruction andrain
of tropical ignorance, are that
forest means cutting downspecies
500 -1000 forestsofthat notare
plants only harbourextinct
becoming a huge
diversity of species but provide the oxygen we breathe and uses up carbondioxide. We can
every
benefit year.generations
future They are disappearing even before
by preserving they are discovered
our environment. by man
We have and their
a duty potential
of care value,
to manage
wild for
species which
instance can be new
in providing direct use to usis in
medicines, termsAnimal
wasted. of foodspecies
and other materials.
are now disappearing at the rate
of one species per day.
We must realise that over exploitation of non-renewable resources will leave us poorer in the
future. It is also in our interests to safeguard the existence of species that are part of the delicate
Humans, through greed and ignorance, are cutting down forests that not only harbour a huge
balance of nature in our world. There are many animals that we shall never see. The destruction
diversitytoofenable
of habitats species agriculture
but provide the oxygen
to feed we more
ever breathemouths
and usesis up carbondioxide.
one cause. The We
overcan benefit
exploitation
of species for commercial
future generations use is another.
by preserving our environment. We have a duty of care to manage wild species
which can be direct use to us in terms of food and other materials.
Conservation means protecting our environment so that animals and plants can maintain
their numbers.
We must realise that over exploitation of non-renewable resources will leave us poorer in the
future. It is also in our interests to safeguard the existence of species that are part of the delicate
balance of nature in our world. There are many animals that we shall never see. The destruction of
50 : Basic Science
habitats to enable agriculture to feed ever more mouths is one cause. The over exploitation of
species for commercial use is another.
Conservation aims to make our total surrounding better by sustained utilization of the resources
in the environment. It aims to plan development so as to retain as much natural beauty as
possible – to keep Fiji green, the sea unpolluted and the air fresh and to use our natural resources
scientifically so that they are not exhausted.
To support conservation is not opposed to development and changes but to be prepared to

consider fully the cost of development, including the effect on the natural environment – a cost
which must be minimised if our world to survive. Conservationists want development that works
Conservation Practice
with nature.
Conservation Practice
¾ Conservation Practice
Fisheries
¾ Fisheries
They must be • managed
Fisheries on a sustainable level as they
They must be managed on a sustainable level as they
an be easilyThey must but
reduced be notmanaged
so easilyonincreased.
a sustainable level
an be easilyasreduced
they can butbenoteasily reduced
so easily but not so easily
increased.
isheries can only be Fisheries
increased. protected canif harvests are kept if harvests
only be protected
isheries can only be protected if harvests are kept
are kept below the level at which fish are taken faster
elow the level at which fish are taken faster than they
than at
elow the level they can be
which fishreplaced.
are takenOverfishing
faster thanaffects
they other
marine
an be replaced. life. Fish are affects
Overfishing a critical part marine
other of the food
life. chain
an be replaced. Overfishing affects other
and overfishing means other animals go hungry. marine life.
ish are a critical part of the food chain and overfishing
ish are a critical part of the food chain and overfishing
means otherThe use of go
animals drifthungry.
nets which hang in the water for many
means otherkilometres
animals go hungry.
are not selective in the animals it trap.
The use of drift nets
Quiet nets
which
oftenwhichthe nets
hang in the water for
areinabandoned and
many
left to float free in the ocean becoming death trap
The use of drift hang the water for many
for even
ilometres are more animals.
not selective in the Itanimals
is impossible
it trap.to estimate
Quiet often howthe
many
netsdolphins, sharks, turtles
are abandoned and
and left toother
ilometres are not selective in the
animals have died in these nets. animals it trap. Quiet often the nets are abandoned and left to
loat free in the ocean becoming death trap for even more
loat free in the ocean becoming death trap for even more
Sustainable
nimals. It is impossible fishingto estimate guarantees
how many there will be
dolphins,
nimals. It is impossibleofto
populations estimate
ocean andhow many wildlife
freshwater dolphins, for the
harks, turtles and other animals have died
future. Aquatic environments are home to countlessin these nets.
harks, turtles and other animals have died in these nets.
ustainablespecies
fishingofguarantees
fish and invertebrates, most of which
there will be populations
ustainableare consumed
fishing as food.
guarantees there (Others
will beare harvested for
populations
f ocean and freshwater wildlife for the future.
economic reasons, such as oysters that produce Aquatic
f ocean and freshwater wildlife for the future. Aquatic
nvironments pearls
are used
homein to jewellery.)
countless Seafood
species is respected
of fish and all over
nvironments theare
world,
home in many diverse species
to countless cultures,of asfish
an important
and
nvertebrates,source
mostofofprotein
whichand are healthy
consumed fats.asFor thousands of
food.
nvertebrates, most of which are consumed as food.
Others are years, people have fished to feed families and local
harvested for economic reasons, such as
Others are communities.
harvested for economic reasons, such as
ysters that produce pearls used in jewellery.) Seafood is respected all over the world, in many
ysters thatDemand
produce pearls used inand
for seafood jewellery.)
advances Seafood is respected
in technology haveall over
led to the world,
fishing in many
practices that are
iverse cultures, as an important source of protein and healthy fats. For thousands of years, people
depleting
iverse cultures, as anfish and shellfish
important source populations
of proteinaround the world.
and healthy fats.Fishers remove more
For thousands than people
of years, 77 billion
ave fishedkilograms (170 billion
to feed families andpounds) of wildlife from the sea each year. Scientists fear that continuing to
local communities.
ave fishedfish
to feed families and local communities.
at this rate may soon result in a collapse of the world’s fisheries. In order to continue relying
on the ocean as an important food source, economists and conservationists say we will need to
employ
Demand for sustainable
seafood fishing practices.
and advances in technology have led to fishing practices that are depleting
Demand for seafood and advances in technology have led to fishing practices that are depleting
ish and shellfish populations around the world. Fishers remove more than 77 billion kilograms
Science Book
ish and shellfish populations around the world. Fishers remove more than 77 billion 2 - Lower Secondary: 51
kilograms
170 billion pounds) of wildlife from the sea each year. Scientists fear that continuing to fish at this
170 billion pounds) of wildlife from the sea each year. Scientists fear that continuing to fish at this
te may soon result in a collapse of the world’s fisheries. In order to continue relying on the ocean
an important food source, economists and conservationists say we will need to employ
stainable fishing practices.
Consider the example of the bluefin tuna. This fish is one of the largest and fastest on Earth. It is
known for its delicious meat, which is often enjoyed raw, as sushi. Demand for this particular fish
hasexample
Consider the resulted of
in very high prices
the bluefin tuna.($2000 - $20is000
This fish onedepending
of the
on size) at marketsand has threatened its population. Today’s
largest andspawning
fastest onpopulation
Earth. It is
of known for itsis estimated
bluefin tuna delicious meat,
at 21 to 29%
of its enjoyed
which is often population in 1970.
raw, as sushi. Demand for this particular
fish has resulted in very
Since about high
that prices
time, ($2000 fishers
commercial - $20 000
havedepending on
caught bluefin
tuna usinghas
size) at marketsand purse seining and
threatened its longlining.
population.Purse seine fishing uses
Today’s
a net to herd fish together and then envelop
Consider thethem by pulling
example of the bluefin tuna. This fish is one of the
spawning population of bluefinThe
the net’s drawstring. tunanetis can
estimated
scoopatup
21many
to 29%fishofat
itsa
largest and fastest on Earth. It is known for its delicious meat,
populationtime, and is typically used to catch schooling fish or those that
in 1970.
come together to spawn. which is often enjoyed raw, as sushi. Demand for this particular
fish has resulted in very high prices ($2000 - $20 000 depending on
Longlining is a type of fishing in which a very long line - up
to 100 kilometres (62 miles) - is set and
size) dragged behind
at marketsand a
has threatened its population. Today’s
boat. These lines have thousands of baited hooks
spawning attached
population to
of bluefin tuna is estimated at 21 to 29% of its
smaller lines stretching downward. Both purse seining and longlining are efficient fishing methods
population
but are not sustainable. These techniques canincatch
1970.hundreds or thousands of fish at a time.
Catching so many fish at a time can result in

an immediate payoff for fishers. Fishing this
way consistently, however, leaves few fish of a
species left in the ocean. If a fish population
is small, it cannot easily replenish itself through
Since about that time, commercial
reproduction. fishers
Taking wildlife from have caught
the sea bluefin tuna using purse seining and
faster
longlining.than populations
Purse can uses
seine fishing reproduce
a net toisherd
known
fishas
together and then envelop them by pulling
overfishing.
the net’s drawstring. The net can scoop up many fish at a time, and is typically used to catch
schooling Purse
fish orseining, longlining
those that and many
come together to other
spawn.types of fishingiscan
Longlining alsoofresult
a type in ainlot
fishing of byacatch,
which very
the capture of unintended species. Longlines intended to catch bluefin tuna, for instance, can
Since about that time, commercial fishers have caught bluefin tuna using
long line—up to 100
ensnare kilometres
birds, (62and
sea turtles, miles)—is
other fishset andasdragged
such behind a boat. These lines have
swordfish.
longlining. Purse seine fishing uses a net to herd fish together and then e
thousands of baited hooks attached to smaller lines stretching downward. Both purse seining and
the net’s drawstring. The net can scoop up many fish at a time, and is typ
longlining are efficient fishing methods but are not sustainable. These techniques can catch
schooling fish or those that come together to spawn. Longlining is a type
hundreds or thousands of fish at a time.
long line—up to 100 kilometres (62 miles)—is set and dragged behind a
52 : Basic Science
thousands of baited hooks attached to smaller lines stretching downward.
Catching so many fish at a time can result in an immediate payoff for fishers. Fishing this way
longlining are efficient fishing methods but are not sustainable. These tec
Traditional Fijian cultures have relied on the ocean’s
resources. Their most common historical fishing practices
were hook and line, spearfishing, and cast nets. Hooks
constructed of bone, shell, or stone were designed to catch
Traditional
specific species. Fijian
Fishers cultures
would have2-meter
also craft relied on the ocean’s
(6-foot)
Traditional Fijian cultures have relied on the ocean’s resources. Their most common historical
spears. Theyresources.
fishing
would Their
practices
dive most
were common
hook
underwater and historical
or spear line, fishing practices
spearfishing,
fish from and cast nets. Hooks constructed of bone,
shell,
wereorhook
stoneandwere
line,designed to catch
spearfishing, and castspecific species. Fishers would also craft 2-meter (6-foot)
nets. Hooks
above, again targeting specific animals. Cast nets were used
spears. They would dive underwater or spear fish from above, again targeting specific animals.
constructed of bone, shell, or stone were designed to catch
by fishersCast nets individually
working were used by or fishers working
in groups. The individually
nets could or in groups. The nets could be cast from shore
specific species. Fishers would also craft
or canoes, catching groups of fish. All of these 2-meter (6-foot)targeted fish needed for fishers’ families
methods
be cast from shore or canoes, catching groups of fish. All of
and local
spears. communities.
They would dive underwater or spear fish from
n the ocean’s
these methods targeted fish needed for fishers’
above, again targeting specific animals. Cast nets were used
l fishing practices
families and
bylocal communities.
fishers working individually or in groups. The nets could
st nets. Hooks
be cast from shore or canoes, catching groups of fish. All of
designed to catch
these methods targeted fish needed for fishers’
t 2-meter (6-foot)
families and local communities.
spear fish from
Cast nets were used
oups. The nets could
roups of fish. All of
ishers’ Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 53

sharks are highly vulnerable to overfishing because
they grow slowly, mature late and produce a small
number of young.
Our lackSharks are for
of concern nowthelisted
valueas
of an
marine
endangeredorganisms
species is
inclearly
Fiji. seen in the killing of sharks.
Our lack of Our concern
lack offor the value
concern for the of marine
value organisms is
of marine
Shark dorsal fins are used to make simple bowl of
clearly seen organisms
in the killing of sharks.
is clearly seen inShark dorsaloffins
the killing are used
sharks.
¾ soup but noisother part of need
the shark is used. Many
to make simple bowl of soup but no other part of the shark
Corals-there an urgent to conserve coral reefs to safeguard their valuable resources.
Shark dorsal fins are used to make simple bowl of
isAction
used. isMany sharks
sharks
needed to putare
are highly highly
large areasvulnerable
vulnerable to overfishing
of reefs asideto overfishing
because
soup but no other part of the shark is used. Many
because they theygrow
grow slowly, mature
slowly, maturelate andproduce
late and produce a small
a small
under full protection
number of young.
where fishing and damaging
number Sharks areSharks
now arelisted
nowaslisted
an endangered
sharks are highly vulnerable to overfishing because
of young. as an
species in are
activities Fiji.
theyprohibited,
grow slowly, butmature
non-damaging
late and produce a small
endangered species in Fiji.
activities such
number of young. Sharks
as sustainable are now listed as an
(or environmentally
• Corals - there is an urgent need to conserve coral reefs to safeguard their valuable
endangered
sensitive) Action
tourism are species in Fiji.
encouraged
resources. ¾ isCorals-there
needed an to
toisput provide
large
urgent areas
need of reefs coral
to conserve aside under
reefs full protection
to safeguard where
their valuable fishing
resources.
and damaging
alternative activities
incomes.
Action is neededare
toprohibited,
put large areas butofnon-damaging
reefs aside
activities such¾ as sustainable
Corals-there is (or
anenvironmentally sensitive)
urgent need to conserve
under full protection where fishing and damaging
coral reefs to safeguard their valuable resources.
tourism are encouraged
Action is needed totoprovide
put largealternative
areas of reefsincomes.
aside
activities can
Ways of protection are prohibited,
be: but non-damaging
under full protection where fishing and damaging
Ways
of protection
activitiescan
the promotion
suchbe:as sustainable (or environmentally
activities areof non-damaging
prohibited, activities on coral reefs such as environmental tourism
but non-damaging
• the promotion of non-damaging
sensitive) tourism are encouraged activities
to provide on coral
reefs the such
prevention
activities
alternative
suchof dynamite
as environmental
as
incomes.
sustainableand cyanide
tourism
(or fishing for live fish trade
environmentally
• thetheprevention of
sensitive)oftourism
control dynamiteand and
are encouraged
pollution cyanide
to provide
deforestation infishing
tropical forcatchment areas near coral reefs
live fish trade incomes.
alternative
• thethecontrol
Ways of
reductionofprotection can
of greenhouse
pollution andbe:deforestation
gases that are in driving
tropical climate change
catchment donor
aid from areas near coral
the promotion
countries ofto reefs
non-damaging
be used in the activities
protection on coral
of reefs
coralsuch as environmental tourism
reefs.
Ways
• the reduction of protection can be:
theofprevention
greenhouse gases and
of dynamite thatcyanide
are drivingfishingclimate change
for live fish trade
• aid from donor countriesoftonon-damaging
the promotion be used in the protection
activities on coralofreefs
coral
suchreefs.
as environmental tourism
the control of pollution and deforestation in tropical catchment areas near coral reefs

¾ Mangroves–Mangroves

the prevention ofare dynamite
highlyand cyanide fishing
biodiverse habitats for live fish trade
• Mangroves – reduction
the Mangroves are highly
of greenhouse gasesbiodiverse
that are driving habitats
climate change
thathost
hostaalarge
large the control
variety of
ofdonor pollution
unique and
organisms deforestation
from in tropical catchment areas near coral reefs
that varietyaid from of unique organisms
countries frominbarnacles
to be used barnacles and
the protection and of coral reefs.
oysters to
fiddler crabs,
the mudskippers.
reduction of Nutrients
greenhouse gases
oysters to fiddler crabs, mudskippers. Nutrients and carbon from and
that carbon
are driving from
climate change
mangrove forests provide
aid essential
from donor support
countries to other
to be used in thenear shore
protection of coral reefs.
mangrove forests provide essential support to other near
¾ Mangroves–Mangroves
marine ecosystems such as coral reefs and seagrass
are highly biodiverseareas, and
habitats
enrich
shore coastal
marine food
host a webs
thatecosystems and as
such
large variety fishery
uniqueproduction.
of coral reefs and seagrass
organisms fromThebarnacles
physical
areas,and
presence ¾
and enrichofcoastal
Mangroves
oysters tofood along
Mangroves–Mangroves
webs
fiddler
the coastlines
andmudskippers.
crabs, fishery are and rivers
highly biodiverse
production.
Nutrients The
also
habitats
and carbon from
provide the first
that line
host of defence
a large varietyagainst
of unique cyclones,
organismshigh from winds and
barnacles and
physical presence
mangrove of Mangroves
forests provide along the
essential coastlines
support toand
storm surges. It is estimated that globally, mangroves provide other rivers
near
oysters to fiddler crabs, mudskippers. Nutrients and carbon from
atalso
least $1.6shore
provide billion
the first per
marine square
line kilometres
ecosystems
of defence such in ecosystem
as coral
against reefs and seagrass
cyclones, services
high areas,
annually. mangrove forests provide essential support to other near
and enrich coastal food webs and fishery production. The
winds and storm surges. It is estimated that globally,
shore marine ecosystems such as coral reefs and seagrass areas,
physical presence of Mangroves along the coastlines and rivers
mangroves
Such provide
services enrichatcoastal
include
and least $1.6
protecting billion andper
foreshores,
food webs square kilometres
fisheries
fishery Thein and supply of building materials
production
production.
also provide the first line of defence against cyclones, high
but also tourism,
ecosystem recreation
services
physical annually.
presence and
of improving
Mangroves water
along quality. Mangrove
the coastlines and rivers ecosystems are also one of
winds and storm surges. It is estimated that globally,
the best, and largely overlooked Carbon sinks. In essence, Mangroves provide natural adaptation
also provide the first line of defence against cyclones, high
to the effects of climate
mangroves change,
provide serve
at least $1.6 as per
billion natural
squareinsurance against climate change, and
kilometres in
winds
contribute towards and
thestorm surges.
global It is estimated that globally,
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. They are thus nature’s
ecosystem services annually.
answer to the effects of
mangroves Global
provide Warming.
at least $1.6 billion per square kilometres in
ecosystem services annually.
As a consequence, conservation of mangroves and associated ecosystems has been identified
as a key natural adaptation strategy and action for reducing the severity and serious measure to
54 : Basic Science
key natural
theadaptation strategy
global reduction and action
of greenhouse for reducing
gas emissions. thethus
They are severity and
nature’s serious
answer to themeasure
effects of to climate
Global Warming.
change. Protecting these vital ecosystems also safeguards and enhances the livelihoods of coastal
As a consequence, conservation of mangroves and associated ecosystems has been identified as a
communities.
key natural adaptation strategy and action for reducing the severity and serious measure to climate
climate change.
change. toProtecting
Protecting
More these
these vital
Know vital ecosystems
ecosystems alsoand
also safeguards safeguards and
enhances the enhances
livelihoods the livelihoods
of coastal
of coastal communities.
communities.
To protect our flora and fauna and their habitats, protected areas called sanctuaries,
More to Know
national parks and biosphere reserves have been earmarked. Plantation, cultivation,
Tograzing, felling
protect our trees,
flora and faunahunting
and theirand poaching
habitats, areareas
protected prohibited there.
called sanctuaries,
national parks and biosphere reserves have been earmarked. Plantation, cultivation,
Sanctuary: Areas where
grazing, animals
felling are protected
trees, hunting from
and poaching are any disturbance
prohibited there. to them and
their habitat.
Sanctuary: Areas where animals are protected from any disturbance to them and
their habitat.
National Park: Areas reserved for wild life where they can freely use the habitats
National Park: Areas reserved
andfor wild life
natural where they can freely use the habitats
resources.
and natural resources.
Biosphere Reserve: Large areas of protected land for conservation of wild life, plant
Biosphere Reserve: Large areas of protected land for conservation of wild life, plant
and animal resources
and animal andandtraditional
resources lifeofofthethe
traditional life tribals
tribals living
living in the in the area.
area.
Conservation
Conservation farmingisisany
farming systemor or
any system practice
practice whichwhich
aims to aims to soil
conserve conserve
and watersoil
by and water by
Conservation farming is any system or practice which aims to conserve soil and water by
usingsurface cover
usingsurface cover(mulch)
(mulch) to minimiserunoff
to minimise runoff and erosion and improve the conditions for plant
and
establishment
usingsurface cover and growth.
(mulch) It involves
to minimise planting
runoff and crops
erosion and improve the conditions for plant
and pastures directly into landwhich is protected by
erosion and improve and
establishment the growth.
conditions for plant
It involves planting crops
mulch using minimum or no-tillage techniques.
and pastures
establishment directly into
and growth. landwhichplanting
It involves is protected by
crops
Conservation farming - This is a combination of
mulch using minimum or no-tillage techniques.
and pastures directly into landwhich is protected by
methods which aim to conserve water, soil quality,
moisture,
mulch using fertility and
minimum
Conservation or seed production,
no-tillage
farming - This as well
is techniques.
a combination of as the
farmer’s energy,
methods whichtime
aim toand money.
conserve water,Some of the
soil quality, key fertility and seed production, as well
moisture,
aspects and benefits include:
Conservation farming
as the farmer’s - This
energy, is and
time a combination ofthe key aspects and benefits include:
money. Some of
• Planting
methods in basins
which aim Farmers
to conserve create
water, basins
soil in the
quality, soil in which
moisture, seeds
fertility can
and be production,
seed planted. When the
as well
• Planting in basins Farmers create basins in the soil in which seeds can be planted. When
rains come the water is trapped in the basins, allowing roots to develop and stopping the top
as the farmer’s the
energy, timethe
rains come and money.
water Some of the key aspects and benefits include:
is trapped
soil and fertiliser being washed away. in the basins, allowing roots to develop and stopping the
• Leavingtop crop residue
soil and forbeing
fertiliser the washed away. Farmers are encouraged to leave the residues
next harvest
• Planting
rather than burningFarmers
in basins them. This createreduces
basinssoil andsoil
in the water loss, improves
in which seeds caninfiltration,
be planted.reduces
When
surface temperatures and in time improves soil fertility. Because seeds are planted in the
the rains come the water is trapped in the basins, allowing roots to develop and stopping the
same basin each year, the fertiliser left from the previous crop can be absorbed by the new
crop.
top soil and fertiliser being washed away.
• Nitrogen-fixing crop rotations Farmers are encouraged to grow legumes (beans, peanuts)
and other nitrogen-fixing crops in rotation to increase the natural soil nutrients. This will reduce
the need for artificial fertiliser and enable them to diversify their crops.
• Early planting during the first rains This means that farmers need to prepare land as soon
as they have harvested the previous crop. Planting during the first rains enables the seeds to
benefit from the nitrogen that the rains flush through the soil.
• Planting dense rows of trees as wind-breaks along the borders of the land, especially on
the sides that are exposed to stiff winds. Their roots stabilize the soil and prevent it from being
shifted away by the wind.
• Planting dense rows of trees as wind-breaks along the borders of the land, especially on the
as they from
benefit have harvested
the nitrogen thethat
previous crop.
the rains Planting
flush through during the first rains enables the seeds to
the soil.
sides that are exposed to stiff winds. Their roots stabilize the soil and prevent it from being
• benefit
Planting from
dense the rows
nitrogen that the
of trees rains flush through
as wind-breaks along the theborders
soil. of the land, especially on the
shifted away by the wind.
• Planting
sides that dense
are exposed rows of to trees as wind-breaks
stiff winds. Their roots along the borders
stabilize the soilofand
theprevent
land, especially on the
it from being
• Planting crops in rotation. Alternating crops helps
sides that
shifted awayare by exposed
the wind.to stiff winds. Their roots stabilize the soil and prevent it from being
• Planting avoid depleting
crops awayincrops the
rotation. soil nutrients
Alternating toocrops
fast. helps avoid
shifted
• Planting by in therotation.
wind. Alternating crops helps
depleting the soil
• Planting nutrients
cover crops.too fast.stabilize the soil and
These
• avoid
Planting crops the
depleting in rotation. Alternating
soil nutrients too fast.crops helps
• Planting cover
reduce effects These
thecrops. of soil stabilize
erosion. They the soil
alsoand reduce
the effects avoid
• Planting depleting
of soil erosion.
cover crops.the soil nutrients
TheyThese too
also discourage fast.
stabilize the soil theandspread
discourage the spread of weeds and help the soil
of weeds and help
• Planting
reduce the soil
thecover
effects retain
crops.
of its moisture
These
soil erosion. Theyinthe
stabilize the
also summers.
soil and
• Ploughing along
retain
reduce thethe
its moisture
effectscontour oferosion.
in the summers.
of soil the land. They
discourage the spread of weeds and helpalsothe soil
• Planting crops parallel to the
• Ploughing along the contour of the land. slope of the land.
• discourage
Going forretain the spread
stripitscropping.
moisture of involves
inThis
the weeds and
summers. help thegrasses
planting soil or
• Planting crops parallel to the slope of the land.
pulses• between
retain its regular
Ploughing moisture
along the crops
in the like corn.
summers.
contour of theTheland. corn crop is
•
not particularly
Going foreffective
strip in preventing
cropping. This soil
involves erosion,
planting but the
•• Ploughing
Planting alongparallel
crops the contour
to theof the land.
slope of the land.
grassesgrasses
keep erosion
or pulsesinbetweencheck. regular crops like corn. The
•• Planting crops parallel to the slope of the land.
• Adding mulch to the soil surface.This
Going for strip cropping. Thisinvolves
prevents planting
erosion by
corn crop is not particularly effective in preventing
acting• asGoinga barrier
grasses for and catching
strip
or pulses cropping.
between regularrun-off water.
This involves
crops planting
like corn. The
• soil erosion, but the grasses keep erosion in check.
Adding grassescoircrop
corn logs
or not(durable
ispulses between regular
particularly biodegradable
crops
effective in like erosion
corn.
preventing The
prevention
• Adding log)mulch
as barriers.
to the soilThese are very
surface. Thisinuseful
prevents in erosion
areas by acting as a barrier and catching
cornerosion,
soil crop is not but particularly
the grasses keep effective
erosion preventing
in check.
where too much
run-off erosion has taken place and act as erosion
water.
preventing soil
• Adding erosion,
barriers
mulch but
and thethe
to agrasses
support keepfor
soil surface. erosion indeveloping
newprevents
This check.erosion by acting as a barrier and catching
• Adding coir logs (durable biodegradable erosion
vegetation.
• AddingAside
run-off from to
mulch
water. coir
thebarriers,
soil surface.sandThis bagprevents
and gravel erosion by acting as a barrier and catching
bag barriers are also
prevention log) used.
as barriers. These are very useful in
• run-off
Addingwater.coir logs (durable biodegradable erosion
• Growing grass
areas where ontooslopes and in
much erosion haswaterways.
taken place and Grassed
act
• prevention
Adding coir logs (durable biodegradable erosion
waterways prevent too much soil from being washed away.
log) as barriers. These are very useful in
as erosion preventing barriers and a support for new
• Terrace areascropping
prevention
wherelog) slows
too as much down
barriers.
erosionthe
Theseflow
has are of
takenvery rain down
andinact a
useful
place
hillside, terrace
developing
areas givestoo
where the
vegetation. water
much
Asidetime has
erosion
fromto soak inplace
coir and sand
barriers, nourish
as erosion preventing barriers and taken
a support forand new act
the crop. bag and gravel bag barriers are also used.
as erosion preventing
developing vegetation.barriers
Aside from and acoir
support for new
barriers, sand
Public Awareness
developing vegetation.
bag and gravel Aside
bag barriers arefrom
alsocoir barriers, sand
used.
Public awareness is gravel
bag and the public’s level are
bag barriers of understanding
also used. about the importance and implications
of conservation. Raising public awareness is not the same as telling the public what to do – it
is explaining issues and disseminating knowledge to people so that they can make their own
decisions.There are various organisations and schemes that seek to inform the public of important
and topical issue. Greater awareness empowers the public and enables informed debate on
environmental issues affecting society. Here are some examples of such public awareness
activities. Ways of raising public awareness:
• Seminars
• Workshops/conferences
• Awareness materials (brochures, posters, videos, stickers etc.)
• Exhibitions
• Public awareness events
• Visitors’ days
• Field days
• Media (newspapers, radio, TV
• Websites and other internet based tools
56 : Basic Science
Review Exercise
1. Discuss the effects of development (hotel development, building of jetties, and building of
industrial areas, constructing roads) on marine environment.
2. Write a paragraph on how you conserve the resources you use at home.
3. Create a poster(using pictures or drawings) to educate the community on conservation of

any one of the following:
• Tropical forest
• Mangroves
• Corals
• Turtles
• Marine areas
• Crested Iguana
• Sharks
• Wetlands
• Whales
4. Explain the meaning of endangered, extinct,endemic, over exploitationand non-renewable
5. What will happen if :

• we go on cutting trees.
• the habitat of an animal is disturbed.
• the top layer of soil is exposed.
6. Discuss what a Carbon sink is.
7. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is a complete list of conservation information of plants
and animals around the world. List down all the IUCN Red List species of Fiji.

3. REACTIONS
3. REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2: MATTER
All that can be observed around us, using our senses, is either matter or en
All that can be observed around us, using our senses, is either matter or
1. INVESTIGATING MATTER
around us and of what we are made. The building blocks 1. INVESTIGATION M
of matter are very
2. MATERIALS
around us and of what we are made. The building blocks of matter are ve
3. REACTIONS 2. MATERIALS
Everything around us is made of very tiny pieces, or 3. REACTIONS

Everything around us is made of very tiny pieces, or particles.
particles.
Your body i
Your body
your
yourdesk,
desk,your
INTRODUCTION yourchair,
chair,and
andthis
thisbook.
book.These
Theseparticles
particlesare
aresosotiny
tinythat
thatit itisisim
one of them, and look at it.it.However, there INTRODUCTION
isisa amachine that is powerful
one
All that canofbethem, and
observed look
around us, at However,
using our there
senses, is either matter machine
or energy. that
Matter powerfule
is theisstuff
around
groups us and
ofofparticles.
what we areItmade. The building
is called blocks ofelectron
scanning matter are very small
thatparticles.
microscope.
All The micros
can be observed around
groups of particles. It is called scanning electron microscope. The micr
around us and of what we are m
Everything
still notaround us is made
powerful of veryto
enough tinyshow
pieces,just
or particles.
one Your body is made of particles.
particle.
still not powerful enough to show just one particle.
So are your desk, your chair, and this book. These particles are so tiny that itEverything
is impossible to pickus is made o
around
up just one of them, and look at it. However, there is a machine that is powerful enough to take
Matter, we your desk,about
your chair, and this
pictures
Matter, wecan
of groups ofcansay sayisItis
particles. ismade
called
made ofofparticles.
scanning electronThis
particles. Thisway
waythinking
microscope. The microscope
thinking matter
is very
about matter isi
powerful, but still not powerful enough to show just one particle. one of them, and look at it. Ho
a away
wayofofexplaining
explainingwhat
whatsomething
somethingisisand
andhow
howit itworks.
works.
groups
TheThemodel
model
of particles.
that
thatw
It is called
Matter, we can say is made of particles. This way thinking about matter is called model. A model
called
calledparticle
particlemodel.
model.According
Accordingtotothe theparticle
particlemodel,
model, allpowerful
still not allmatter
is a way of explaining what something is and how it works. The model that we use to explain
matter isismade
enough mad
to sh
matter is called
atoms. particle model.
Everything According
isismade to the particle model, all matter is made up of tiny
atoms. Everything madeofof atoms.
atoms. Matter, we can say is made of p
particles called atoms. Everything is made of atoms.
a way of explaining what some
called particle model. Accordi
atoms. Everything is made of a
Primary Source
Primary Source
Primary Source
58 : Basic Science
UNIT 1: INVESTIGATING MATTER
2.1.1 Structure and Constituents of an Atom
INTRODUCTION
Chemists arewill
This unit people who study
be investigating the types ofofmatter
structure an atomand
andthe changes
explain matter ofgoes
the properties through. They
common
interested ininthe
elements fundamental
relation question
to their position
UNIT on thewhat
1: INVESTIGATING is matter
periodic table. made of? Nowadays, scientists and no
MATTER
scientists alike accept that matter is made of tiny particles. These tiny particles are atoms.
INTRODUCTION
‘atom’
This unit comes
will be from the
investigating theGreek word
structure of atomos
an atommeaning indivisible
and explain or unable
the properties be broken
of common down
2.1.1 Structure and Constituents of an Atom
elements in relation to their position on the periodic table.
further.
Chemists are people who study types of matter and the changes matter goes through. They are vitally
2.1.1 STRUCTURE AND CONSTITUENTS OF AN ATOM
Atoms are made
interested in thefrom 3 kinds
fundamental of subwhat
question atomic particles
is matter made of?(particles
Nowadays, smaller
scientists than an atom)
and non- – pr
Chemists are
neutrons people
scientists
and who
alike studythat
accept
electrons. types of matter
matter
These is made
are and theparticles.
of tiny
building changes ofmatter
blocksThese tinygoes
atoms. through.
particles They are
are atoms. The word
vitally interested
‘atom’incomes
the fundamental
from the Greekquestion whatmeaning
word atomos is matter made of?
indivisible or Nowadays, scientists
unable be broken downand
any
non-scientists alike accept that matter is made of tiny particles. These tiny particles are atoms.
The word 1. ‘atom’
Protons
further.
comes– are positively
from the Greek(+) wordcharged
atomos particle
meaning which are or unable be broken
indivisible
down any further.
tightlyarepacked together
Atoms made from 3 kindsin
of the
sub nucleus of the (particles
atomic particles atom. smaller than an atom) – protons,
Atoms 2. Neutron
are neutrons
made from –3electrons.
and are neutral
kinds of subparticle
atomic
These whichblocks
have
particles
are building noatoms.
charge
(particles
of smaller and
than an atom) – protons,
neutrons and electrons. These are building blocks of atoms.
are found in
1. Protons thepositively
– are nucleus.(+) charged particle which are
1. Protons – are
3. Electron positively
tightly (+) charged
– are negatively
packed together particle
in the(-) ofwhich
charged
nucleus are tightly
theparticle
atom. which
packed2.together
Neutron in –the
arenucleus
neutral of the atom.
particle which have no charge and
move around the nucleus in shells or orbits.
2. Neutron – are neutral particle which have no charge and are
are found in the nucleus.
found in the nucleus.
3. Electron3. – Electron
are negatively (-) charged
– are negatively particle
(-) charged which
particle whichmove
Proton
around and
the move neutron
nucleus areorheavier
in shells
around orbits.
the nucleus
than electron. The negative
in shells or orbits.
charge electron balances the p
charge proton thus the number of proton is equal to the number of electron.
Proton and neutron are heavier than electron. The negative charge electron balances the
Proton
positive charge and neutron
proton arenumber
thus the heavier than electron.
of proton The negative
is equal charge electron
to the number balances the positive
of electron.
Atomic Number
charge (Z)the
proton thus – number
is the number
of proton isofequal
protons
to the (p) in any
number atom. It determines the elemen
of electron.
Atomic Number
atom, (Z) – atom
e.g. any is the with
number of protons
6 protons (p) in any
is carbon, atom. It determines
regardless of the number the element
of neutronsof and ele
the atom, Atomic
e.g. any atom (Z)
Number with–6isprotons is carbon,
the number regardless
of protons (p) in anyofatom.
the number of neutrons
It determines and
the element of the
electrons. atom, e.g. any atom with 6 protons is carbon, regardless of the number of neutrons and electrons.
Z
Z
The
Theelements arearranged
elements are arranged in the
in the Periodic
Periodic TableTable in ascending
in ascending order oforder
atomicofnumber
atomicso number
it's easy toso it’s
easy to find the name or symbol for an atom if you know the atomic number.
find the name or symbol for an atom if you know the atomic number.
Mass Number (A) – the total number of protons (p) and neutrons (n) in an atom. The mass
number is usually about twice the atomic number. A
Isotopes – occurs when two atoms of the same element have different numbers of neutrons. They
r symbol for an atom if you know the atomic number.
Mass Mass
NumberNumber
(A) (A)
– the– the total
total numberof
number of protons
protons (p)
(p)and
andneutrons
neutrons(n) in
(n)aninatom. The mass
an atom. The mass
number
(A) – the total is usuallyofabout
number twice(p)
protons the and
atomic number. (n) in an atom. The mass
neutrons
number is usually about twice the atomic number. A
ly about twice the atomic number. A
Isotopes
Isotopes – occurs
– occurs whenwhen
twotwo atoms
atoms ofofthethesame
sameelement
element have
have different
different numbers of neutrons.
numbers of neutrons. Th
rs when two atoms of the
They will have the same element have different numbers of neutrons. They
atomic number but a different mass number. Compare these two
will have the same atomic number but a different mass number. Compare these two atoms –
me atomicatoms – chlorine.
number but a different mass number. Compare these two atoms –
chlorine.
They’re
They're both both chlorine
chlorine – they
– they bothhave
both havethethesame
same atomic
atomic number
number- -but
butthey have
they different
have massmass
different
numbers
orine – they both –have
they’re
theisotopes of chlorine.
same atomic number - but they have different mass
numbers – they're isotopes of chlorine.
re isotopes of isotopes
Both chlorine.have 17 protons. The isotope with mass number 35 has 18 neutrons. The isotope
with mass 37 has 20 neutrons.
Both isotopes have 17 protons. The isotope with mass number 35 has 18 neutrons. The isotope with
ave 17 protons. The isotope with mass number 35 has 18 neutrons. The isotope with
mass 37 has 20 neutrons.
neutrons. Review Exercise:
1. Exercise:
Review State how many protons and electrons the following atoms would have:
e:
1.
State how Atom
many protons andNumber of protons
electrons the following atoms
Number of electrons
would have:
w many protons and electrons the following atoms would have:
Lithium 3 _____________
AtomSodium Number of protons
_____________ Number of
11electrons
om Number of protons Number of electrons
Fluorine _____________ _____________
Lithium 3 _____________
hium Magnesium
3 _____________
_____________ _____________
Sodium ____________ 11
dium ____________ 11
Fluorine ____________ ____________
orine ____________ ____________
Magnesium _____________ ______________
nesium _____________ ______________
60 : Basic Science
Complete
Complete the the table
table below.
below. The one
The first first has
onebeen
hasdone
beenfordone
you. for you.
Task
Electron shells/Energy levels - a region of space in which electrons move around the
an atom.
Electron
Electron • Thelevels
shells/Energy
shells/Energy st
- a- aregion
1levels
shell of
is close
region ofspace
to theininnucleus
space whichelectrons
which electrons
and hasmove move
room around
for
around the the
only nucleus
of of
2 electrons.
nucleus
ananatom.
atom.
• isThe
• The 1st shell 2ndtoand
close
rd
the 3nucleus
shellandcanhascontain
roomup for to 8 electrons
only 2 electrons.in each shell
• •TheThe
2nd1st•and 3rd shell tocan
the contain up has
to 8room
shellThe 4th shell
is close can hold
nucleus and 18. ( electrons
Thisforwill in 2each
only shell
beelectrons.
discussed later in higher Form)
• The 4th nd shell can hold 18. ( This will be discussed later in higher Form)
• •There
rd
The can
• beThere
2 and 3as shell can
many
can as becontain
7as up to 8shells
occupied
many as electrons in each shell
of electrons
7 occupied shells of electrons
• •TheThe
shell
4 nearest
th
shell cantohold
the 18.nucleus
( Thisfills
willupbefirst.
discussed later in higher Form)
• The shell nearest to the nucleus fills up first.
• There can be as many as 7 occupied shells of electrons
• The shell nearest to the nucleus fills up first.
1st shell
1st shell
2nd shell nucleus

nd
2 shell nucleus
3rd shell
3rd shell

Outer shell/valence shell – the last electron shell in which there are electrons. The way an element
Outer shell/valence shell – the last electron shell in which there are electrons. The way an element
behaves largely depends upon the electrons in the outermost shell. These outer electrons are the ones
behaves largely depends upon the electrons in the outermost shell. These outer electrons are the ones
most commonly involved when atoms joined up with each other. Metals generally have 1 or 2
most commonly involved when atoms joined up with each other. Metals generally have 1 or 2
Outer shell/ valence
electrons shell –shells,
in their outer the last electron
whereas shell in which
non-metals there
have 3 orare electrons.
more The way an element
electrons.
electrons in their outer shells, whereas non-metals have 3 or more electrons.
behaves largely depends upon the electrons in the outermost shell. These outer electrons are
theOctet
ones –most commonly
a group involved
of 8 electrons in awhen
singleatoms joined
electron upAtoms
shell. with each
with another.
octetMetals
for the generally
outer shell are
Octet – a group of 8 electrons in a single electron shell. Atoms with an octet for the outer shell are
have 1 or 2 electrons in their outer shells, whereas non-metals have 3 or more electrons.
very stable and unreactive. Other atoms can achieve stable octet either by sharing electrons with
very stable and unreactive. Other atoms can achieve stable octet either by sharing electrons with
Octet – aatoms
other grouporofby
8 electrons
gaining orinlosing
a single electron shell. Atoms with an octet for the outer shell are
electrons.
other atoms or by gaining or losing electrons.
very stable and unreactive. Other atoms can achieve stable octet either by sharing electrons
withElectron
other atoms or by gaining
configuration or losing
– a group electrons.which shows the arrangement of the electrons in an
of numbers
Electron configuration – a group of numbers which shows the arrangement of the electrons in an
atom.
atom. configuration – a group of numbers which shows the arrangement of the electrons in
Electron
an atom.
Example: For the element sodium (Na) and nitrogen (N).Find the number of energy shells and
Example: For the element sodium (Na) and nitrogen (N).Find the number of energy shells and
Example: Forinthe
electrons element
each sodium
shell. Write the (Na) andconfiguration.
electron nitrogen (N).Find the number of energy shells and
electrons in each shell. Write the electron configuration.
electrons in each shell. Write the electron configuration.
Sodium (Na) Protons (atomic number) = 11 Electrons = 11
st
1 stshell = 2=electrons, nd rd
st
1 shell 2 electrons, nd22 shell
nd shell==8 8electrons,
electrons,
rd3 3shell
rd shell
= 1=electron
1 electron (Total
(Totalelectrons
electrons== 11)
11)
1 shell = 2 electrons, 2 shell
Electron configuration: Na (2, 8, 1)
= 8 electrons, 3 shell = 1 electron (Total electrons = 11)
Neon (Ne) Protons = 10 Electrons = 10

st
1st 2ndshell
nd
1stshell
shell== 22 electrons,
1 shell = 2 electrons, 2nd shell==88electrons
electrons (Total
(Total electrons
electrons ==10)
10)
electrons, 2 shell = 8 electrons (Total electrons = 10)
Electron configuration: N (2, 8)
62 : Basic Science
Review
ReviewExercise:
Review Exercise:
Exercise:
1. 1. 1. periodic
InInthe
the In the periodic
periodic table,table,
table, each
each each
row isrow
row is called
called a a_______________________________
_______________________________
a _______________________________
is called . ..
2. The2.elements
The elements in_____________________
in each each _____________________ have
have the the number
same same number
of of
2. The elements in each _____________________ have the same number of
_______________________.
_______________________.
_______________________.
3. Each column in the periodic table is called a ______________________ .
3. column
3. Each Each column
in the in the periodic
periodic table
table is is called
called a ______________________
a ______________________ . .
4. 4.
Each
Each of the
4. of
Each the
of elements
the in thein
elements
elements in the___________________
the
same same
same ___________________
___________________ have
have the have thenumber
the number
same same same
of ofnumber of
_____________________ in their outer shells.
_____________________
_____________________ inouter
in their their shells.
outer shells.
5. The electrons in the outer shell are called ___________________ electrons.
5. The5.electrons
The electrons
in the in the shell
outer outer are
shell are called
called ___________________
___________________ electrons.
electrons.
6. The _________ number equals the ____________ of ______________electrons.
6. The6._________
The _________ number
number equalsequals the ____________
the ____________ of ______________electrons.
of ______________electrons.
7. 8.
Draw 8.the
Draw Draw the electron
theelectron
electron structure
structure
structure diagram
diagram
diagram for: for:
for:
(i) (i) Oxygen Oxygen

(i) Oxygen
(ii) (ii) Sulphur
Sulphur
(ii) Sulphur
(iii) (iii) Aluminium
Aluminium
(iii) Aluminium

2.1.2 Properties of Common Elements: 1st Twenty
During the 19th century, many scientists tried to arrange the elements in an order which is related
2.1.2
to the size of their atomsPROPERTIES OF COMMON
and also showed ELEMENTS:
regular repeating 1st TWENTY
patterns in their behavior or
properties.
During the 19th century, many scientists tried to arrange the elements in an order which is
related to the size of their atoms and also showed regular repeating patterns in their behavior or
The most successful attempt was published by the Russian, Dimitri Mendeleev, in 1869, and still
properties.
forms the basis of the modern periodic table. Mendeleev arranged the elements in a table in order
The most successful
of increasing attempt
relative atomicwas published
mass. He alsoby the Russian,
arranged Dimitri
the table so thatMendeleev, in similar
elements with 1869, and still
forms the basis of the modern periodic table. Mendeleev arranged the elements in a table
properties were in the same vertical column.
in order of increasing relative atomic mass. He also arranged the table so that elements with
similar properties were
1. Periodic in the
Table – ansame verticalofcolumn.
arrangement the elements in order of their atomic numbers. Both the
physical and chemical properties of an element and its compound are related to the position
1. Periodic Table – an arrangement of the elements in order of their atomic numbers. Both
the physical
of the and chemical
element properties
in the periodic table.ofThis
an relationship
element and has its
ledcompound are related
to the table being to the
divided into
positiongroups
of theandelement in the periodic table. This relationship has led to the table being
periods.
divided into groups and periods.
2. Period – a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table. There are 7 in all. Moving from left
to right across a period, the atomic number increases by one from one element to the next.
All elements have the same number of electron shells except the outer shell has one more
electron than the previous one.
3. Group – a vertical column of elements in the periodic table. All groups are numbered (except
transition metal groups) using Roman numerals one (I) – eight (VIII) and some have names.
Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell and so
64 : Basic Science
3. Group – a vertical column of elements in the periodic table. All groups are numbered
(except transition metal groups) using Roman numerals one (I) – eight (VIII) and some have
(except transition metal groups) using Roman numerals one (I) – eight (VIII) and some have
names. Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell
names. Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shell
and so have similar chemical properties. Groups with alternative names:
and so have similar chemical properties. Groups with alternative names:
Group
have I – Alkali metals
similar Group II – Alkaline earth names:
metals
Group I –chemical properties.Group
Alkali metals GroupsII –with alternative
Alkaline earth metals
Group I – Alkali metals Group II – Alkaline earth metals
Group
GroupVIIVII – Halogens
VII –– Halogens Group VIII – Noble
GroupGroup gases/Inert gases
Group Halogens VIII –VIII – Noble
Noble gases/Inert
gases/Inert gases gases
Mnemonics for Elements

Mnemonics for Elements
Hi He Lies Because Boys Can Not Operate Fireplaces New Nations Might
Hi
Also He Lies
Sign Because
Peace BoysClause
Security Can Not Operate
A King Can.Fireplaces New Nations Might
Also Sign Peace Security Clause A King Can.
H, He,
H, He, Li,
Li, Be,
Be, B,
B, C,
C, N,
N, O,
O, F,
F, Ne,
Ne, Na,
Na, Mg,
Mg, Al,
Al, Si,
Si, P,
P, S,
S, Cl,
Cl, Ar,
Ar,K,
K,Ca.
Ca.
H, He, Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, Ne, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar, K, Ca.
Review Review
Exercise:
Review Exercise:
Exercise:
Review Exercise:
Complete the table below for elements with the given atomic number.
1. In the
Complete periodic
the table
Complete table,
the each
below
table row
for
below is called
elements
for awith
elements_______________________________
the the
with given atomic
given atomicnumber.
number. .
Atomic
2. The elements in Number Electron
each _____________________ Symbol
have of Element
the same number ofGroup of Periodic
Atomic Number Electron Symbol of Element Group of Periodic
Configuration Table
_______________________. Configuration Table
3
3. Each column in3 the periodic table is called a ______________________ .
12
12
4. Each of the elements in the same ___________________ have the same number of
10
10
5. The electrons in1the outer shell are called ___________________ electrons.
1
6. The _________17
number equals the ____________ of ______________electrons.
17
19
19
8. Draw the electron structure diagram for:

2.1.3 PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured

without changing the chemical nature of the substance.
• Common physical properties and their characteristics are:
• Physical state – solid, liquid or gas at room temperature
• Colour – related to the ability of a substance to reflect visible light.
• Density – is the concentration of matter in a substance. Is the mass per unit of volume
in gmL-1
• Melting – temperature at which a substance changes state from solid to liquid
• Boiling point - temperature at which a substance changes state from liquid to solid
• Lustre – describes how well the substance shines
• Electrical conductivity – the ability of a substance to allow an electric current to pass
through it.
• Thermal conductivity – the ability of a substance to allow heat to pass through it.
• Malleability – the ability of a substance to be beaten into a sheet
• Ductility – the ability of a substance to be drawn into wires.
• Tensile strength – ability to support pressure or load
• Chemical properties are those that alter the chemical nature of the substance and enable
the product to be recognized as a separate substance.
• More than three quarter of the 109 elements are metals.
• About 19 elements are non-metals and about 7 more are semi metals or metalloids, elements
having both metal and non-metal properties.
• The properties of elements are repeating themselves. The pattern of repeating properties
matches the pattern of electrons in their outer (last) shells. Those elements with the same
number of electrons in their outer shell have similar properties.
• Groups of elements with similar properties are called blocks. The elements in a group resemble
each other. Sometimes they look alike, and usually they behave in the same way.
• Reactivity – is a measure of how actively a substance or chemical reacts with another
substance or chemical. In chemistry, the substances that react are called metals. The most
reactive metals are the alkali metals, while the noble gases don’t react at all.
• There tends to be gradual changes in physical and chemical properties down a group.
• Down• Group
Down 1Group
(Alkali1Metals)
(Alkali–Metals)
lithium, –sodium
lithium,and potassium.
sodium and potassium.
Physical properties - All are metals, so light they float in water, are silvery and shiny when
freshly cut (but quickly
Physical tarnish)
properties - Alland
are have low
metals, somelting and
light they boiling
float points
in water, are compared with other
silvery and shiny when
metals.freshly cut (but quickly tarnish) and have low melting and boiling points compared with
other metals.
66 : Basic Science
Chemical properties – lithium is the least reactive because it react the most slowly.
Potassium is the most reactive of the three.
other metals.
Chemical properties – lithium is the least reactive because it react the most slowly.
Potassium is the most reactive of the three.
Why theyproperties
Chemical have similar
– lithiumproperties? Becausebecause
is the least reactive in the elements
it react theofmost
Group 1, all
slowly. atoms
Potassium have 1
is the most reactive of the three.
electron in their outer shell.
Why they have similar properties? Because in the elements of Group 1, all atoms have 1
electron in their outer shell.
•• Down
DownGroup
Group 7 (Halogens)
7 (Halogens) – chlorine, bromine
– chlorine, and iodine.
bromine and iodine.
• Down Group 8 (Noble gases) – helium, neon and argon
Physical properties – are non- metals, are gases (they are all found in air), are colourless.
Physical properties – are non-metals, are coloured (chlorine – green gas, bromine- red liquid,
iodine
Physical– black
properties –
solid), are poisonous
Chemical propertiesare non-metals, are coloured (chlorine – green gas, bromine- red
– unreactive
Chemical • properties
liquid, iodineDown – chlorine
Group
– black isare
8 (Noble
solid), the most
gases) – reactive, it reacts
helium, neon
poisonous most easily with iron. Iodine is the
and argon
least reactive of the three.
Why they have similar
Physical properties? Because the are
atoms all have a full
areouter shell of
Why they have
Chemical similarproperties
properties properties?– are
– chlorine
non- metals,
Because
is the most
are
the atoms gases (they
have
reactive,
all found
it7 reacts
electron in air),
in their
most outer
easily
colourless.
shell.
with iron. Iodine is
• Down Groupelectrons,
8 (Noble that is why
gases) they are
– helium, unreactive.
neon and argon
the least reactive
Chemicalof properties
the three. – unreactive
Physical properties – are non- metals, are gases (they are all found in air), are colourless.
Chemical properties
Why they –have
unreactive
similar properties? Because
Why they have similar properties? Because thethe atomshave
atoms all have a full outerinshell
7 electron of outer shell.
their
Why they have similar properties? Because the atoms all have a full outer shell of electrons,
electrons, that is why they are unreactive.
that is why they are unreactive.
Neon signs Helium balloons

Neon signs Helium balloons
The reactivity
The reactivity series is a listNeon
series asigns
ofismetals
list of metals arranged
arranged Helium
in
in the order the balloons
order
of their of their decreasing
decreasing activities. activities.
The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of their decreasing activities.

UNIT 2 MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
UNIT 2: MATERIALS
UNIT 2 MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION This unit will investigate the differences in the properties and uses of metals and non-metals. The
INTRODUCTION
This unit will investigate the differences in the properties and uses of metals and non-metals.
change in properties of metals when heated or cooled or when doing work on them will be described.
The changeThis in properties of metals
unit will investigate the when heated
differences in theor cooledand
properties or when
uses of doing work
metals and on themThe
non-metals. will be
described 2.2.1 Properties of Metals and Non Metals
change in properties of metals when heated or cooled or when doing work on them will be described.
2.2.1 Metals – are onPROPERTIES

2.2.1 OF METALS
the left of a periodic
Properties AND and
NON
table. Properties
of Metals
of METALS
metals are:
Non Metals
¾ Most are solid, except for mercury ( the only liquid metal
Metals – are on the left of
Metals a periodic
–used
are on the left table. Properties
of a periodic
in thermometer) of metals
table. Properties of are:
metals are:
• Most are solid, except
¾ Most for mercury
are solid, except for( mercury
the only liquid
( the metalmetal
only liquid used in
¾ Usually high melting and boiling point.
thermometer)
used in thermometer)
¾ Veryand
• Usually high melting goodboiling
conductorspoint.
of heat and electricity
¾¾ Usually
• Very good conductors of heat
high and
melting
Shiny appearance electricity
and
(silveryboiling
except point.
for copper and gold)
• Shiny appearance
¾ Very(silvery
¾ Quiet strongexcept
good materialfor copper electricity
conductors of heat and and gold)
• Quiet strong ¾
material
Shiny appearance (silvery except for copper and gold)
• Malleable – easily
¾ beaten
strong– into
Malleable
¾ Quiet easilythin
material sheet
beaten into(e.g. foil) (e.g. foil)
thin sheet
• Ductile – can¾beDuctile
pulled– tocanmake wires
be pulled (e.g.wires
to make electrical wirings)wirings)
(e.g. electrical
• High density ¾
–¾feel heavy
Malleable
High – easily
density – feelbeaten
heavyinto thin sheet (e.g. foil)
• Sonorous – they make –ringing
¾¾ Ductile can noisetowhen
be pulled you
wiresstrike
makenoise them wirings)
(e.g. electrical
Sonorous – they make ringing when you strike them
• React with oxygen to form basic oxide
¾¾ High
Reactdensity – feel to
with oxygen heavy
form basic oxide
¾ Sonorous – they make ringing
movenoise
to thewhen youthestrike themtable so Group 1 metals are
Metals get more reactive as you move to the left of the periodic table so
Metals get more reactive as you left of periodic
Group 1 metals
the most ¾ most
are reactive
the reactive
React with oxygen to form basic oxide
Metals get more
Non-metals reactive
– are on the as youofmove
right to the left
the periodic of the
table. periodicoftable
Properties non-sometals
Group 1 metals are
are:
– are
Non-metalsthe moston the right of the periodic table. Properties of non- metals are:
reactive
¾ Gases, liquids or solids at room temperatures
• Gases, liquids or solids
Non-metals
aton
– arehave
room
the
temperatures
¾ Usually lowright of the
melting periodic
and boilingtable.
pointsProperties of non- metals are:
• Usually have low melting and boiling points
¾¾ Gases, liquids or solids at room temperatures
• Have dull surfaces when
Have dull solid when solid
surfaces
• Non- malleable¾¾ Usually have lowwhen
whenmalleable
Non- solid melting and boiling points
solid
• ¾¾easily
Brittle – breaks Have dull
Brittle surfaces
– breaks when solid
easily
• Poor conductors of heat
¾¾ Non-
Poor andwhen
malleable
conductors electricity
solid
of heat and electricity
• Low density ¾ Brittle – breaks easily
¾ Low density
• React with oxygen to form acidic oxide
¾¾ Poor
Reactconductors of heat
with oxygen and acidic
to form electricity
oxide
¾ Low density
¾ React with oxygen to form acidic oxide
68 : Basic Science
2.2.2
2.2.2 Uses
USES OFofMETALS
MetalsAND
andNON
NonMETALS
Metals
We use
We different metals
use different forfor
metals different jobs
different asas
jobs they
theyhave
havedifferent
different properties: it’s important
properties: it’s importanttotochoose
choose
the right metal for the job.
the right metal for the job.
Metals Properties Uses
Aluminium low density, does not corrode suitable for the bodies of
planes
conductor of heat and non-
toxic for making saucepans
malleable and strong for cooking foil and milk tops
Copper good conductor of electricity, electrical wires as it is a good

conductor
water pipes due to its low
does not react with water reactivity
Ringing sound, sonorous for bell making
Gold very good conductor of electrical connections on

electricity, unreactive circuit boards - due to its
conductivity
jewellery - due to its lack of
does not rust and shiny reactivity
Steel cheap and strong suitable for building material,

car parts, kitchen sinks,
cutlery
Lead malleable, can be stretch suitable for fishing line sinkers

without breaking, heavy and and roof sealing
cheap.
automobile industry - batteries
Resist corrosion (rust)

Sometimes a metal is most useful when it is pure. For example, copper is not nearly a good
Sometimes a metal is most useful when it is pure. For example, copper is not nearly a good
conductor, whenwhen
conductor, it contains impurities.
it contains impurities.But
Butmany
many metals are
metals are more
more useful
useful whenwhen they
they are notare not pure.
pure.
Iron is the most widely used metal of all, and it is almost never used pure. Pure iron is
Iron is the most widely used metal of all, and it is almost never used pure. Pure iron is no good for no good
for building thing, because it is too soft and stretches easily. Besides, it rusts easily too. But when
building thing, because it is too soft and stretches easily. Besides, it rusts easily too. But when a little
a little carbon (0.5%) is mixed with it, it becomes much harder and stronger – called steel and is
used forcarbon
building,
(0.5%)bridges,
is mixedships and
with it, car bodies.
it becomes much harder and stronger – called steel and is used for
building, bridges, ships and car bodies.
You can see that the properties of the iron have been changed by mixing other substances with
You can see that the properties of the iron have been changed by mixing other substances with it.
it. The mixtures are called alloys. The properties of any metal can be changed, by mixing other
substances with it. The
The mixtures mixtures
are called are
alloys. called
The alloysof any metal can be changed, by mixing other
properties
substances with it. The mixtures are called alloys
The added substances are usually metals, but sometimes non metals like carbon or silicon. An
alloy is The added substances are usually metals, but sometimes non metals like carbon or silicon. An alloy
usually made by melting the main metal and then dissolving the other substances in it.
is usually made by melting the main metal and then dissolving the other substances in it.
Non metals Properties Uses
Carbon (graphite) Soft and smooth Lead of pencil

Electrodes in electrolysis and
dry cells
Carbon (diamond) Hard Drill bits for cutting stones

Colourless and transparent Jewellery
Neon gas Poor conductor Lights used for billboards
Chlorine Acidic, soluble in water Kills germs in drinking water,

used for making plastics,
bleaching powder and liquid.
Phosphorus Reacts easily with oxygen Making matches
70 : Basic Science
Activity 1
The easiest way to start grouping substances is by comparing their physical properties. Let us study
Activity
Activity 1 1
The easiest way to start grouping substances is by comparing their physical properties. Let us study
Activity
The1easiest way to start grouping substances is by comparing their physical properties. Let us study
this with the help of the following activities. Collect the samples of following elements – iron (steel
this with the help of the following activities. Collect the samples of following elements – iron (steel
The easiest
wool),way to start
copper, groupingmagnesium,
aluminium, substancessulphur
is by comparing
(lump), lead,their physical
carbon (blackproperties. Let us
electrodes inside
studywool),
this with the help
copper, of the following
aluminium, activities.
magnesium, Collect
sulphur the samples
(lump), of following
lead, carbon (black elements
electrodes –inside
iron
(steel wool), copper,
batteries), aluminium,
sand paper magnesium,
and conductivity testersulphur
(electric(lump),
circuit).lead, carbon (black electrodes
batteries), sand paper and conductivity tester (electric circuit).
inside batteries),
• Rubsand eachpaper and conductivity
of the elements testeror(electric
with sand paper steel woolcircuit).
and observe whether they are shiny
• Rub each of the elements with sand paper or steel wool and observe whether they are shiny
• Rub each of or dull.
the elements with sand paper or steel wool and observe whether they are shiny
or dull.
or dull. • Try to bend the sample. Is it bendy (easy to bend) or brittle (breaks easily)
• Try to•bend
Try the sample.
to bend Is it bendy
the sample. Is it(easy
bendy to(easy
bend)toorbend)
brittleor brittle (breaks easily)
• Set up an electric circuit as shown in diagram.
(breaks
• easily)
Set up an electric circuit as shown in diagram.
• Set up an• electric
Place thecircuit
metal toasbe testedinindiagram.
shown the circuit between
• Place • the
Place the metal
metal
terminals to B
toA and
be be astested
tested ininthe
shown. the circuit
circuit between
between
terminalsterminals
A and BAasand shown.
B as shown.
• Does the bulb glow? What does this indicate?
Elements Shiny or dull Bendy or brittle Electrical conductor

(Good/bad)
Elements Shiny or dull Bendy or brittle Electrical conductor
(Good/bad)

Over 75% of all elements are metals. Manufacturers want metals to be malleable and ductile so that
they can be shaped easily. But they also want them to be hard and strong, so that they are useful.
2.2.3 EFFECT OF HEATING AND COOLING OF METALS

Annealing is a heat process whereby a metal is heated to a specific temperature /colour and then
Over 75% of all elements are metals. Manufacturers want metals to be malleable and ductile
allowed to cool slowly. This softens the metal which means it can be cut and shaped more easily.
so that they can be shaped easily. But they also want them to be hard and strong, so that they
are useful.
Mild steel is heated to a red heat and allowed to cool slowly.
Annealing is a heat process whereby a metal is heated to a specific temperature /colour and
thenproperty.
Physical allowed to cool slowly.metals
Annealed This softens the metal soft
are relatively which means
and it can
flexible. It be
cancut
be and shaped
cut and more
shaped more
easily. Mild steel is heated to a red heat and allowed to cool slowly.
easily. They bend easily when pressure is applied. As a rule they are heated and allowed to cool
Physical property. Annealed metals are relatively soft and flexible. It can be cut and shaped
slowly.
more easily. They bend easily when pressure is applied. As a rule they are heated and allowed
to cool slowly.
Activity 2 2
Activity
• Take a piece of springy steel wire or hair pins.
• Take a piece of springy steel wire or hair pins.
• • Straighten
Straighten oneone end
end of
of the
the steel and hold one end with tongs
with tongs
• Heat the center of the other half in the flame until it is red hot.
• Heat the center of the other half in the flame until it is red hot.
• Shift it slowly higher in the flame and hold it for a while.
• • Shift
Finally
it remove it and let
slowly higher in itthe
cool on aand
flame tile.hold it for a while.
• When it is cool, pick it up and try to bend it in your fingers.
• Finally remove it and let it cool on a tile.
• Try to bend both halves with your fingers. How do the 2 halves compare (bendability)?
• • When
How hasit isthe springy
cool, picksteel
it upchange
and try its
toproperty
bend it after being
in your heated and slowly cooled?
fingers.
• What process have you carried out on the steel wire?
• • Try
Whatto does
bend the
bothprocess
halvesdowith yourspringiness
to the fingers. Howof thedosteel?
the 2 halves compare (bendability)?
• How has the springy steel change its property after being heated and slowly cooled?
Quenching is a heat process whereby a metal is heated to a specific temperature /colour and
• then allowed
What to cool
process haverapidly by dipping
you carried thethe
out on heated
steel metal
wire?in water.
• What does the process do to the springiness of the steel?
Physical property: Quenches metals are hard and brittle. Hardened metals are difficult to cut
and shape. They are very difficult if not impossible to bend. As a rule they are heated and
cooled very quickly by quenching in clean, cold water.
Quenching
Activity is
3 a heat process whereby a metal is heated to a specific temperature /colour and then
Activity 3
allowed to cool rapidly by dipping the heated metal in water.
• Straighten
Straighten another
another piece piece of and
of steel steelhold
and hold one with
one end end with tongs.
tongs.
• Heat the center of the other half in flame until it is red hot.
Heat• the
Physical While it is still
center
property: red other
of Quenches
the hot, quickly
half
metalsinremove
flame ituntil
are hard from
anditthe flame
is red
brittle. and plunge
hot.
Hardened it into
metals are difficult to cut and
a beaker of cool tap water.
WhileThey
shape. it is are
stillvery
red hot, quickly
difficult remove it from the flame and
ruleplunge it heated and cooled very
• Try bending both halvesif of
nottheimpossible
piece of steelto bend. As afinger.
with your they
How are
do the
nto a quickly
beaker of2 halves
by cool compare
tap
quenching water. (bendability)?
in clean, cold water.
• How has the springy steel changed its property after being heated and
Try bending
cooledboth halves of the piece of steel with your finger. How do
quickly?
he 2 halves• compare
What process have you carried out on the wire?
(bendability)?
How has the springy steel changed its property after being heated and
72 : Basic Science
ooled quickly?
Tempering is a heat process whereby a metal is gently heated to bluish purple colour and then
allowed to cool.
Tempering is aproperty:
Physical heat process whereby
Tempered a metal
metals is gently
are often heated
hard enough andtospringy
bluishenough.
purple colour and then
allowed to cool.
Physical property: Tempered metals are often hard enough and springy enough.
Activity 4
Activity• 4 Take a quenched steel from activity 3 and hold one end with tongs.
• Slowly heat the center of the other half in a small flame until it changes colour to dark blue
• Take a quenched steel from activity 3 and hold one end with tongs.
or purple.
• Slowly heat the center of the other half in a small flame until it changes colour to dark blue or
•
purple. Immediately remove it and cool it.
• Immediately
• Howremove it and cool
does tempering it. the properties of a brittle piece of steel?
change
• How does tempering change the properties of a brittle piece of steel?
• Which type of steel (annealed, quenched or tempered) would you want to use for winding
• Which type of steel (annealed, quenched or tempered) would you want to use for winding
roundround a box?Why?
a box? Why?
Annealed Quenched
(soft & flexible) (hard & brittle)
Tempered
(hard enough & springy

h

2.2.4 WORK ON METALS
Changing the Shapes of Metals
Most metals we use in our daily lives have had their shape changed during manufacturing. Very
few were ‘cast’ or poured when molten and allowed to solidify into their present shapes. Work is
when we use force and when we make something move.
Methods of Changing Metal Shapes
1. Hammering – metals are beaten into shapes

2. Rolling – the large blocks of metals are rolled back and forth between heavy rollers, and the
block gradually becomes longer and thinner, e.g. making flat sheet of iron.
3. Pressing – a sheet of metal is pressed down, using enormous pressure until it takes up a new
shape, e.g. the shape of motor car bodies
4. Pulling – the long piece of metal is pulled out through a hole that is smaller than the thickness
of the metal, the metal becomes longer and thinner, e.g. making wires and nails.
5. Spinning – a flat piece of metal is held at its center and spun around while being pushed
from one side until it takes a hollow shape, e.g. saucepans and cooking pots.
6. Twisting – heating a metal bar until red hot and twist the heated part with wrench. Then heat
it again and slowly cool it.
Generally during these processes the metal becomes ‘work hardened’ which means hard
and brittle. Remember that these shape changing processes are carried out on solid metal.
Sometimes the metal is hot but at other times it may be heated and cooled after each time its
shape has been changed a little.
Magnetic Metals
Magnetic metals are those that can be attracted by a magnet and can also form a magnet
when magnetized.
The only magnetic metal is iron and if a metal has iron in it, e.g. steel
Magnetic and Non Magnetic Metals
Magnetic and Non Magnetic Metals
•• A magnet is a metal
A magnet that can
is a metal thatattract other other
can attract metals.
metals.
• Only certain materials can become magnets
•• A material
Only certain materials can become magnets
that can become a magnet is called a magnetic substance.
•• A magnetic substance
A material that cancan be also
become picked up
a magnet by a magnet
is called a magnetic substance.
• Magnets are made in many sizes, shapes and strengths.
•• Magnets
A magnetic
have manysubstance
uses. can be also picked up by a magnet
• Magnets are made in many sizes, shapes and strengths.
• Magnets have many uses.
Activity 5
74 : Basic Science
Obtain a strong magnet from the teacher.
Break a razor blade into two long pieces and rub one end of the magnet along the blade in one
• •
A material that
A material
can become
that can
a magnet
becomeis acalled
magneta magnetic
is called asubstance.
magnetic substance.
• •
A magneticAsubstance
magneticcan
substance
be also can
picked
be also
up bypicked
a magnet
up by a magnet
• •
Magnets areMagnets
made inare
many
made
sizes,
in many
shapes
sizes,
and shapes
strengths.
and strengths.
• •
Magnets have
Magnets
many uses.
have many uses.
Activity 5
Obtain a
Activity 5 Activity 5 strong magnet from the teacher.
Obtain a strong
Obtain
magnet
a strong
frommagnet
the teacher.
from the teacher.
Break a razor blade into two long pieces and rub one end of the magnet along the blade in
Break a razor
Break
blade
a razor
into two
blade
long
into
pieces
two long
and rub
pieces
oneand
endrub
of the
onemagnet
end of the
along
magnet
the blade
alonginthe
oneblade in one
one direction. Then take the other end of the magnet and rub it several times in the opposite
direction.
direction. Then
direction.
take the
Then
other
takeend
theofother
the magnet
end of the
andmagnet
rub it several
and rubtimes
it several
in thetimes
opposite
in the
direction.
opposite direction.
The half blade

Theshould
half blade
nowshould
be magnetic
now be magnetic
The half blade should now be magnetic
Review Exercise
Review Exercise:
Review Exercise
Review Exercise
1. The
1.1.InThe
1. The diagram diagram
the periodic
shows
diagram shows
table,
the north
shows polethe
each
theof north
row
north
one pole
ispole
called
magnet ofmagnet
abeing one magnet being
_______________________________
of one brought
being brought .
up to thebrought
north
up to
pole upof
the toa the
north north
freely
pole of apole
suspended ofmagnet.
freely a freely suspended
suspended magnet. magnet.
What would you expect to happen to the freely suspended
2. The elements in each _____________________ have the same number of
What would What
magnet?you would
expect you
to happen
expect toto the
happen
freely
tosuspended
the freely suspended
magnet? _______________________.
magnet?
2. What does this tell us about like poles?
2. What does2. this
What telldoes
us about
this tell
like
uspoles?
about like poles?
5. The electrons in the outer shell are called ___________________ electrons.
6. The _________ number equals the ____________ of ______________electrons.

UNIT 3 REACTIONS
UNIT 3: REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, theIndifferent
this unit, the different types of chemical reactions and factors that affect the rate of reactions will
types of chemical reactions and factors that affect the rate of reactions will
be investigated. The various
be investigated. Thechemical reactions
various chemical thatthat
reactions areare
encountered daily
encountered daily willbebe
will appreciated.
appreciated.
2.3.1 2.3.1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Chemical Reactions
Consider the Consider

followingthesituations of daily of
following situations lifedaily
andlife
think
and what happens
think what happenswhen
when ––
• milk is left at room temperature during a hot day.
• an iron •nailmilk
is left exposed
is left to humid atmosphere.
at room temperature during a hot day.
• pineapple becomes rotten.
• an iron nail is left exposed to humid atmosphere.
• food is cooked.
• pineapple becomes rotten.
• food gets digested in our body.
• food is cooked.
• we respire.
• food gets digested in our body.
In all the above• situations,
we respire.the nature and the identity of the initial substance have somewhat
changed. We have already learnt about physical and chemical changes of matter in our
previous lessons.
In all Whenever a chemical
the above situations, change
the nature and the occurs,
identity ofwe
thecan
initialsay that ahave
substance chemical
somewhatreaction
has taken place.
changed. We have already learnt about physical and chemical changes of matter in our previous
lessons. Whenever a chemical change occurs, we can say that a chemical reaction has taken place.
You may perhaps be wondering as to what is actually meant by a chemical reaction. How do
we come to You
knowmaythat a chemical
perhaps reaction
be wondering hasistaken
as to what place?
actually Leta chemical
meant by us perform some
reaction. activities
How do we to
find the answer to these questions.
come to know that a chemical reaction has taken place? Let us perform some activities to find the
answer to these questions.
Activity 1
Activity 1
Using a tongs, hold a 3cm strip of magnesium ribbon
Using a tongs,
over a blue Bunsen burnerholdflame.
a 3cm strip of magnesium
Collect the ash in a
watch glass. Shield your eyes so that you are notCollect
ribbon over a blue Bunsen burner flame. looking
directly at thethereaction. Record
ash in a watch glass.your observations.
Shield your eyes so that
What the substance
you are notlook like at
looking the start?
directly at the reaction. Record
Any changes that occur during the experiment as well
your observations.
as the final outcome.
What2 the substance look like at the start?
Activity
Any changes that occur2during the experiment as well as the final outcome.
Activity
Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask or a
Activity 2 test tube.
Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask or a
Take a few zinc granules intestatube.
conical flask or a test tube.
Add dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric
Add dilute hydrochloric acid acid
or sulphuric acidto this.
to this. Add dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid
to this.
CAUTION: Handle the acid with care
CAUTION: Handle the acid with care
Do you observe anything happening around the

Do you observe anything Do
zinc granules?
happening around
you observe anything the zinc
happening granules?
around the
zinc granules?
Touch the conical flask or test tube. Is there any change in its
temperature?
Touch the conical flask or test
Touch tube. Isflask
the conical there
or any
test tube. Is there any
change in its temperature?
change in its temperature?
76 : Basic ScienceFrom the above threeFrom the above

activities, we three activities,
can say that anyweof
canthe
sayfollowing
that any ofobservations
the following observations
helps us to helps us to
determine whether a determine
chemical whether
reactiona has
chemical
takenreaction
place –has taken place –
From the above three activities, we can say that any of the following observations helps us to
determine whether a chemical reaction has taken place –
• change in state (forming of precipitate)

• change
From the above threeinactivities,
colour we can say that any of the following observations helps us to
determine whether
• releasea chemical
of a gas reaction has taken place –
• change in • state (forming
change of precipitate)
in temperature.
• change in colour
• release of a gas
As we observe the changes around us, we can see that there is a large variety of chemical reactions
• change in temperature.
taking place around us.
As we observe the changes around us, we can see that there is a large variety of chemical
reactionsChemical
taking place around
reaction us. a new substance is formed with a new characteristics and composition,
- is when
also known as chemical change. Examples are fireworks exploding to
Chemicalproduce
reaction - is when
spectacular colour,a coke
newproducing
substance is formed
gas bubbles, withcake,
making a new
characteristics and composition, also known as chemical change. Examples
nail turning rusty.
are fireworks exploding to produce spectacular colour, coke producing gas
bubbles, During
makingchemical
cake, nail turning
reaction rusty.are formed from reactants.
products
Reactants Products
During chemical
Reactantsreaction products
– substance presentare formed
at the from
beginning of reactants.
a chemical reaction.
Products
Reactants
– substance formed
in a chemicalProducts
reaction.
Reactants – substance present at the beginning of a chemical reaction.

Properties of Chemical Reaction
Products – substance formed in a chemical reaction.
• One or more new chemical substances are formed
Properties• of Chemical Reaction
Heat is often released
• One or more new chemical substances are formed
• Change is usually difficult to reverse (to change back to its original substance)
• Heat is often released
• Change is usually difficult to reverse (to change back to its original substance)

2.3.2 WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical Equations
• Represents a chemical reaction by briefly summarizing what has happened.
• It shows the substances that are reacting- reactants and the substances that are formed-
product.
• Symbols and formulae are used.
• An arrow in the equation represents the change that takes place in the reaction, from the
reactants to the products.
• Chemical equations can be written into 2 ways: word equation and chemical equation.
For example, the word equation for Activity 1would be:
Magnesium + oxygen Magnesium oxide (1.1)
[Reactants] [Product]
• Chemical equations can be made more meaningful and useful if we use chemical formulae
instead of words. A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction. If you recall formulae
of magnesium, oxygen and magnesium oxide, the above word-equation can be written as –
Mg + Oz MgO (1.2)
• Count and compare the number of atoms of each element on the LHS and RHS of the
arrow. Is the number of atoms of each element the same on both the sides? If not, then the
equation is unbalanced because the mass is not the same on both sides of the equation.
Such a chemical equation is a skeletal chemical equation for a reaction. Equation (1.2) is a
skeletal chemical equation for the burning of magnesium in air.
Balancing Chemical Equations

One of the most important rules of chemistry is that matter is not created or destroyed in a
chemical reaction. It only changed into a new form. This is the Law of Conservation of Mass
which states that in a chemical reaction, the mass of the product is equal to the mass of the
reactants.
• Balanced chemical equation has the same number of atoms of each element on each
side.
• To balance the equation, we place coefficients in front of each chemical.
coefficient (is added to the formulae in balancing equation)
2NH4 subscript (is not changed during the balancing of equation)
• Consider the skeletal equation for the above reaction

Mg + O2 MgO
1. Count the atoms on each side.

Mg + O2 MgO
1Mg 2O 1Mg 1O
78 : Basic Science
2. Balance the oxygen atoms
Mg + O2 2MgO
1Mg 2O 2Mg 2O
3. Balance the magnesium atom

2Mg + O2 2MgO (Balanced)
2Mg 2O 2Mg 2O
(The number of atoms on the LHS is equal to the number of atoms on the RHS)
Review
Review Exercise:
Exercise
1. 1.Write
In thethe
periodic
names table, eachreactants
of the row is called
anda products
_______________________________
in the following equations: .
2.(i) The
2Mg + O in each _____________________
elements 2MgO have the same number of
(ii) Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2O
_______________________.
2. What is a balanced chemical equation? Why should chemical equations be balanced?
3. Meera told Gopi that a soluble aspirin tablet fizzing in water is a chemical reaction, but the
water, in a kettle turns to steam is not. Do you agree? Give a reason.
4. Two colourless liquids were mixed. No observable change occurred to the solutions, however,
5.the
Thetest tube ininwhich
electrons they
the outer were
shell are mixed got hotter. Did a chemical
called ___________________ reaction occur? Explain.
electrons.
5. 6.Balance
The _________ numberskeletal
the following equals the ____________
chemical of ______________electrons.
equation:
(i) Zn + O2 ZnO
(ii) Na + O2 Na2O
(iii) Mg + HCl MgCl2 + H2
(iv) MgO + HCl MgCl2 + H2O
8. Draw the electron structure diagram for:

(i) Oxygen
do atoms disappear from the mixture or appear from elsewhere. Actually, chemical reactions involve
the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new substances.
2.3.3 Types of Chemical Reactions

1. 2.3.3
Displacement TYPES OFas
Reaction (also known CHEMICAL REACTIONS
single replacement)
During
A displacement a chemical
reaction is reaction
where aatoms
moreof one elementmetal
reactive do notdisplaces
change intoathose
lessofreactive
another element. Nor a
metal from
During a chemical reaction atoms of one element do not change into those of another element.
do atoms disappear from the mixture or appear from elsewhere. Actually, chemical reactions involve
Nor doInatoms
compound. otherdisappear from the
words a metal mixture
higher uporinappear from elsewhere.
the reactivity Actually,
series will 'pushchemical reactions
out' a metal lower in
involve
thethe breaking
breaking and and making
making of bonds
of bonds betweenbetween atoms to
atoms to produce produce
new new substances.
substances.
the series.
1. 3Displacement
Activity 1. Reaction
Displacement (also known
Reaction as single
(also known replacement)
as single replacement)
A displacement reaction is where a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from a
• TakeAthree
compound.
displacement
Iniron
reaction
othernails
wordsand
is where
cleanahigher
a metal
more reactive
them up
metal displaces
by inrubbing
the reactivity
a less reactive metal from a
seriespaper.
with sand will ‘push out’ a metal lower
in the compound.
series. In other words a metal higher up in the reactivity series will 'push out' a metal lower in
• Take two test tubes marked as (A) and (B). In each test tube, fill about 10 mL copper
the series.
Activity 3
sulphate solution.
Activity 3
• • TieTake • three
two iron
Take nails
ironthree with
nails andanails
iron thread
clean and by
andthem
clean immerse
them by rubbing
rubbing with with
sandsand paper.
paper.
• Take • two Take
test tubes marked as (A) and
as (A)(B).
them carefully in the two test
copper tubes marked
sulphate solution inIn(B).
and each
test test tube,
In each fill about
test tube, 10 10
fill about mLmL
copper
coppersulphate
solution.
sulphate solution.
tube B• forTieabout
two iron nails with Keep
20 minutes. a thread
oneandironimmerse
nail aside them
• Tie two iron nails with a thread and immerse
carefully in the copper sulphate solution in test tube
for comparison.
B for about
them 20 minutes.
carefully in the copperKeep one iron
sulphate nail aside
solution in test for
• comparison.
After 20Bminutes,
tube for about 20take out the
minutes. Keepiron
onenails from
iron nail aside
• After 20 minutes, take out the iron nails from the
for comparison.
the coppercopper
sulphate solution.
sulphate solution.
•
• Compare the intensity of take
After 20 minutes, the out
bluethecolour
iron nails from
of copper
• Compare the intensity of the blue colour of
sulphate
the coppersolutions
sulphate in solution.
test tubes (A) and (B).
copper• sulphate
Also,• compare
solutions
Compare the incolour
the ofofthe
test tubes
intensity (A)
the iron
and
blue nails
(B).
colour dipped
of
in the copper sulphate solution with the one kept
• Also, copper
aside. comparesulphatethesolutions
colourinoftestthetubes
iron(A)nails
and (B).
• Also, compare the colour of the iron nails
dipped in the copper sulphate solution with the one
dipped in the copper sulphate solution with the one
kept aside.
kept aside.
Why does the iron nail become brownish in colour and the blue colour of copper sulphate
solution fade? The reason why this happened is because iron is higher in the reactivity series so it
‘takes’ the sulphate from the copper to form iron sulphate... and copper.
80 : Basic Science
Why does the iron nail become brownish in colour and the blue colour of copper sulphate solution
fade? The reason why this happened is because iron is higher in the reactivity series so it 'takes' the
sulphate from the copper to form iron sulphate... and copper.
In this reaction, iron has displaced or removed another element, copper, from copper sulphate
In this reaction, iron has
solution. This displaced
reaction orasremoved
is known another
displacement element, copper, from copper sulphate
reaction.
solution. This reaction is known A +as
BCdisplacement
AC + Breaction.
A +Iron
BC + Copper
sulphate AC sulphate
Iron +B + Copper.
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
Iron + Copper sulphate Iron sulphate + Copper.
Basically, the rule is: If the pure metal is higher in the reactivity series than the metal in the
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
compound, then displacement will happen
Basically, the rule is: If the pure metal is higher in the reactivity series than the metal in the
compound,
2. then displacement
Precipitation will happen
(also known as double replacement)
Is a reaction in which the elements in two compounds are exchanged and form different
2. Precipitation (also known as double replacement)
Is a reaction in which
compounds. When thesomeelements in two
solutions are compounds
mixed, an insolubleare
solidexchanged
forms as oneand
of theform different
products. The
compounds. When
insoluble solidsome solutions
is called are mixed,
precipitate. an insoluble
Any reaction solid aforms
that produces as one
precipitate canofbethe products.
called a
The insoluble solid is called precipitate. Any reaction that produces a precipitate can be called
precipitation reaction.
a precipitation reaction.
Activity 4
Activity 4
Take about 3 mL of sodium sulphate solution in
Take about 3 mL
a testoftube.
sodium sulphate solution in a test tube.
In another test tube, take about 3 mL of barium chloride

In another test tube, take about 3 mL of barium
chloride
solution. Mix the solution. Mix the two solutions.
two solutions.
What do you observe?

What do you observe?
Which compound
Whichwas responsible
compound for the reaction?
was responsible for the
reaction?
AX + BY BX + AY
AX + BY BX + AY
As an analogy, imagine that AX and BY are two couples. A and B switch boyfriends, so B is now
going out with
As an X and imagine
analogy, A is nowthat
going out BY
AX and withare
Y. two couples. A and B switch boyfriends, so B is now
going out with X and A is now going out with Y.
Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) BaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)
Sodium sulphate
Na2SO 4+
(aq)Barium chloride
+ BaCl 2 (aq) Barium
BaSO4sulphate
(s) + 2NaCl
+ Sodium
(aq) chloride
Sodium sulphate + Barium chloride Barium sulphate + Sodium chloride
3. Synthesis (also known as combination reaction)

A synthesis reaction is one where two substances combine to make a new substance. It can be
shown in an equation such that: A + B AB.
The properties of the reactants are different from the properties of the compound formed.

A synthesis reaction is one where two substances combine to make a new substance. It can be shown
in an equation such that: A + B AB.
The properties of the reactants are different from the properties of the compound formed.
Activity 5
Activity 5 • Place 2g of iron fillings in a test tube.
• Place 2g of sulphur in the same test tube.
• Place 2g of iron fillings in a test tube.
•
• Place 2g of sulphur inMix
the the iron and sulphur.
same test tube.
• •
Mix the iron and sulphur.Heat the test tube over Bunsen burner and stop once
• Heat the test the
tube overbegins.
reaction Bunsen burner and stop once the
reaction begins.
• What was the colour of iron filings and sulphur before
• What was the colour
and afterofheating?
iron filings and sulphur before and after
heating? • Name the new substance that was formed from the
• Name the newreaction.
substance that was formed from the reaction.
Fe + S FeS
Fe + S FeS
Iron + SulphurIron
+ Sulphur Iron sulphide
Iron sulphide
4. Oxidation and Reduction

4. Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation is a reaction where an element gains oxygen. It is the loss of electrons from an atom
Oxidation is a reaction where an element gains oxygen. It is the loss of electrons from an
or ion. Reduction is a reaction where an element loses oxygen. It is the gain of electron from an
atom orofion.
atom or ion. Examples Reduction
oxidation is acombustion
are reaction where an element loses
(burning), oxygen. It is
respiration the gain
and of electron from
rusting.
an atom or ion. Examples of oxidation are combustion (burning), respiration and rusting.
Rusting: iron gains Rusting:
oxygeniron
to gains
formoxygen
iron oxide.
to form iron oxide.
4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
Activity 6
• Heat a china dish containing about 1 g copper
Activity 6
Activity 6 powder.
• Heat• a Heat
china dish containing
• a china
What do you
dish about
observe?
containing about1 1ggcopper
copper
powder.
• What do you think has happened to copper
powder.
• What do you observe?
• What• do Whatyou think
dopowder? has happened to copper
you observe?
powder?
• What do you think has happened to copper
2Cu + O2 2CuO
2Cu + powder?
O2 2CuO
Copper + oxygen Copper + oxygen oxideCopper oxide

2Cu +
O Copper
2CuO
2
An example of reduction is the decomposition of mercury oxide (HgO). When it is heated, mercury
An example of Copper
reduction is the decomposition
+ oxygen of mercury oxide (HgO). When it is heated,
Copper oxide
mercury oxide decompose (break down) to form mercuryand
oxide decompose (break down) to form mercury and oxygen.
oxygen. Because
Because mercury
mercury losesloses
oxygen in this
An example
oxygen in this of reduction
reaction, is thethat
wethat
say decomposition
it is reduced.of mercury oxide (HgO). When it is heated, mercury
reaction, we say it is reduced.
oxide decompose (break down) to form mercury and oxygen. Because mercury loses oxygen in this
reaction, we say that it is reduced.
(i) 2Hg + O 2HgO Oxidation

(ii) 2HgO 2Hg + O Reduction

82 : Basic Science 5. Electrolysis – Electroplating
Electrolysis is the decomposition of compound using electricity.
5. Electrolysis – Electroplating
5. Electrolysis
5.
– Electroplating
Electrolysis – Electroplating
Electrolyte – is the compound which conducts electric current in molten or when dissolved in
Electrolyte – is the compound which conducts electric current in molten or when dissolved in water
water (aqueous solution).
Electrode –(aqueous
is a rodsolution).
or plate where electric current enters or leaves electrolyte during electrolysis.
Reaction occurs
Anodeat
Electrode– iselectrodes.
– the
is a positive
rod or plate where electric
electrode; anion –current entersion
is negative or leaves electrolyte
(attracted during electrolysis.
to anode)
Anode – is Reaction
the positive electrode; anion – is negative ion (attracted to anode)
Cathodeoccurs
– is theatnegative
electrodes.
electrode; cation – is positive ion (attracted to cathode)
Cathode – is the negative electrode; cation – is positive ion (attracted to cathode)
Electroplating - the process

Electroplating of coating
- the process a metal
of coating object
a metal with
object witha athin
thinlayer
layer of anothermetal
of another metal by
by means of
means of electrolysis.
electrolysis. Example, chromium,
Example, chromium, zinc,
zinc, nickel,
nickel, gold
gold overover
cheap cheap
metal metal likecopper,
like iron, iron, copper,
brass using
brass using electrolysis process.
electrolysis process.
To coat theTo spoon with
coat the silverwith
spoon metal (Ag),
silver the(Ag),
metal spoonthe is usedisas
spoon theascathode
used (-) (-)
the cathode andandsilver
silvermetal
metal isis used
used as theasanode (+).(+).
the anode Silver from
Silver thethe
from anode
anodeisisoxidized
oxidizedtotosilver
silverions
ions(Ag+),
+ which dissolves
(Ag ), which dissolvesininthe
the
electrolyte. The ions are attracted to the cathode where they are reduced to silver metal, which
electrolyte. The ions are attracted to the cathode where they are reduced to silver metal, which forms
forms a coating on the spoon.
a coating on the spoon.
Anode (+) Cathode (-)
Electrolyte
The liquid electrolyte always contains

The liquid electrolyte a compound
always contains of the
a compound of metal to to
the metal bebeplated e.g.silver
plated e.g. silvernitrate
nitrate
(AgNO3). The plating metal (anode) gradually dissolves and eventually gets deposited on the
(AgNO3). The plating metal (anode) gradually dissolves and eventually gets deposited on the object
object to be plated (cathode).
to be plated (cathode).
Electroplating is very useful because of the following reasons:

(AgNO3). The plating metal (anode) gradually dissolves and eventually gets deposited on the object
to be plated (cathode).

¾• Surface protection
Surface (prevent
protection thethe
(prevent metal from
metal rusting)
from rusting)e.g. nickels
e.g. plating
nickels of of
plating iron to to
iron prevent
prevent
corrosion, bumper parts and door handles are often made from steel or brass plated with
corrosion, bumper parts and door handles are often made from steel or brass plated with chromium.
chromium.
¾• Makes the article
Makes attractive
the article e.g.,e.g.,
attractive electroplating of silver
electroplating or gold
of silver or on brass
gold etc. etc.
on brass
• Repair of finer machine parts.
¾ Repair of finer machine parts.
2.3.4 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate
Explosions are chemical reactions that take place very quickly. Explosions
also produce a lot of heat, light and sound. In less than 10 milliseconds, a
dynamite blast in a large mine can produce 5 billion litres of gas and release
20 billion joules of energy- enough energy to tear any rock apart.
2.3.4
2.3.4 Factors
FACTORSAffecting
AFFECTINGReaction
REACTIONRate
RATE
In contrast, the chemical reactions that cause concrete set are very slow. It can take several days for
Explosions are
Explosions arechemical
chemical reactions
reactions thatthat
taketake
placeplace very quickly.
very quickly. Explosions
Explosions
the concrete to set hard.
also produce Rusting
a lot of is another
heat, light example
and sound. In lessofthan
a slow chemical reaction.
10 milliseconds,
also produce ablast
a dynamite lot ofinheat, light mine
a large and sound. In less than
can produce 10 milliseconds,
5 billion a and
litres of gas
release 20 billion joules of energy- enough energy to tear any rock apart.
dynamite blast in a large mine is
cana produce 5 billion litres
The rate of a chemical
In contrast, reaction
the chemical reactionsmeasure of how
that cause fastofthe
concrete
gasreactants
and releaseare being used up and how fast
set are very slow.
20 billion
It can joules
take of energy-
several days enough
for the energy to tear
concrete anyhard.
to set rock apart.
the products are being made. Particles must collide for aRusting is another
chemical reaction to happen. The rate of a
example of a slow chemical reaction.
reaction dependstheonchemical
In contrast, the frequency andcause
reactions that energy of collisions
concrete between
set are very particles.
slow. It can take several days for
The rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of how fast the reactants are being used up and
how
the fast thetoproducts
concrete set hard.are beingismade.
Rusting anotherParticles
examplemust collide
of a slow for a chemical
chemical reaction.reaction to happen.
The rate
Chemical of a reaction
reactions proceeddepends on the
at different frequency
rates. and energy
The factors of collisions
that affect between
reaction rates particles.
are:
The rate of areactions
Chemical chemicalproceed
reaction isata different
measure rates.
of howThe
fastfactors
the reactants are being
that affect usedrates
reaction up and how fast
are:
1. Temperature.
the products are being made. Particles must collide for a chemical reaction to happen. The rate of a
1. Temperature
If the temperature
If the reaction dependsis on
temperature is
theincreased,
thethe
frequency
increased, andrate
rate of of
energy reaction will increase;
of collisions
reaction will betweenlow
increase; lowtemperature,
particles. reaction
temperature, raterate
reaction will
be slow.will be slow.
Chemical
Activity 1 reactions proceed at different rates. The factors that affect reaction rates are:
Activity 1
1.• Bunsen burner
Temperature.
• • Bunsen
Matches burner
• • Matches
If the
Test tube, test tube rack & test tuber holder
temperature is increased, the rate of reaction will increase; low temperature, reaction rate will
• Solid calcium carbonate or coral
• be Test
slow.tube, test tube rack & test tuber holder
• Dilute Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Activity
Dilute1Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Place •2-3 pieces

Bunsen
ofburner
calcium carbonate inside the test tube and add hydrochloric acid to half fill the
84 :•Basic Science
Matches
test tube.
• Observe thetest
Test tube, reaction.Then
tube rack & testgently heat the test tube and observe the reaction.
tuber holder
Place 2-3 pieces of calcium carbonate inside the test tube and add hydrochloric acid to half
fill the test tube. Observe the reaction.Then gently heat the test tube and observe the reaction.
1. While adding HCl to the test tube containing calcium carbonate, did any reaction occur?
2. What happened when the test tube was heated?
3. In this reaction the calcium carbonate reacted with HCl to form calcium chloride, water and
carbondioxide gas. Write the word equation for this chemical reaction.
If the temperature is increased, the particles have more energy and so move quicker. Increasing
the temperature increases the rate of reaction because the particles collide more often and
with more energy.
Look at the graph of the reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate. Notice
howatan
Look theincrease in temperature
graph of the leads
reaction between to an increase
hydrochloric in the
acid and speed
calcium of release
carbonate. of carbon
Notice how an dioxide,
but not the total volume.
increase in temperature leads to an increase in the speed of release of carbon dioxide, but not the
total volume.
2. Concentration
2. Concentration
Increasing concentration
Increasing increases
concentration the rate of
increases thereaction.
rate ofDilute solutionDilute
reaction. react slowly and react slowly and
solution
concentrated solution react quickly.
concentrated solution react quickly.
Activity 2
Activity 2
• Dilute & Concentrated Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• Dilute & Concentrated Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• • Magnesium
Magnesium ribbon
ribbon
• • 2 2test
testtubes & test
tubes & tuberack
test tube rack
Place
Place 2 pieces
2 pieces of magnesium
of magnesium ribbon ribbon of the
of the same same
length in length
separateintest
separate test
tubes and addtubes
aboutand
2mLadd
of about
2mL of dilute HCl in one test tube. In another test tube add another 2mL of concentrated HCl.
dilute HCl inthe
Observe onereaction
test tube.rate
In another
of the test
twotube
testadd another 2mL of concentrated HCl. Observe the
tubes.
reaction rate of the two test tubes.
1. In which test tube is the reaction the fastest? Suggest a reason for this.
2. How can you measure the rate of this reaction?
3. Surface Area
1. In which test tube is the reaction the fastest? Suggest a reason for this.
Increasing the surface area increases the rate of reaction.
2. How can you measure the rate of this reaction?
3. What is the gas given off?
4. 3Why was it important that the same length of magnesium ribbon was used for each reaction?
Activity
If the concentration of reactants is increased, there are more reactant particles moving together.
• 2g solid
There & more
will be 2g powdered calcium
collisions and carbonate
so the (or coral)
reaction rate is increased. The higher the concentration
of reactants, the faster the rate of a reaction will be.
• Hydrochloric acid
• 3. Surface
Beaker Area
& 2 test tubes
Increasing the surface area increases the rate of reaction.
PrepareActivity
a solution
3 of hydrochloric acid in the beaker by adding 2 mL of the concentrated solution to
20 mL of water. Place the marble chips and powdered marble into separate test tubes. Add 10 mL of
• 2g solid & 2g powdered calcium carbonate (or coral)
the • Hydrochloric
dilute hydrochloricacid
acid to each of the test tubes and observe the rate at which carbon dioxide gas
• Beaker & 2 test tubes
is produced.
Prepare a solution of hydrochloric acid in the beaker by adding 2 mL of the concentrated
1. solution
Which to 20 mL of
reaction water. Place
proceeds the marble chips and powdered marble into separate test
the fastest?
tubes. Add 10 mL of the dilute hydrochloric acid to each of the test tubes and observe the rate
2. atCan youcarbon
which explain the reason
dioxide for this reaction?
gas is produced.
3. Complete the chemical equation for this reaction:
1. Which reaction proceeds the fastest?
2. Can you explain the reason for this reaction?
3. Complete
CaCO the chemical equation
3 + 2HCl for this reaction:
____________ + _________ + CO2
CaCOthe
By decreasing 3 +particle
2HCl size of a reactant,
____________
we are + _________the
increasing + CO
surface
2 area. The greater the
surfaceByarea, the higher
decreasing the chance
the particle size ofofacollisions occurring
reactant, we is, thus
are increasing thethe fasterarea.
surface the rate of reaction.
The greater the The
smallersurface area, the
the particle higher
sizes the chance
the faster of collisions
the reaction. occurring
Smaller is, thushave
particles the faster the rate
a larger of reaction.
surface area.
The smaller the particle sizes the faster the reaction. Smaller particles have a larger surface area.
surface area 6 sides surface area 6x8 = 48cm2

surface area 6 sides surface area 6x8 = 48cm2
86 : Basic Science
A catalyst speeds up the rate of a reaction but it is not used up in the reaction. If a catalyst is present,
the reacting particles can collide more successfully with less energy and so the reaction can take
place at a lower temperature.
4. Catalysts 4. Catalysts
4. Catalysts
Activity 4
A catalyst speeds up the rate of a reaction but
upitthe
is not
rateused up in the reaction. If aused
catalyst
up inisIfthe
present,
A catalyst speeds up the rate ofspeeds
A catalyst a reaction but itofisanot usedbut
reaction upitinisthe
not reaction. a reaction.
catalystIfisa catalyst is
the
present, • particles
reactingthe reactingcanparticles
collide
Graduated more
cylinder
the cansuccessfully
reacting canwith
collide more
particles lessmore
energy
successfully
collide and so
with less
successfullytheenergy
reaction
with canso
lessand
energytakethe
andreaction
so the reaction can ta
can at
place take •place
a lower at a lower
Hydrogen
temperature. temperature.
peroxide (3%)
place at a lower temperature.
• Yeast
Activity 44•
Activity Spatula
Activity 4
• Detergent solution
•• Graduated
•
Graduated cylinder
cylinder•
Dropper Graduated cylinder
•• Hydrogen
Hydrogenperoxide
peroxide•(3%)
(3%) Hydrogen peroxide (3%)
•• Yeast
Yeast •
Add 10 mL of hydrogen peroxide
Yeast to a graduated cylinder. Add 1 drop of detergent solution. Swirl
•• Spatula
Spatula
•• gently and
Detergent watch•the solution
solution
Spatula
for any bubbling. Use the spatula to add a small amount of yeast to the
Detergent solution • Detergent solution
• Dropper • in theDropper
• Dropper
hydrogen peroxide graduated cylinder and swirl. Place the graduated cylinder on the table and
Add 10 mLwatchof hydrogen peroxide
for any bubbling. to
mLa to
10Hold graduated
thehydrogen cylinder.
graduated cylinderAdd 1a graduated
totosee drop of detergent
if there seems to besolution.
any
Addchange Swirl
inof detergent solution. S
Add 10 mL of hydrogenAdd peroxide of a graduated peroxide
cylinder. Add 1 drop cylinder.
of detergent 1 drop
solution. Swirl
gently and
gently and watch the solution
watch the solution
temperature. for
gently andany bubbling.
for watch Use
any bubbling.
the solutionthe spatula
Useforthe to
anyspatulaadd a
bubbling. small
to Use
addtheamount
a small of yeast
spatulaamount to the
to add a of yeast
small amount of yea
to the hydrogen
hydrogen peroxide in peroxide in thecylinder
the graduated
hydrogen graduated
peroxide and cylinder
swirl.
in the Placeand
graduated the swirl. Place
graduated
cylinder the Place
and cylinder
swirl. graduated
on the
the tablecylinder on on the ta
and cylinder
graduated
the table
watch for anyand watch
bubbling. for any
Hold bubbling.
thedid
graduated Hold
cylinder thetograduated cylinder intothis
see if thereinseems to be
1. What evidence
watch for you
anyhave that
bubbling. Holdsee
a chemical ifgraduated
there seems
thereaction occurredto be
cylinder any change
activity?
to see if there seems to be any change in
any change in temperature.
temperature. 2. What is the catalyst in this activity?
temperature.
1. What evidence
3. Whatdid you have
evidence do youthat
haveathat
chemical
hydrogen reaction occurred in
peroxide decomposed thiswhen
faster activity?
you added
1. What evidence did you
2. What is the catalyst in this have that
1. activity? a chemical reaction occurred in this activity?
What evidence did you have that a chemical reaction occurred in this activity?
3. 2.What
What is theyeast?
evidence do you
catalyst in 2. have
this that
activity?
What hydrogen
is the catalyst in peroxide
this activity?decomposed faster when you added
3.yeast? 4. Whendo
What evidence writing
you havethe chemical
3. What
equation
that evidence
hydrogen for this reaction,
peroxide
do you havedecomposed
that
should yeastwhen
faster
hydrogen
be included
you on the
added
4. When writing the chemical equation for this reaction, should yeastperoxide
be included decomposed faster when you adde
on the product
yeast? product side of theyeast?
chemical equation?
side of the chemical equation?
4. When writing the chemical 4. Whenequation for this
writing reaction, equation
the chemical should yeast be included
for this reaction,onshould
the yeast be included on the
product side of the chemical equation?
product side of the chemical equation?

CHAPTER 3: ENERGY
1. ENERGY SOURCE AND TRANSFER
2. ENERGY TRANSFORMATION, USE AND CONSERVATION
3. FORCES
CHAPTE
ER 3: ENE
ERGY
UNIT 1: ENERGY SOURCE AND TRANSFER
1. ENERGY SOU
URCE AND TRANSFER
T
2. ENERGY TRA
ANSFORMAATION, USE AND
A CONSE
ERVATION
3.1.1 3. FORCES BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT ON LENSES AND PRISMS
3.1.1 Be
ehavior of Light
L on Lenses and Prisms.
P
Behaviour of light
Behavio
• Light enables our
us of
tolight
see things. It is a form of energy that we can detect with our eyes.
• Light comes
• Lto usenable
ight mainlys usfrom
to seethe
t sun.
things. It is a form of en
nergy that wew can detecct with our eyes.
e
• This light•thatLreaches
ight comestheto usearth
mainlis only the
y from a small
s
sun. part of the various forms of energy g i v e n
out by the• sun.
T
This light tha
at reaches th he earth is only
o a smalll part of the
e various forrms of energ
gy
given out by the sun.
Lenses Lenses
Lens is a transparent optical device used to converge or diverge transmitted light and to form
Lens is a transparen
nt optical de
evice used to
t converge or diverge transmitted
d light and to
t
images. Many materials
form ima
contain lenses and es
ages. Many materials contain lense
a few examples
and a few
are shown below.
w examples are shown below.
Object Image Ob
bject Im
mage
Eye glasses
g
Eyes
Telescop
pes Hand
d lens
Microsco
ope Binocular
Overrhead
Camera Proje
ectors
88 : Basic Science
What do
o lenses do
o to light ray
ys?
an either be a convergin
A lens ca ng lens (convex lens) or a diverging
g lens (conca
ave lens).
Camera Projeectors
Overrhead
Camera Projeectors
What do lenses
What do do todo
o lenses olight rays?
to light ray
ys?
A lens can either be a converging lens (convex lens) or a diverging lens (concave lens).
ng lens (convex lens) or a diverging
A lens caan either be a convergin g lens (conca
ave lens).
What do
o lenses do
o to light ray
ys?
Converging lenslens
Convergging A lens caan either be a convergin ng lens (convex lens) or a diverging g lens (conca ave lens).
Lens bends light rays so that they meet at one point. This point is called the focus of the lens.
Lenslens
Since the ben nds light ray
bends ysConverg
the so that
light gingth
raysheylensmeet at one point. This
to a point, it is saidTto be point iss called the focus
a converging lens of
or the
aeconvex lens.
lens. Sinlenses
Converging ce the lens
canbends
b Lens
have the
ben liight
lightrays
different
nds ray to that
a point,
ysshapes.
so th it iss said
Some
hey meet onetopoint.
atcan be amuch
be Tconvergi
This point issng
curved lensthe
called orfocus
while a others
of thee can
convex lens.Conver
l rging
lens. lenses
Sin ce s can
the lenshave
bends
b d the liight rays
different shaapes.
to a Someitcan
point, is
s be to
said muc
bech a curved while
convergi w
ng lens or alike a
be nearly flat. The more curved the lens, the more it bends the light. A convex lens acts
others caan be nearly y convex
flat. The l more
m
lens.Conver curved
rgingdlenses
the lens, thhe more
s can have d it bends
different bshaapes.the ligght.
Some can Abeconve
mucchex curved while
w
concave mirror. Converging lenses are
others caan be nearly
thicker in
y flat. The more
m
the middle
curved
than
d the lens, th
on the outside.
he more it bends
b the ligght. A conveex
lens actss like a conccave mirror.. Convergingg lenses aree thicker in the
t middle than
t on the
lens actss like a conccave mirror.. Convergingg lenses aree thicker in the
t middle than
t on the
outside.
outside. Source: htttps://www.ggoogle.com/ssearch?q=con

nvex+lens+rayy+diagram
Source: htttps://www.ggoogle.com/ssearch?q=con
nvex+lens+rayy+diagram
Activity: Lenses and Light
A
Activity: Len
nses and Liight
Aim: To investigate
Aim: To theinvestigate
way lenses bend
e the waylight.
len
nses bend liight.
Materials: light kit (ray box), 12 volt power pack, a ruler
Method: Materia als: light kit (ray box), 12 1 volt power pack, a ru uler
1. Place the Method
light box: at the edge of a clean page in your notebook. Shine three or four parallel
light rays across the paper.
1. Place
P
2. Place a thin converging thelensligh
ht box at
about the
5cm e in
edge ofof
front a clean
cthe light
page i your note
in
box. ebook. Shine
e three or fo
our
3. With a pencil, traceparallel
around light t rays
the lensacross
andsmark
the paper. . of light so that you have a permanent
the rays
record of the 2.pathP of the
Place a thin
lightconverging
c rays. lens about 5cm in fron nt of the ligh
ht box.
4. Record what youDiagram

Dsee happening
wiill be to theced
replaclight rays.
5. Repeat the aboveW steps
3. With withil,atrace
a penci diverging
arou lens.
und the lenss and mark the rays of light
l so thatt you have a
Results: (sentences and diagram
permanent r of light
record rays)
of the
e path of thee light rays..
4. R
Record whatt you see ha
appening to the light rayys.
5. Repeat
R the above steps with
w a diverrging lens. Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 89
Results::(sentences and diagram of light ra

ays)
5. Repeat
R the above steps with
w a diverrging lens.
Results::(sentences and diagram of light raays)
Divergin ng lens
Diverging lens
TheseThese
lenses are thinner
lenses in the
are thiinner inmiddle andand
thee middle they also
d they bend
also b light.
bend However,
light. H
However,thehelight
th lightrays
raysare
s arebent
outwards and
bent out are said
twards andtoarediverge
said to or
d spread
diverge orout.
s These
spread out.are
T diverging
These d or concave
are diverging lenseslen
orr concave and
nsesthey
behave
and like
theyyconvex
behavemirrors.
like convex mirrors.
Ray diagrams.
Ray diagrams
Ray diagrams.
Refraction
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of light when it enters a medium where it’s speed is different. The
refraction ofRefraction
light when is the itbending
passes
Refraction
from
of light when a fast medium
it enters a mediumto a slow
where medium
it's speed is different.bends
The the light ray
refraction of light when it passes from a fast medium to
toward the normal to the boundary between the two media. The amount of bending depends a slow medium bends the light ray
toward the normal to theisboundary
Refraction the bendingbetween theittwo
of light when media.
enters Thewhere
a medium amount of bending
it's speed depends
is different. The on
on theindicestheindices
of refraction of the
of refraction
refraction of two
oflight
the twomedia.
when media.
it passes from a fast medium to a slow medium bends the light ray
toward the normal to the boundary between the two media. The amount of bending depends on
theindices of refraction of the two media.
Refraction is Refraction
responsibleis responsible for image formation bylenses and theeye.
for image formation bylenses and theeye.
Refraction is responsible for image formation bylenses and theeye.
90 : Basic Science
Example
When a ray of light enters a glass block, it bends towards the normal [fast medium to slow
Example
medium] and as it leaves the glass block, it bends away from the normal [slow medium to
fast medium].When a ray of light enters a glass block, it bends towards the normal [fast medium to
Example
When a ray of light enters and
medium] a glass
as itblock,
leavesitthe
bends
glasstowards
block, itthe normal
bends [fast
away medium
from to slow
the normal [slow mediu
The bending of
medium] and as fast light
it leaves can also give you a false impression about depth.
the glass block, it bends away from the normal [slow medium to fast
medium].
medium].
The bending of light can also give you a false impression about depth.
The bending of light can also give you a false impression about depth.
Dispersion of Light
The light
Dispersion of rays
Lightfrom the sun
Dispersion of consist
Light of seven different colors – red, orange, yellow, green,
The blue,
light rays from
indigo andthe sun consist
violet of seven
(ROYGBIV). different
We see sevencolors – red,
different orange,
colors whenyellow,
thesegreen, blue,
rays are
indigo and violet The(ROYGBIV).rays
We from
see seven different colors whendifferent
these rays are passed throughyellow, gre
passed through a lightglass prism. the sun consist of seven colors – red, orange,
a glass prism.
blue, indigo and violet (ROYGBIV). We see seven different colors when these rays are
If a ray of light passesthrough
passed through a prism
a glass as in the diagram, the light splits into a range of
prism.
If a ray of light passes through a prism as in the diagram, the light splits into a range of colours.
The colours. The effect
effect is called is called
dispersion anddispersion
the colour and
rangetheis colour range
known as is known as a spectrum.
a spectrum.
If a ray of light passes through a prism as in the diagram, the light splits into a range
colours. The effect is called dispersion and the colour range is known as a spectrum.

Ray diag
gram throu
ugh a prism
m
Ray diag
gram throu
ugh a prism
m
Ray diagram through a prism
Ray diag
gram throu
ugh a prism
m
• Whicch colour do oes a prism refract(ben nd) the mosst?

• Whicch colour
• Which •colour
Whicch do
oes a do
colour
does
prism refract
oesrefract
a prism a prism thethe
least?
refract(ben
(bend) nd) the mosst?
most?
• Which •colour Whic does a prism
ch colour dooesrefract
a prismthe least?the least?
refract
• Whicch colour do oes a prism refract(ben nd) the mosst?
The mos• stWhic ch colour
familiar dooes a prism
exxample d refract theissleast?
of dispersion a rainbow w which is seeen when th he sun appeaars
The most familiarThe example
mos of dispersion
st familiar exxampleis a rainbow which is seen when the sun appears heinsun
theappeaars
in the skky after the rains.
r The m of dispersion
moisture d in the iss a rainbow
t atmosph w which
here behave isesseeen
likewhen th
tiny prisms,
sky after the rains. The
inthe moisture
the sun’s
skky after in the
the r atmosphere
rains. The moisture
m behaves
in the like tinyhere
t atmosph prisms, dispersing
behave theprisms,
es like tiny sun’s
rays dispersin
Theinto
mosst ng
familiar
seven s rays into
exxample of dispersion
colors. d s
seven colors
iss a rainbow s.
w which is seeen when th he sun appeaars
dispersin ng the sun’ss rays into seven
s colorss.
in the sk
ky after the rains.
r The moisture
m in the
t atmosph here behavees like tiny prisms,
dispersinng the sun’ss rays into seven
s colorss.
Source:h
http://www
w.education
nalelectron
nicsusa.com
m/p/imagess
Source:h
http://www
w.education
nalelectron
nicsusa.com
m/p/imagess
Source:hhttp://www w.education nalelectron nicsusa.com m/p/imagess
This shows that white light is not one colour but a mixture of colours. It also shows that rays of
different colours This shoows that
are refracted whiteby
(bent) light is not
n amounts.
different one colo
our but a mixxture of colours. It also
o shows thatt
This
This sho
shoows that
rays dwhitenlight
of different
ows that white light is not
col is not
oursn our
one colo
areone colo
our(ben
reffracted but
nt)aby
mixxture
differ ofamount
rent colours.
but a mixxture of colours. It also
ts. It also
o shows thatt
o shows thatt
rays
rays of d of different
d colours col
different areours are ref
reffracted fracted
(ben (ben
nt) by differ nt)
rentby differ
amount rent amountts.
ts.
92 : Basic Science
3.1.2 Long-sightedness and Short-sightedness
The Human Eye

3.1.2 LONG-SIGHTEDNESS AND SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS
3.1.2
3.1.2Long-sightedness andand
Long-sightedness Short-sightedness
Short-sightedness
3.1.2 Long-sightedness
The Human Eye and Short-sightedness
The Human
The EyeEye
Human
The Human Eye
Source: http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-most-common-eye-defects.htm
Eyes are different

Source:
Source: in the colour of the iris, the size and the shape of the eyeball, and how
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-most-common-eye-defects.htm
Source:
well the lens and cornea can focus the light. Some people have to wear spectacles to see
Eyes
Eyes areare
are
Eyes different
different in
inthe
different in colour
the colour
the ofofthe
colour ofiris,
the the
iris,
the size
the
iris, and
size
the the
and
size shape
the
and of
shape
the the
of eyeball,
shape the and how
eyeball,
of the andand
eyeball, howhow
clearly.
Eyes are different in the colour of the iris, the size and the shape of the eyeball, and how well
well
well thethe
the
well lenslens
lens and
andandcornea
cornea can
corneacanfocus
focus
can the
the
focus light. Some
light.
the Some
light. people
Some have
people
people tohave
have wear tospectacles
to wear wear to seeto see
spectacles
spectacles to see
the lens and cornea can focus the light. Some people have to wear spectacles to see clearly.
clearly.
As people get older, their eyesight generally becomespoorer. They find it difficult to focus
clearly.
clearly.
As people get older, their eyesight generally becomespoorer. They find it difficult to focus on
on close
As people objects.
get older, theirThis is caused
eyesight by the
generally eye musclesThey
becomespoorer. around
find itthe lens becoming
difficult to focus weaker with
close
As objects.
people
As peoplegetThis isolder,
older,
get caused
their byeyesight
the generally
eyesight
their eyegenerally
muscles around the They
becomespoorer.
becomespoorer. lens becoming
Theyfindfind weaker
it difficult towith
to focus
it difficult focusage.
age.objects.
on close The lens This also becomes
is caused harder,
by the and cannot
eye muscles aroundchange
the lens shape
becoming so easily.
weaker People
with with this
The on
lens
on also
close
close becomes
objects.
objects. This harder,
is
This caused and
is caused by bycannot
the eyeeye
the change
muscles
muscles shape
around
around sothe
the easily.
lens Peopleweaker
becoming
lens becoming with this
weaker problem
withwith
age. The lens also
problem are becomes
said to harder,
be and cannot (or
long-sighted change shape so easily.
far-sighted). They People
cannot with
see this
close objects clearly.
are age.
said toThe
The
age. be
lens long-sighted
alsoalso
lens becomes (orharder,
becomes far-sighted).
harder,and They
cannot
and cannot
change
cannot seeshape
shape
change close soobjects
sosee
easily. clearly.
People
easily. Peoplewith The
thiseye-ball
with this is
problem
The are said
eye-ball to be
is long-sighted
too short for (or
the far-sighted).
lens system. They cannot close objects clearly.
too problem
short
The for are
problem theare
eye-ball lens
said
is said
too system.
to be long-sighted
to be
short forlong-sighted (or(or
the lens system. far-sighted). They
far-sighted). cannot
They cannotseeseeclose objects
close clearly.
objects clearly.
TheTheeye-ball
eye-ball is too
is tooshort forfor
short thethelenslens
system.
system.
They can They can on

only focus only
farfocus
objectsonbut
farnear
objects but
objects near objects look
look
They
They
blurry. They
blurry.
can only
can can
only only
focus on focus
focus far far
on on far
objects objects
but
objects near
but but near
objects
near look
objects look
blurry. objects look blurry.
blurry.
Source: http://www.surgery-laser-eye.com/long-sight.htm
Source:
Source:
http://www.surgery-laser-eye.com/long-sight.htm
http://www.surgery-laser-eye.com/long-sight.htm
Long-sighted people cannot focus the image on the retina. It focuses behind the retina. The
Long-sighted people cannot
Long-sighted people focus the
cannot image
focus the on theonretina. It focuses behind the retina. The The
image appears all 'fuzzy' or 'blurry' because it isimage the retina.
not in focus. It focuses behind the retina.
Long-sighted
image appears people
Long-sighted
all
image appearspeoplecannot
‘fuzzy’ cannot
allor focus
‘blurry’
'fuzzy' the
focus image
the
orbecause
'blurry' iton
image thethe
on
is not
because retina.
in It focuses
retina.
itfocus.
is not behind
It focus.
in focuses thethe
behind retina. TheThe
retina.
image appears
image all all
appears 'fuzzy' or 'blurry'
'fuzzy' because
or 'blurry' it isitnot
because in focus.
is not in focus.

In this case, spectacles or glasses are worn. The lenses in the spectacles need to be
In this case, spectacles or glasses are worn. The lenses in the spectacles need to be
converging lenses. These bend the light rays inwards and make the image form on the
converging lenses. These bend the light rays inwards and make the image form on the
retina.
retina.
In this case, spectacles or glassesorare
In this case, spectacles worn.
glasses areThe lenses
worn. in theinspectacles
The lenses need
the spectacles need to be converging
to be
Some
lenses.eyes
Some These
eyes focus
bend
focus onthe
on the
the
converging image
light
image
lenses. rays
These inbend
in inwards
frontfront
ofand
the of make
the the
raysretina.People
the image
retina.People
light inwards with
and make with
form
this
theon this
theare
fault
image fault
retina.
form onare
said to
thebesaid to be
short-sighted.
Some eyes focus
short-sighted. They
retina.
They cannot
oncannot
the seesee
image indistant
distant of objects
frontobjects
theclearlyclearly
retina.Peopleand
and the the
with thiseye-ball
eye-ball fault
is tooare issaid
long too long
forto be for
the the
short-
sighted.
lens
lens TheySome
system.
system. cannot see distant objects clearly and the eye-ball is too long for the lens system.
eyes focus on the image in front of the retina.People with this fault are said to be
short-sighted. They cannot see distant objects clearly and the eye-ball is too long for the
lens system.
They can focus on close objects, but are unable to focus
They can focus on close objects, but are unable to focus
on distant objects.
on distant
They can
They objects.
focus
can on close
focus objects,
on close but
objects, butare
areunable tofocus
unable to focus on
distant on
objects.
distant objects.
To correct the fault, spectacles using diverging lenses (concave lens) are worn.
To correct the fault, spectacles using diverging lenses (concave lens) are worn.
A short-sighted eye Corrected using concave lens
94 : Basic Science
UNIT 2 ENERGY TRANSFORMATION, USE AND CONSERVATION
A short-sighted eye Corrected using concave lens
UNIT 2 ENERGY TRANSFORMATION, USE AND CONSERVATION

UNIT 2: ENERGY TRANSFORMATION, USE AND CONSERVATION
3.2.1 ELECTRICITY
3.2.1 ELECTRICITY
How is electricity produced?

How is electricity produced?
1. Using Heat - Thermocouple

1. Using Heat - Thermocouple
In this set up, In

two
thiswires
set up,of
twodifferent metals,metals,
wires of different namely
namelycopper andzinc
copper and zinc
are are twisted
twisted aroundaround each
each other. The ends are connected to a current detector [or
other. The ends are connected to a current detector [or a light bulb] while the a light bulb] while the twisted
twisted end is
end is heated in a flame. Current flow will be indicated by the deflection of the needle or the
heated in a flame. Current flow will be indicated by the deflection of the needle or the lighting
lighting of the bulb
of the bulb
2. Lemon Battery [Simple

2. Lemon Cell ][Simple Cell ]
Battery
A lemon
A lemon is softened is softened
to allow to allow
the juice (citricthe juice
acid) to(citric
moveacid) to move
around around
freely. freely.nail
A copper A copper
and a
zinc nail are placed on the lemon as shown in the diagram. The two nails should not touch.nails
nail and a zinc nail are placed on the lemon as shown in the diagram. The two The
should not touch. The current
current that is produced will light the bulb. that is produced will light the bulb.
3. Using light
The cells that produce an electric current when light is shown on them are called
"solar cells".

3. Using light
The cells that produce an electric current when light is shown on them are called
"solar cells".
3. Using light
Source: http://www.physics.org/article-questions.asp?id=51
The cells that produce an electric current when light is shown on them are called “solar cells”.
Hundreds of these cells are used to produce an electric energy to operate
instruments. The solar cells convert the sun's energy into electricity. Example of an
Hundreds of these cells are used to produce an electric energy to operate instruments. The solar
instrument that uses solar energy is a solar calculator.
cells convert the sun’s energy into electricity. Example of an instrument that uses solar energy is
a solar calculator.
4. Using
U
4. Using Mechanical Mecha
Energy anical Enerrgy
The set up above shows a magnet near a coil of copper wire. The coil is connected to a sensitive
The set upu above sh
hows a magnnet near a coil of coppeer wire. The coil is conn nected to a
ammeter. When the magnet is stationary, there is no current in the coil. However, if we move
sensitivee ammeter. When the magnet
m is staationary, th
here is no cu
urrent in thee coil. Howeeve
the magnet towards the coil, the ammeter flicks to the right. When the magnet is pulled out, the
if we mo ove the magnet towardss the coil, thhe ammeterr flicks to the right. Wheen the magn net
needle flicks to the left.
pulled ou
ut, the need
dle flicks to the
t left.
This shows that we induced a current in the coil – but only whilst the magnet was moving. The
This sho ows that we induced a current
c in th
he coil – butt only whilst the magneet was moviing
direction of the current depended on the direction of the movement.
The direection of thee current depended on the
t directio
on of the mo
ovement.
To get a lasting current from the coil, we have to keep pushing the magnet in and pulling it out.
To get a lasting currrent from th he coil, we have
h to keep
p pushing th
he magnet in n and pullin
ng
This will make the current go backwards and forwards. In other words, we have generated an
out.
alternating Thiss will make the currentt go backwards and forw
current. wards. In otther words, we have
generateed an alternating curren
nt.
What energy cha

anges have
e taken placce in the ab
bove examp
ples?
96 : Basic Science
Example Energy
y Conversion
1. Ussing heat
The direection of thee current depended on the
t directio
on of the mo
ovement.
To get a lasting currrent from th

he coil, we have
h to keep
p pushing th
he magnet in
n and pullin
ng it
out. Thiss will make the currentt go backwards and forwwards. In otther words, we have
generateed an alternating curren nt.
What energy cha

anges have
e taken placce in the ab
bove examp
ples?
Example Energy
y Conversion
1. Ussing heat
h energy
heat y to electricalenergy
2. Ussing chemiccal
____________________ energy
y to _________________________energy
3. Ussing light
____________________ energy
y to _________________________energy
4. Ussing mechan
nical
____________________ energy
y to _________________________energy
Conductors
Conductors are materials that allow electric currents to flow freely or that electricity can flow
through easily. Most metals are good examples of electrical conductors.Copper is the most
popular material used for wires because it is a very good conductor of electrical current and it
is fairly inexpensive when compared to gold and silver. Aluminum and most other metals do not
conduct electricity quite as good as copper. Other examples of conductors are:
• Aluminum
• Platinum
• Gold
• Silver
• Water
• People and Animals
• Trees
Electricity will always take the shortest path to the ground. Your body is 60% water and that makes
you a good conductor of electricity. If a power line has fallen on a tree and you touch the tree
you become the path or conductor to the ground and could get electrocuted.

Insulators
Insulators are materials that have just the opposite effect on the flow of electric current as in
conductors. Some common insulator materials are:
• glass
• plastic
• rubber
• air
• wood.
Insulators are used to protect us from the dangerous effects of electricity flowing through
conductors. If it flows through our body, the function of our heart can be disrupted by a strong
electrical shock and the current can cause burns. Therefore, we need to shield our bodies from
the conductors that carry electricity. The rubbery coating on wires is an insulating material that
shields us from the conductor inside.

conductors. If it flows through our body, the function of our heart can be disru
strong electrical shock and the current can cause burns. Therefore, we need t
bodies from the conductors that carry electricity. The rubbery coating on wir
insulating material that shields us from the conductor inside.
Use the set upUse the set

shown up shown
to test to the
whether testfollowing
whetherobjects
the following
are objects are
insulators
insulators or conductors. or conductors
Tabulate . Tabulate your findings.
your findings.
Electrical Circuits
A simple circuit consists of three elements:

Electrical Circuits
1. a source of electricity (battery),
A simple circuit consists of three elements:
2. a path or conductor on which electricity flows (wire) and
1. a source of electricity (battery),
2. a 3.
path
anorelectrical
conductorresistor
on which electricity
(lamp) whichflowsis(wire) and
any device that requires electricity to operate.
3. an electrical resistor (lamp) which is any device that requires electricity to operate.
Shownbelow is a simple circuit containing a battery, two wires, and light bulb.The
Shown below path
conducting is a simple circuit
through thecontaining
bulb, wiresa battery, two wires,
and battery is called a circuit.
and light bulb.The conducting
Electrons flow
path through the bulb, wires and battery is called a circuit. Electrons flow around this circuit
around this circuit from the - to the + terminal of the battery. The flow of - charge is called a
from the - to the + terminal of the battery. The flow of - charge is called a current and it can be
current and it can be measured by placing an ammeter in the circuit.
measured by placing an ammeter in the circuit.
Set-up A Set-up B
The
Theflow of of
flow electricity is caused
electricity by excess
is caused electrons
by excess on theon
electrons negative end of the
the negative endbattery flowing
of the battery
toward
flowing thetoward
positivethe
end, or terminal,
positive end,oforthe battery. of
terminal, When
thethe circuitWhen
battery. is complete, electrons
the circuit flow
is complete,
from the negative terminal through the wire conductor, then through the bulb (lighting it up),
electrons flow from the negative terminal through the wire conductor, then through the
andfinally back to the positive terminal - in a continual flow.
bulb (lighting it up), andfinally back to the positive terminal - in a continual flow.
Set-up B is a circuit diagram for Set-up A which uses symbols when drawn. Other common
symbols are shown below.
98 : Basic Science
The flow of electricity is caused by excess electrons on the negative end of the battery
flowing toward the positive end, or terminal, of the battery. When the circuit is complete,
electrons flow from the negative terminal through the wire conductor, then through the
bulb (lighting it up), andfinally back to the positive terminal - in a continual flow.
Set-up B is a circuit
Set-up diagram for diagram
B is a circuit Set-up Aforwhich
Set-upuses symbols
A which when drawn.
uses symbols Other common
when drawn. Other common
Circuit Connections
Source: http://www.daydreameducation.co.uk/s
When there are two or more electrical devices present in a circuit with an energy source,
Circuit ConnectionsCircuit Connections
there are a couple of basic means by which to connect them. They can be connected in
When there are two When
or more electrical devices
or more present
electricalindevices
a circuit with an
in energy
a circuitsource,
with an there
series or connected
there in parallel.
are two present energy source,
are a couple of basic means by which to connect them. They can be connected in series
there are a couple of basic means by which to connect them. They can be connected or in
Series
connected in parallel. Arrangement
series or connected in parallel.
Series Arrangement When all the

Series devices are connected using series connections, the circuit is referred to as a
Arrangement
When all the devices series
arecircuit.
connected In a series
using circuit, connections,
each device isthe
connected
circuit isinreferred
such a way that there is only
When all the devices areseries
connected using series connections, to as
the circuitaisseries
referred to as a
one pathway
circuit. In a series circuit, each for charge
device flow. In other words,
a there are no branches.
series circuit. In aisseries
connected
circuit, in such
each way
device that there
is connected is only
in suchone pathway
a way that there is only
for charge flow. In other words, there are no branches.
one pathway for charge flow. In other words, there are no branches.
Disadvantages of Series Arrangement

1. When more lamps are added tolamps
1. When more are added
the series, to the will
the lamps series, the lampsthan
be dimmer will before.
be dimmer than before.
1. When more lamps are added to the series, the lamps will be dimmer than before.
2. If a lamp does not work, the rest will not work too.
Source:http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/ks3/science/energy_electricity_forces
Parallel
Parallel Arrangement
Arrangement Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 99
In parallel
In parallel circuits
circuits different
different components
components areare connected
connected on on different
different branches
branches of the
of the wire.
wire.
Advantages of Parallel Arrangement
1. Unlike a series circuit, the lamps stay bright even if you add more
In parallel2.circuits
IfInadifferent
lamp components
parallel breaks orare
becomes
circuits different faulty,
components
connected are the otheronlamps
connected
on different branches ondifferent
ofdifferent
the wire. br
branches of the
working.
If you follow the circuit diagram from one side of the cell to the other, you can only
passthrough all the different components if youfollow all the branches.
If you follow the circuit diagram from one side of the cell to the other, you This arrangement
can only passthrough is us
all theAdvantages of Parallel Arrangement
different components if youfollow all the branches.
wirings at home.
1. Unlike a series circuit, the lamps stay bright even if you add more lamps in parallel.
Advantages of Parallel Arrangement
1. Unlike2.a series circuit,
If a lamp the or
breaks lamps stay bright
becomes faulty, even if youlamps
the other add ondifferent
more lampsbranches
in parallel.
keep
2. If a lampworking
breaks or.
becomes faulty, the other lamps ondifferent branches keep working.
Energy Usage at Home
Energy usage varies for different households. Some may use more than o
on the electrical appliances they use.
ThisMost homes
arrangement haveforhigh electricity bi
is used
of appliances and electronics. Many lightings
wirings at home do not use energy
at home.
some appliances are used frequently when other strategies are available
Energy Usage at Home
Energy usage
Energy variesat for
Usage different households. Some may use more than others depending
Home
FORMULA
on the FOR ESTIMATING
electrical appliances ENERGY
they use. Most homes CONSUMPTION
have high electricity bills due to misuse of
Energyand
appliances usage varies for different
electronics. households.
Many lightings Some
at home domay
notuse
usemore than
energy others
saver depending
bulbsand some
on the electrical
appliances are used appliances they use.
frequently when Most
other homes are
strategies haveavailable
high electricity
to savebills due to misuse
energy.
Watts: Power,
of appliances as measured
and electronics. in watts
Many lightings which
at home isuse
do not the amount
energy of power require
saver bulbsand
some FOR
FORMULA appliances are used
ESTIMATING frequently
ENERGY when other strategies are available to save energy.
CONSUMPTION
electrical appliance or device. Appliances will have its wattage written on
Watts: Power, as measured in watts which is the amount of power required to operate an electrical
FORMULA
appliance FOR ESTIMATING
or device. Appliances willENERGY
have itsCONSUMPTION
wattage written on them.
2
Watts:Power, as measured in watts which is the amount of power required to operate an
electrical appliance or device. Appliances will have its wattage written on them.
Use this formula to estimate an appliance’s energy use:

Use
(Wattage
this
Use this
formula
× Hours Used
formula
to estimate
Per Day)an
to estimate
anenergy
÷ appliance's
1000 = Daily
appliance's
Kilowatt-hour
use:
energy use:
(kWh) consumption
1 kilowatt (kW) = 1,000 Watts
(Wattage × Hours Used Per Day) ÷ 1000 = Daily Kilowatt-hour (kWh) consumption
100 : Basic (Wattage
Science × Hours Used Per Day) ÷ 1000 = Daily Kilowatt-hour (kWh
Multiply this by the number of days you use the appliance during the year for the annual
consumption in kWh per year.
ESTIMATING ANNUAL COST TO RUN AN APPLIANCE

Multiply the annual consumption in kWh per year (that you calculated above) by your local
utility’s rate per kWh ($0.3484) consumed to calculate the annual cost to run an appliance.
EXAMPLES:
Light bulb: [in a month]

(60Watts × 4 hours/day × 28 days/month) ÷ 1000
6.72kWh × $0.3484/kWh
= $2.34/month
Personal Computer and Monitor:

[120 Watts × 4 hours/day × 365 days/year] ÷ 1000
= 175.20 kWh × $0.3484/kWh
= $61.04/year
ELECTRICITY BILL
The following steps will enable you to calculate the approximate monthly electricity bill for
domestic customers.
Step 1: Calculate Electricity Cost

Units used (kWh) = Present Month’s Reading – Previous Month’s Reading
Electricity Cost VEP (VAT Exclusive) – Units used x $0.3484cents*
Step 2: Add VAT for Total Bill

VAT = Electricity Cost VEP x 15%
Total Bill VIP (VAT Inclusive Price) = Electricity Cost VEP + VAT
Step 3: Total Amount Due

Total Amount Due = Total Bill VIP + Amount Overdue and Relating to Prior Bills
Calculation Calculation
extracted from an FEA bill
Source:http://www.fea.com.fj/pages.cfm/customer-care/how-calculate-your-bill.html
Step 1: Calculate Electricity Cost Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 101
Units used = 1494kWh – 1384kWh = 110kWh

Source:http://www.fea.com.fj/pages.cfm/customer-care/how-calculate-your-bill.html

Electricity Cost = 110kWh x $0.3484 = $38.32
Electricity Cost = 110kWh x $0.3484 = $38.32
VAT = $38.32 x 15% = $5.74*
VAT = $38.32 x 15% = $5.74*
Total Bill VIP = $44.06 [$38.32 + $5.74]
Total Bill VIP = $44.06 [$38.32 + $5.74]
Total Current Charges (VIP) $44.06
Total Current Charges (VIP) $44.06
StepStep
3: Add current
3: Add charges
current to to
charges any Amount
any Overdue
Amount and
Overdue andRelating
RelatingtotoPrior
PriorBills to obtain
Bills to
obtain
Total Amount
Total DueDue
Amount
extracted from an FEA bill
TotalTotal Amount
Amount DueDue = $44.06
= $44.06 + +$21.51 $65.57
$21.51== $65.57
How to Conserve Energy at Home

How to Conserve Energy at Home
• Unplugging
• Unplugging an item when
an item whenit is it
notis in use
not intouseprevent phantom
to prevent phantomloads(energy leakage).Appliances
loads(energy
such as the TV, coffee maker
leakage).Appliances such asand the stereo
TV, coffeedraw power
maker andeven
stereowhen
drawoff, in standby
power or lowoff,
even when power
mode.in ace
standby
• Repla agingorapppliances
low powerwi mode.
ith newer ennergy efficieent ENERGYY STAR moddels.
• Changing
• Changing thethesettings oror
settings using
using thetheitem
itemless
lessoften
often
• Wash h economica ally [only us se a washing g machine w
when there isi a full loadd but hand rinse
r
• Purchasing
• Purchasing a new,
a new, more
more efficient
efficient product.
product.
if it iss only
• Replace a few
aging clothes]. with newer energy efficient ENERGY STAR models.
appliances
Use th
• • Wash he clothes liine[only
economically on a hot
uset sunny
a washing day instead
machine of when
t drier
the there is a full load but hand rinse if it
• isTurn
only off anyclothes].
a few appliances you are not using, especiallly by switchhing off lighhts when yoou
leave
• Use thethe room.line
clothes Don't
D on leave
a hot fridge
sunny or day freeezer
insteaddoors
of sthe
open for loonger than necessary,
drier n a
and
• Turn
don't offforget
any appliances youer
that your freeze are not using,
needs to be especially
b defrosted by switching
dregularly f it off
for lights
torun when you leave
efficiently.
• the
Useroom.
e Don’t leave
energy-effic cientfridge
applia or freezer
ances. doors
From m lightopen
bulbfor longer
s to than
kitchen necessary,
n goods h and don’t forget
to home
that your freezer needs to be defrostedregularly for it to run efficiently.
enterrtainment equipment,
e t
there are moreenergy-
m efficient appliances now in the
• Use energy-efficient appliances. From light bulbs to kitchen goods to home entertainment
market.
equipment, there are more energy-efficient appliances now in the market.
http://electricsaver1200.com/blog/energy 1 http://electricsaver1200.com/blog/energy 1
http://elect
102 : Basic Science tricsaver1200.co
om/blog/energyy http://elecctricsaver1200.ccom/blog/energgy
http://electtricsaver1200.coom/blog/energyy http://elecctricsaver1200.ccom/blog/energgy

3.3 FORCES 3.3 FORCES
UNIT 3: 3.3.1
FORCESMachines.
3.3.1 Machines.
3.3.1 MACHINES A machine is anythingmake
that our
can work
make easier
our work
A machine is anything that can make our work easier.Machines in easier.Machine
three different ways: three different ways:
A machine is anything that can make our work easier.Machines make our work easier in three
different ways:
1. It multiplies the force we use 1. It multiplies the force we use
1. It multiplies the force we use 2. It multiplies speed [make things go faster]
2. Itspeed
2. It multiplies multiplies speed
[make [make
things go things
faster]go faster]
3. It changes
3. Itthe direction
changes of force. of force.
the direction 3. It changes the direction of force.
Given below are simple examples Given below are simple examples of machine
of machine
Given below are simple examples of machine
1. Broom 1. Broom
2. Airplane 2. Airplane
3. Cricket Bat 4.3.Lawn

Cricket Bat
Mower 4. Lawn Mower
5. Steps 6.5.Tractor
Steps 6. Tractor
7. Fishing Rod 8.7.Spanner

Fishing Rod 8. Spanner
Source: https://www.google.com/search
Source: https://www.google.com/search
Simple
Simple machines include gears, pulleys, lever, and machines
wheel andinclude gears,
axle and pulleys,
inclined lever, and wheel and a
plane.
Simple machines include gears, pulleys, lever, and wheel and axle and inclined plane.
104 : Basic Science

large gear wheel attached to the pedals is connected to the smaller gear wheel on the back
wheel by the chain.
Chain connects front and
GEARS rear gear wheels.
GEARS
GEARS
Gear wheels
Gearare wheels
wheels are with teeth
wheels withonteeth
them. The teeth
on them. of one
The teeth of gear usually
one gear fit into
usually the the
fit into teeth of
teeth
Gear wheels are wheels with teeth on them. The teeth of one gear usually fit into the teeth
another. Gears are used
of another. Gearstoare
transfer the
used to force from
transfer onefrom
the force wheel towheel
one another. In a bicycle,
to another. the large
In a bicycle, the
of another. Gears are used to transfer the force from one wheel to another. In a bicycle, the
gear wheel attached
large to the
gear wheel pedalstoisthe
attached connected to the smaller
pedals is connected to thegear wheel
smaller gearonwheel
the back
on thewheel
back
large gear wheel attached to the pedals is connected to the smaller gear wheel on the back
by the chain.
wheel by the chain.
wheel by the chain.
rear gear wheels.
rear gear wheels.
Source: http://www.zazzle.com/close_up_of_bicycle_chain_pedal_and_gears_
One gear can make another one turn faster, but it can also make it turn in a different
direction. When
One gear can
One you turn
make
gear a biganother
cananother
make gear to
one turnonethe right,
faster,
turn but itthe
faster, butlittle
can italso one
can make will
also make it turnmove toathe
in a different
it turn in left. This is
direction.
different
One
When gear can make
youdirection.
turn a big another
gear one
to turn
the turn faster, but it can also make it turn in a different
good for many machines Whenwhere
you theright, the little
a direction
big gear one
needs
to the willto
right, move
the littletoone
change the left.
inwill
order Thisfor
move is good
to forThis
theleft.
the many
machine is to
direction.
machinesgood When
where you
the turn a big
direction gear
needs totothe right,
change the
in little
order one
for will
the move
machine to the
to left.
work. This is
work. good for manyformachines
many machines where the direction needs to change in order for the machine to
where the direction needs to change in order for the machine to
work.
work.
An idler gear is a gear wheel that is inserted between two or more other gear wheels.
AnAn
idler gear
idler gearisisa agear
gear wheel
wheel that is inserted
that is inserted between twoor
between two ormore
moreother
othergear
gear wheels.
wheels.
An idler gear is a gear wheel that is inserted between two or more other gear wheels.

Gearsspeed
Gears can can speed things
things up up or slow
orupslow things
things down.
down. Look
Look atatat
thediagram
the diagram below. The large gear
Gears can speed things or slow things down. Look the diagrambelow.
below. The large
The large gear
gear
wheel
wheel has has
more more teeth on it than the smaller gear wheel. The larger gear wheel is called the
wheel hasteeth
more onteethit than the smaller
on it than geargear
the smaller wheel.
wheel.The larger
The gear
larger gearwheel
wheel isis called the
called the
driving gearbecause
driving gearbecause it is
it is attached attached to the motor
to thetomotor and
and and therefore
therefore supplies
supplies the
thetheforce.
force. The
The
driving gearbecause it is attached the motor therefore supplies force. Thesmaller
smaller
gear wheel gear
is calledwheel is
the drivencalled the
gear. driven gear.
smaller gear wheel is called the driven gear.
Driven gear
Driving gear Driven gear
Driving gear
This arrangement of gears turns the driven gear faster. Machines that use a larger driving
This arrangement
This arrangement ofturns
gearsthe
turns the driven gear faster. Machines that ause a larger driving
gear includeofhand
gears
beaters driven
and hand gearInfaster.
drills. these Machines
machines the thatdrill
use bitslarger
have todriving
rotategear
gear include
includevery
hand hand
andbeaters and hand drills. In these machines thehave
drill bits have to rotate
fastbeaters
to do their hand
job. Whendrills. In these
driving gearmachines the drilldriven
turns clockwise, bits gearto rotate
will turn very fast to
very fast to driving
do theiranticlockwise.
job. When do theirgear
job. When driving gear
turns clockwise, turnsgear
driven clockwise,
will turndriven gear will turn
anticlockwise.
anticlockwise.
Machines that have a smaller driving gear than the driven gear are for slow rotation.
This arrangement is used in rotating displays in shops where the displays have to rotate
This arrangement is used in rotating displays in shops where the displays have to rotate
slowly so that
This arrangement you can
is used see the goods.
slowly so that youincan
rotating
see thedisplays
goods. in shops where the displays have to rotate slowly so
that you can see the goods.
Uses of Gears
Uses of Gears
Uses ofGears
Gears are everywhere! Some rides at an amusement park or festival use large gears which
Gears areGears are everywhere!
everywhere! Some Someatrides
rides at an amusement
an spinning
amusement park park
or or festival
festival use large
gearsgears which
make them spin in circles (like the Ferris wheel duringuse large
Hibiscus which
festival). Hugemake
them spinmake them
in turbines spin
circles (like in circles (like the spinning Ferris wheel during Hibiscus festival). Huge
wind usethe spinning
gears Ferristhe
to convert wheel
slowduring
motionHibiscus festival).
of the blades intoHuge
muchwind turbines
faster motionuse
gears to wind turbines use gears to convert the slow motion of the blades into much faster motion
toconvert the slow motion of the blades into much faster motion to make electricity.
make electricity.
to make electricity.
Gears are in are
Gears small things,
in small too, too,
things, like like
tiny tiny
music boxes
music or or
boxes remote
remote controlled
controlledcars.
cars. They
They are
are used
in clocksGears
to in are
make in
thesmall things, too, like tiny music boxes or remote controlled cars. They are
used clocks tominute
make theand the hour
minute hand
and the gohand
hour around. They are
go around. Theyused
are in motors:
used big car
in motors:
used in clocks to make the minute and the hour hand go around. They
motors, and little motors that make your toys move. Most of the time they are hidden awayare used in motors:
inside so you can’t see them, but if you look at a can opener, you will be able to see two gears.
Turning the handle will make one of the gears move, and the other one will move in the opposite
direction. You can also see gears on a bicycle. With some bikes, the wheels will move at different
106 : Basic Science

to see two gears. Turning the handle will make one of the gears move, and the other one
willmake
big car motors, and little motors that moveyour
in thetoys
opposite
move.direction.
Most of You
the can
timealso seeare
they gears on a bicycle. With some bikes,
the wheels will move at different speeds when you pedal because of gears connected by a
hidden away inside so you can't see them, but if you look at a can opener, you will be able
chain.
to see two gears. Turning the handle will make one of the gears move, and the other one
will move in the opposite direction. You can also see gears on a bicycle. With some bikes,
the wheels will move at different speeds when you pedal because of gears connected by a
chain.
speeds when you pedal because of gears connected by a chain.
ACTIVITY
A. A hand beater or a hand drill will be needed for this
activity.
ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 1. Turn the handle on the driving gear and observe
A. A hand
A. Abeater
hand beaterororaa hand
hand drilldrill
will will betheneeded
howneeded
be fast driven
for for this activity.
this gear turns.
2. Count the number of teeth on the two gear wheels
1. Turn activity.
the handle on the driving gear
and record. and
Divide observe
the larger numberhow fast
by the smaller
the
1. driven gear on
Turn the handle turns. number
the driving3.gear
and
and turn
record
observe
your answer.
Slowly the driving gear wheel through one
2. Counthowthe number
fast the driven gearof teeth
turns. on the
revolution two how
and count gearmanywheels
times the and
2. Count the number of teeth on the driven
two gear
gearwheels
record. Divide the larger number
and record. Divide the larger number
wheel turns.
by the smaller number
*Howbymany
the smaller
revolutions does the driven gear wheel turn for every turn of
and number
record andyour
recordanswer.
your answer. the driving gear?
3. Slowly turn the driving
3. Slowly turn the driving geargear wheelonethrough one revolution
wheel through
revolution and count how many times the
and driven
count gearhow
wheelmany
turns. times the driven gear wheel turns.
* How many *Howrevolutions
many revolutions does the
does the driven
driven gearturn
gear wheel wheel turn
for every turnfor
of
every turn of the
the driving driving gear?
gear?
* What can you infer about the relationship between the number of teeth on the
gear wheels and how fast they turn?
* What* What
cancanyouyou infer about
infer about the relationship
the relationship between thebetween theonnumber
number of teeth the of teeth
gear wheels and how fast they turn?
on the gear wheels and how fast they turn?
WHEEL AND AXLE

WHEEL
WHEELAND AXLE
AND AXLE
A wheel and axle is a simple machine made up of A wheel and axle

two circular is a simple
objects size.made
machine
of different up of two circ
The axle
A wheel and axle is a simple machine made up of two circular
Thewheel. objects
axle (aAllsmall of
wheel)different size.
(a small wheel) is attached to the center of a larger wheels needisan attached
axle. Thetowheel
the center of a l
The axle (a small wheel) is attached to the center of a
axle. Thelarger wheel.
wheel and All
and axle wheels need an
and axle must move together to be a simple machine. A wheel axle must
lifts ormove
movestogether
loads. to be a simpl
axle. The wheel and axle must move together to beor
a simple
moves machine.
loads. A wheel and axle lifts
or moves
Effort loads.
applied to the wheel turns the axle, or effort applied to the
axle turns the wheel. They move together. When effort is applied
to the wheel, the wheel and axle spreads the force over a greater
Effort applied to the whee
distance. If the radius
Effort applied to of the wheel is two times larger
the than the
wheel radius
turns the axle, or effort applied
to the axle turns the whee
oftothe
theaxle, every time you turn the wheel once,
axle turns thethe force
wheel. will move
They be together. When
effort is applied to the whee
multiplied by two.toA wheel and axle can produce
effort is applied the awheel,
gain the
in either
wheel and axle spreads the
force over a greater d
effort
forceorover
distance,
a depending on how it is used. greater distance. If the radius of the wheel
is two times larger tha
is two times larger than the radius of the axle, every
time you turn the wheel on
time you turn the wheel once, the force will be multiplied by
two. A wheel and axle can p
two. A wheel and axle can produce a gain in either effort or
distance, depending onSciencehow itBook
is used.
2 - Lower Secondary: 107
distance, depending on how it is used.
Examples of a wheel and axle can be found in doorknobs, r
Examples of a wheel and axle can be found in doorknobs, roller skates, pencil sharpener
Examples of a wheel and axle can be found in doorknobs, roller skates, pencil sharpener with a
handle, steering wheels of a car, screw drivers,treadle sewing machine and wheels of a car, to
name a few.
Exercisee - Wheel an nd Axle : Making

M yourr own car!
Because the wheel is larger than the axle, it always moves through a greater distance than the
axle. Such a situation multiplies the force applied to the axle, but as always requires a trade off
by moving the effort Exercise
over a egreater distance.
- Wheel nd AxleSteering
an : Making
M wheels andcar!
yourr own screwdrivers are common
examples. Changing the diameter of either the wheel or the axle controls the mechanical
advantage – the amount of help that using a simple machine provides - of a wheel and axle
system. As the diameter of the wheel increases (and the axle stays the same), the mechanical
advantage increases and a greater force is applied to the axle.
Materialss
• A
Axle: skewerss, pencils, bro
oom stick, orr hard plastic
c drinking strraw.
Exercise - Wheel
• Wheel:
W and
thread Axle :plas
sd spools,
Materials Making yourrown
stic containe lids, car!
water bottle lids, Styrofoam
S
•Frame: tissue box, piece of
o wood, wate er bottle[as above]
a
Materials
• Design:
D • A
Axle: skewers
glue, paint,
p s, pencils, bro
oom stick,
glitter, other art material
m or
r hard plastic
[optiional] c drinking strraw.
• Axle: skewers, W
Wheel:
• pencils, thread
broom d spools,
stick,plas
orstic
hardcontaine
plasticr lids, waterstraw.
drinking bottle lids, Styrofoam
S
• Method
Wheel: thread Frame: tissue
• spools, plasticbox, piece of
containero wood, wate
er bottle
lids, water bottle[as a Styrofoam
above]
lids,
• Frame: D piece
Design:
• box,
tissue glue,ofpaint,
p wood,glitter, other
water art material
m above]
bottle[as [optiional]
1. taake an empty y water bottlle or frame of o your choic ce and make 4 holes that will be
• Design: glue, paint,
pllaceholders for
glitter, other art material [optional]
f the axle.
Method
ussing your matterials, brain
nstorm different ways too select the best
b place fo
or the axle. do
d you
Methodneeed a strong
ake
1. ta an emptyy
er/larger axle?water bottl
le or frame o
of your choic
ce and make 4 holes that will be
1. take
2. po
an empty water
plom
oke the broo
bottlefor
laceholders
stick thro
or frame
foughthe ofesyour
theaxle.
hole
choice
in the wate
and make 4 holes that will be placeholders
er bottle lidss.
for the
do
axle. ussing
oes your car yoursit
frame mat
evterials,
venly onbrain
yournstorm
r axles?diffe rent
do yo ways
ou need totoodjust
ad selectyour
thepla
bacement?
best place fo
or the axle. do
d you
using
3. po
your materials,
ne
oke holes threed
rough
brainstorm
a strong different
wer/larger
your water axsle?
bottles
ways to
lids and pok
select theugh
ke them throu
best place for the axle.
the botttle right throough
do you
needtooathe
stronger/larger
2. po
other oke
s the broo
side.
axle?
om stick thro ough the hole es in the wate er bottle lidss.
2. poke
4. ob
the broommovement
bserve thedom
stick
oes through
your car
of frame
thesit
holes
your wheel
in on
evvenly
a axle.
and
theyour
water bottle
r axles? do yo lids.
ou need to addjust your plaacement?
does your car 3. frame
po sit evenly
oke holes thrroughon your
your w axles?
water dos lids
bottles youand
need
pokketothem
adjust your
throu placement?
ugh the botttle right thro
ough
3. poke holes through o theyour
to otherwater
side.
s bottles lids and poke them through the bottle right through to
the other side.
4. ob bserve the movement
m of your wheel and a axle.
4. observe the movement of your wheel and axle.
Source:htttp://enableeducation.com
m/blog/wp-
108 : Basic Science

Source:htttp://enableeducation.com
m/blog/wp-
PULLEYSS
PULLEYS PULLEYS S
Lifting a bucket Lifting
ofasand a is
bucket
hard of sand
work. is hard work.
However, by How
using wever,
aby
pulleybysystem,
usiing a pulley
you y system,
can pull you can pull
downwards
Lifting bucket
downwa of sand
rds to move is hard
eisthe work.
bucket How wever,
t upwards. usi ing
Tthe bucket
This a pulleyy
is easieerupwards system,
than pulli yo u can
ng the buck pull
ket upwardss
to move the bucket
downwa rds upwards.
to move e This
the easier
bucket t than
upwards. pulling
T
This is easieer than pulli ng directly.
the buckket upwards s
directly.
directly.
A pulley is a grooved
A pulley wheel with a drope
is a groove wheel over it. aA rope
witth single
ov pulley
ver it. Adoes
singglenot multiply
pulley dooesforce but
not mul simply
tiply force but
b
changes the direction
A pulley is a of force.
groove d wheel wit th a
simply changes the direction off force.rope ovver it. A sing gle pulley dooes not mul tiply force b
but
simply changes the direction off force.
Sing
gle pulley
Singgle pulley
To multiiply force, you need to use
u more th han one pullley. This allo ows you to lift very heaavy
To multiplyTo
force, you
multiiply need
force, toouuse
y more
need to u than
use one
more thpulley.
han one This
pull allows
ley. Thisyou
allo to lift
ows you very heavy
to lift veryloads
heaavy
loads byy using only a small effoort.
by using only a small
loads by effort.
y using only a small effo
ort.
D
Double pulleeys
Double pulleeys
D
How can n pulleys maake our lives easier?
How can pulleys make ourma
How cann pulleys ake our
lives lives easier?
easier?
A single pulley chan nges the direection of a force,
f which h can make it i much easier for us to o
A single pulley changes
A single pulley the
chandirection
nges the ofection
dire a force,
of awhich
f
force, can
which make
h can it much
make i
it easiereas
much forierusfor
tous
move
to
o
move something. Pu ulleys can allso provide us with a mechanical
m a
advantage w
when we usee
something.move
Pulleys
so can also
mething. Pu provide
ulleys us with a mechanical advantage when we use we several
several together
t andd more ropee. This proccess lessens the amount of force reequirede to liift
can al
lso provide us with a m
mechanical a
advantage w
when use
together and moretogether
several t rope. This
anddprocess
more lessens
rope e.pulle
Thisthe amount of force required t oftoforce
lift something.Using
somethin ng.Using muultiple eysproccess lessens
decrease the amoun
es the amou unt of force reequired
necessary to liift an
t move
to
multiple pulleys decreases
somethin ng.Using the
mu amount
ultiple pulle of force
eys necessary
decrease es the tount
amou moveof thean object
force necessary by increasing
t move
to anthe
object byy increasing g the amoun nt of rope ussed to raise object. The mechan nical advantage
amount ofobject
rope used
byy to raiseg the
increasing the object.
amoun nt The
of mechanical
rope ussed to advantage
raise the object.(MA)
The of a pulley
mechan nical system
advan is
tage
(MA) of a pulley sysstem is equaal to the num mber of ropes supportiing the mov vable load.
equal to the number
(MA) of ropes
of a pulley supporting
sysstem is equaal tothethe
movable
nummber load.
of ropes supportiing the mov vable load.
In today’s highly-technical world, engineers still use pulleys to make difficult tasks easier. Without
them, our lives would be much more difficult.

USES OF PULLEYS
USES OF PULLEYS
Pulleys are used in many ways, everyday. What kind of pulleys can you think of? Some
Pulleys are used in many ways, everyday. What kind of pulleys can you think of? Some
common examples are large construction cranes that use pulleys to lift heavy objects with
common examples are large construction cranes that use pulleys to lift heavy objects with
what would normally be a very underpowered motor, weight machines at a gym, some
USES OF what would normally be a very underpowered motor, weight machines at a gym, some
PULLEYS
elevators, flagpoles, window blinds, bicycle rings/chains, clotheslines, water well
elevators, flagpoles, window blinds, bicyclekind
rings/chains, clotheslines, water well common
bucket/rope, zip lines,many
Pulleys are used in ways,
motors, everyday.
rock climbing What ofsailing
devices, and pulleysand
can you think
fishing of? Some
boats.
examplesbucket/rope,
are largezip lines, motors,
construction rock climbing
cranes that usedevices,
pulleys and
to liftsailing
heavy and fishingwith
objects boats.
what would
normally be a very underpowered motor, weight machines at a gym, some elevators, flagpoles,
window blinds, bicycle rings/chains, clotheslines, water well bucket/rope, zip lines, motors, rock
LEVER
climbingLEVER
devices, and sailing and fishing boats.
Levers are one of the basic tools that were probably used in prehistoric times. Levers were
LEVER Levers are one of the basic tools that were probably used in prehistoric times. Levers were
first described about 260 BC by the ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes (287-212
Levers first
BC). are described
one of theabout
basic260 BC that
tools by the ancient
were Greek used
probably mathematician
in prehistoric Archimedes (287-212
times. Levers were first
BC).
described about 260 BC by the ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes (287-212 BC).
A lever is a simple machine that makes work easier for use; it involves moving a load about
A lever is a simple machine that makes work easier for use; it involves moving a load about
a fixed point
A lever acalled pivot or fulcrum(F).
themachine A work
forceeasier
called the effort(E) is applied at onea load about a
aisfixed
simple
point called that makes
the pivot or fulcrum(F). forcalled
A force use; itthe
involves
effort(E)moving
is applied at one
point of the
fixed point lever. This helps to overcome another force called load (L) at another point.
pointcalled
of the the pivot
lever. Thisorhelps
fulcrum(F). A forceanother
to overcome called force
the effort(E)
called loadis applied at one point
(L) at another point.of the
lever. This helps to overcome another force called load (L) at another point.
Source: https://www.google.com/search?biw=1517&bih=741&q=man+with+crowbar
Source: https://www.google.com/search?biw=1517&bih=741&q=man+with+crowbar
Many
Many of of
ourour
basic toolstools
use levers, including scissors, pliers,pliers,
hammer claws, claws,
nut crackers,
Many ofbasic
our basic use use
tools levers, including
levers, scissors,
including scissors, hammer
pliers, hammer claws,nut
nutcrackers,
crackers,and
and tongs,
tongs, and arm and
armtongs, many
and many others.
others.
arm and many others.
Levers make use of the turning effect of forces to produce:

• a large force
• a large movement
The closer the fulcrum is to the load, the less force (effort) you need to use. There are different
types of lever around us. Some levers have the fulcrum between the load and the effort but
much closer to the load[as shown in the above diagram].
This means that you only need a small effort to exert a large force. Some levers have the fulcrum
at the end of the lever.
110 : Basic Science

different
differenttttypes
typesof
oflelever
veraround
aroundus.us.Some
Someleevers
leevershave
havethe
tthe
t fulcrum
fulcrumbetween
betweenth
th
heload
he loadand
andthe
tthe
t
effortbu
effort bu
utmuch
ut muchclos
clos serto
ser tothe
thelo
lo shownnin
oad[asshow
oad[as inthe
theabo
aboovediagram
ove diagram].].
Thismea
This meaansthat
ans thatyou
you
uuonly
onlyneed
needaasmall
smalleffo
effo
ortto
ort toexert
exertaalarge
largeforc
force.e.Some
Somelev
levers
ershave
havethe
the
ee
fulcrumat
fulcrum atthe
theend
endof
oof
o the
thelever.
lever.
Fulcrumat
Fulcrum atthe
theend
endof
oof
o the
thelever
lever
Fulcrum at the end of the lever
..
Fulcrumbetween
Fulcrumb
Fulcrumb effort
between
between and
effor load
rtrtand
effor and load
load
The unit of Force is Newton (N).
A lot of things we do in our everyday life make use of the turning effect of a force. The
turning effect of a force is the ability of a force to make something turn about a certain
The unit point. Thus,
of Force we say
is Newton the turning effect of a force depends on:
(N).
• wethe
A lot of things dosize of everyday
in our the forcelife make use of the turning effect of a force. The turning
effect of a force is the ability of a force to make something turn about a certain point. Thus, we
• effect
say the turning the distance
of a forceofdepends
the forceon:from the pivot.
• the size of the force
The unit
• the distance for force
of the WorkfromDonethe is Joules (J)
pivot.
The unit Aforforce

Workis do work
saidistoJoules
Done (J) when it acts on a body so that there is a displacement. Thus a
A force isforce
said does
to do work whenit it
work when results
acts in movement.
on a body so that there is a displacement. Thus a force
does work when it results in movement.
The figure shows a lever, e.g. a board, supported at the center by a fulcrum.
The figure shows a lever, e.g. a board, supported at the center by a fulcrum.

If one person pushes down on the left side with a force F1, a distance d1 from the
fulcrum, and another person pushes down on the right side with a force F2, at a
If one person pushes down on the left side with a force F1, a distance d1 from the fulcrum, and
If one person pushes down on the left side with a force F1, a distance d1 from the
another person pushes down on the right side with a force F2, at a distance d2 from the fulcrum,
fulcrum, and another person pushes down on the right side with a force F2, at a
they will bedin
distance balance if F1d1 = F2d2 . Work done can be calculated by multiplying the force
2 from the fulcrum, they will be in balance if F1d1 = F2d2 . Work done can be
bycalculated
the distance it moves. the force by the distance it moves.
by multiplying
Therefore,
Therefore,
Work Done = Force x Distance
Work Done = Force x Distance
F1d1=F2d2
F1d1=F2d2
Example:
Example:
For the lever system shown, what would be the effort forceneeded to lift the 5N load that
For the lever system shown, what would be the effort forceneeded to lift the 5N load that will
will keep the lever balanced?
keep the lever balanced?
Work done Work done
=10N x 0.25m = 5N x 0.5m

=2.5J =2.5J
Source: https://sites.google.com/site/rmackrellphysics/home/2010-11/4th-form
Effort Force x Effort Distance = Load Force x Load Distance

F 1 x
Effort Force d1 =
x Effort Distance F2 x
= Load Force d2
x Load Distance
x 5N
0.5m = F x 0.25m
F1 x d1 = F2 x d2
2.5N.m = 0.25F
5N x 0.5m = F x 0.25m
F = 10N
2.5N.m = 0.25F
F = 10N
112 : Basic Science
2.5N.m = 0.25F
F = 10N
��
M.A
A =
Mechanical
Mechanical Advantage
Advantage ��
We use simple machines to make tasks easier. While the output work of a simple machine can
We use simple machines to make tasks easier. While the output work of a simple machine
never be greater than the input work, a simple machine can multiply input forces OR multiply
can never be greater than the input work, a simple machine can multiply input forces OR ��
input distances (but never both at the same time).Mechanical Advantage is the ratio of Load
multiply input distances (but never both at the same time).Mechanical Advantage is the
Force to Effort Force OR Effort Distance to Load Distance. =
ratio of Load Force to Effort Force OR Effort Distance to Load Distance. ��
��
Mechanical Advantage = OR Mechanical Advantage =
��
∵ = 10
Example
A construction
Example worker uses a board and log as a lever to lift a heavy rock. If the load is 500N and
the effort force used to lift it is 50N, what would be its mechanical advantage?
A construction worker uses a board and log as a lever to lift a heavy rock. If the load is
500N and the effort force used to lift it is 50N, what would M.A ��
� advantage?
beAits mechanical
=
��
��
�
=
When Mechanical Advantage
A iss more than
n��
1, force haas been m
∵ = 10
When mechanical
m advantage iss less than 1,
1 speed hass been mu
When Mechanical Advantage is more than 1, force has been multiplied.
When mechanical advantage is less than 1, speed has been multiplied.
When Mechanical Advantage
A iss more than
n 1, force haas been multtiplied.
Exerrcise
ExerciseWhen mechanical
m advantage iss less than 1,
1 speed hass been multiiplied.
Fo
or the diagram
m given below
w, label the fulcrum (F), lo
oad (L) and
For the diagram given below, label the fulcrum (F), load (L) and effort (E)
Exerrcise
Fo
or the diagram
m given below
w, label the fulcrum (F), lo
oad (L) and effort (E)

Inclined plane is a simple mach
hine. Thr
screws.
1. THE RAMP
The incliined plane is

i simply a flat
f surfa
lifting a load
l that woould be too heavy t
inclined plane) deteermines how w much
ramp, the more efforrt is required.
Inclined
Inclined plane planemachine.
is a simple is a simple mach
Three hine. Three
simple simpleare
examples exammples
the arewedge
ramp, th
he ramp,
andwe
edge and
screws.
screws.
1. THE RAMP
1. THE RAMP
The inclined plane is simply a flat surface raised at an angle, like a ramp. It is a way of lifting a
The rammp makes lifee easier nott by alter
load that would be too heavy
The incliined plane is to lift straight
i simply a flat up.The angle
f surface raised
r (the steepness
at an of the inclined
like a ramp.
n angle,altering the plane)
wayItiniswhich
wa waythe
ofwork
w is d
determines how much effort
lifting a load
l is
that woneeded to raise the weight. The steeper the ramp, the
ould be too heavy to lifft straight up.The anglee (the steepn more effort
ness of the
is required. inclined plane) dete i. t effort that you put in, and
the
ermines how w much effoort is needed d to raise th he weight. The
T steeper the t
ramp, the more efforrt is required. ii. the
t distancee over which h you ma
The ramp makes life easier not by altering the amount of work that is needed, but by altering the
way in which the work is done. Work has two aspects to it: If the efffort increasees, the distaance mus
i. the effort that you put in, and needed to t raise an object
o by inccreasing
ii. the distance over which you maintain the effort.
The rammp makes lifee easier nott by alteringg the amoun 2. WED
nt of work th DGE
hat is needeed, but by
If the effort increases, the distance must decrease, and vice versa. It reduces the effort needed
altering the way in which
w the work
w is donee. Work hass two aspects to it:
to raise an object by increasing the distance that it moves. A wedgee is a simplee machine made
m up
i. t effort that you put in, and
the meet and
2. WEDGE ob
bjects ap
ii. the
t machine
distanceemade
over which h you ob
bjects in
A wedge is a simple up of twomaint tain the
inclined effort.
planes put
together. These 2 planes meet and form a sharp edge.Wedges are gets in between objects and splits it apart.An objec
A wedge
If the eff
fort increasees, the dista
ance must d ecrease,
used to push two objects apart, or cut an object into pieces. It can andd
with avice
wedgeversa a. It reducess the effort
(an axe)
needed
also hold objects t raise an object
to
in place. o by inccreasing thee distance th
hat it movess.
A wedge gets in between objects and splits it apart.An object like

2. WED DGE
wood, can be split apart with a wedge (an axe)
A wedgee is a simplee machine made
m up of tw 3.dSCREW
wo inclined planes putt together. These
T 2 plannes
meet and form m a sharp edge.Wedgess are used to t push two A screw is a
3. SCREW ob
bjects apart,, or cut an object
o into pieces.
p It can
n also holdanother simp
A screw is a simple machine made upob of another
bjects simple
in plaace. plane wrapp
machine. It is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.
The screw has 2 parts. The inclined plane is the thread that
wraps around the screw. The cylinder is the long rod.
The screw ha
the thread th
The cylinder
114 : Basic Science

LINEAR MOTION
Linear motion is motion along a straight line. Linear mo

LINEAR MOTION
Linear motion is motion along a straight line. Linear motion is the most basic of all motion.
According to Newton’s first law of motion, objects that do not experience any net force will
continue to move in a straight line with a constant velocity until they are subjected to a net force.
Under everyday circumstances, external forces such as gravity and friction can cause an object
to change the direction of its motion, so that its motion cannot be described as linear.
Linear motion is measured in two parts; speed and direction. Together these make up the velocity.
VELOCITY
The symbol for velocity is v.
The velocity of an object refers to an object’s speed and the direction in which the object moves.
Velocity is a vector quantity that refers to “the rate at which an object changes its position. The
units for velocity are the same as for speed.
Velocity is calculated by dividing the change in an object’s displacement by the time taken for
�� to
a change in displacement �� occur.
��
velocity, v = =
��
��
��
Examplee
velocity, v = =
��
��
There Example
arre three cars e and C travelling in
s A, B i the directtions shown n. The speed d of each car is
Example
alsoThere
showwn.
are threeThere
cars A,
arreB three
and Ccars
travelling in the
s A, B and directionsin
C travelling i shown. Thetions
the direct speed of n.
shown each
The car isdalso
speed of each car is
shown. also show
wn.
30m/ss 30m
m/s 30m/s
30m/ss 30m
m/s 30m/s
A B
A B
All All
three
three cars have the same speed. A and B also have the samevelocity,
e cars have the
t same sp
peed. A and B also have the same v velocity,bec ause both
because boththheir
their
speed
speedanndand Allnthree
direction
direction ethe
cars
areare have
sam
the me.Athe
t and
same.A same sp
C (and
and C peed. AB and
B and
(and C)Bhave
and also
C) have
diff
have the same
ferent veloc
different v
velocity,
cities becse,
becaus
velocities ause both th
because, heir
although speed an
theirspee
speed nd direction
are thesa n are
same, theytheare
samme.A and in
travelling C (and B and C) have diffferent veloccities becausse,
although h their d are the ame, they arre travelling g indifferent
differendirections.
t directionss.
although
h their speed are the saame, they arre travellingg in different directionss.
Distancee–time
Distance gra
- time phs
graphs
Distance e–time graphs
OnOn
a dist
a tance–time
distance–time graph:
graph:
On a disttance–time graph:
• a horizontal line means the object is stopped
horizontal
• •aastraight line
• ameans
line sloping themeans
upwards
horizontal object
line itis
i has
means stopped
a steady
the ispeed.
object is stopped
• a straight lin
ne sloping up
• a straightpwards
lin meaans
ne sloping up it has amea
pwards steady
ans it spee
hased.
a steady speeed.
The steepness, or gradient, of the line shows the speed:
The• stee
aepness,
steeper or grradient,
gradient
The of the
means
steeepness, tor line
a higher
gr show ws
speed
radient, ttheline
of the speeed:ws the speeed:
show
• a curved line means the speed is changing.
• a steeper gra • a steeper
adient mean nsgra
aadient
highermeans ns a higher speed
speed s
• a curved line • a curved
e means linee means
the speed is ch the speed is ch
hanging. hanging. Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 115
If the dirrection ofIf tr

the dirrection
ravel is beinof considere
ng trravel is bein
ed:ng considereed:
If the direction of travel is being considered:
• A negative distance is in the opposite direction to a positive distance.
• A straight line sloping downwards means it has a steady speed, and a steady velocity in the
negative direction.
Between 30 s and 50 s the cyclist stopped. The graph has a steeper gradient between 50 s and
Between 30 s and 50 s the cyclist stopped. The graph has a steeper gradient between 50 s
and 70 s than between 0 s and 20 s – the cyclist was travelling at a greater speed.
To calculate
Between a speed
30 s and from
50 s the a graph,
cyclist workThe
stopped. outgraph
the gradient of thegradient
has a steeper straight between
line section
50 sas
70 s than between
shown above 0 sFig.
in and 20 s – the cyclist was travelling at a greater speed.
9.1:
and 70 s thanBetween
between30 0 ssand
and2050ss–the
the cyclist
cyclist stopped.
was travelling at a greater
The graph speed. gradient between 50 s
has a steeper
Between 30 sand and7050ssthan
the cyclist
between 0 s and 20 s – the cyclist was travelling at between
stopped. The graph has a steeper gradient a greater50 s
speed.
To calculate a
To calculate
and speed
70 s than abetweenfrom
speed from a graph,
0 s anda graph,work out
work
20 s – the the gradient
out was
cyclist of
the travellingthe
gradient of straight
at the line
straight
a greater section as shown
line section as
speed.
above in Fig.
shown 9.1:To
above in Fig. 9.1:
calculate a speed from a graph, work out the gradient of the straight line section as
To calculate ashown
speedabove
from ina Fig.
graph,
9.1:work out the gradient of the straight line section as
shown above in Fig. 9.1:
DISPLACEMENT
DISPLACEMENT
Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place an object is"; it is
Displacement is a
the object's vector
overall quantity
change that refers to “how far
in position.Displacement outgive
must of attention
place antoobject is”; it is the
direction.
DISPLACEMENT
object’s overall change in position.Displacement must give attention to direction.
Example DISPLACEMENT
Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how far out of place an object is"; it is
DISPLACEMENT
the object's overall
Example change inisposition.Displacement
Displacement a vector quantity must give attention to of
direction.
Brian walked 20km from Suva to Nausori. Thethat referstravelled
distance to "how far out
would place an
be 20km butobject
his is"; it is
Displacement
Brian walked 20km is a vector
from Suva
the object's quantity that
to change
overall refers
Nausori. to "how far out
The distance travelled
in position.Displacement of place
mustan object
would beis"; it isto but
20km
give attention his
direction.
the displacement
object's
Example overallwould be 20km
change in East of Suva.
position.Displacement must give attention to direction.
displacement would be 20km East of Suva.
SPEED Example
Brian
Example walked 20km from Suva to Nausori. The distance travelled would be 20km but his
SPEED displacement would be travelled
20km East of Suva.
Speed Brian
is the walked
distance 20km from
in Suva totime.
a certain Nausori. The distance
It is usually travelled
measured would
in meters per be 20km but his
SpeedBrianis the distance
walked 20km travelled
from in to
Suva a certain
Nausori. time.
The Itdistance
is usually measured
travelled in meters
would be 20km per
butsecond
his [m/s
second [m/sdisplacement
or m.s -1] would be 20km East of Suva.
SPEED
or m.s- 1]
displacement would be 20km East of Suva.
SPEED ��
Speed is the distance
SPEED travelled
Average Speed in [m/s]
a certain
= time. It is usually measured in meters per
second [m/s Speedor m.s-1is] the distance travelled in a��
certain ��It is usually measured in meters per
time.
Speed is the distance
second [m/s travelled
or m.sin-1a] certain time. It is usually measured in meters per
second [m/s or m.s ] -1 ��
Average Speed [m/s] =
116 : Basic Science ��
��
Average Speed [m/s]��
�� = ��
Average Speed [m/s] = ��
��
��
=
Example ��
Example
A sprinter runs 100m in 10seconds. = Calculate
10m/sthe average speed in m/s.
A sprinter runs 100m in 10seconds. Calculate the average speed in m/s.
Example ��
Solution:
Example Average Speed [m/s] = ��
Solution: Average Speed [m/s] = ��
Exercise
A sprinter A sprinter
runs 100m runs 100m
in 10seconds. Calculate ��
in 10seconds. �� speed
Calculate
the average the average
in m/s. speed in m/s.
Calculate the average speed = in m/s
�� of the following:
��
a.) A car travels
Solution:8kmAverage Speed��
in 10= minutes. [m/s] =
��
b.) Sound travels a kilometrein = 3s
10m/s
= 10m/s ��
c.) A boat travels 110km in 6 hours. = ��
Exercise
Exercise
Calculate the average speed in m/s of the = following:
10m/s
Calculate the average speed in
a.) A car travels 8km in 10 minutes. m/s of the following:
a.)
b.) A car travels
Sound 8km
travels in 10 minutes.
a kilometrein 3s
Exercise Exercise
b.) Sound travels
c.) A boat travels a kilometrein
110kmthe 3s
in 6average
hours.
c.) A boat travels 110km in 6 hours. speed in m/s of the following:
Calculate
Calculate the average speed a.) inA m/s of the following:
car travels 8km in 10 minutes.
a.) A car travels 8km in 10 b.)minutes.
Sound travels a kilometrein 3s
ACCELERATION
b.) Sound travels a kilometrein
c.) A boat3s travels 110km in 6 hours.
c.) A boat travels 110km in 6 hours.
When an object changes velocity, that is, speeds up, slows down or changes direction, it is
Acceleration, a, is calculated by dividing the change in velocity by the
ACCELERATION
said to accelerate.
ACCELERATION
ACCELERATION
time taken
When for
When the
an change
an object changes
object in velocity,
changes velocity to occur:
velocity,that
that is,
is,speeds up,slows
speeds up, slows down
downor
orchanges
changes direction,
direction, it is said
it is
When
said toan
to accelerate. object changes
Acceleration,
accelerate. velocity,
Acceleration, that is, speeds
a, isa,calculated
is calculated up,
byby slows down
dividing
dividing the or changes
change
the change direction,
ininvelocity
velocity byitthe
by the is time
said
time
taken forto
taken
the ACCELERATION
accelerate.
for the
change Acceleration,
change toa,occur:
in velocity
in velocity is to ��
calculated
occur: by dividing the change in velocity by the
time taken for the Acceleration
change in velocity = to occur:
When an object changes velocity, ��
that is, speeds up, slows down or changes direction, it is
��
Acceleration =
said to accelerate. Acceleration, ��
a, is calculated by dividing the change in velocity by the
Acceleration = ��
time taken for the change in velocity ��
to occur:
= ��
= ��
��
��
=Acceleration =
The unit The
for unit
acceleration is m/s 2 or m.s-2. ��
for acceleration is m/s
The unit for acceleration is m/s2 or m.s-2. 2 or m.s-2.
The unit for acceleration is m/s2 or m.s-2. ��
Acceleration also is used to describe change
Acceleration also is used to describe change in speed. in =
speed.
Acceleration
Acceleration also is used
also is used toto
describe
describechange
change in speed. ��
in speed.
The unit for acceleration is m/s2 or�� m.s -2.
��
Acceleration = ��
Acceleration
Acceleration = = ��
Acceleration also is used to describe��
change in speed.
Example
Example ��
ExampleExample Acceleration =
A car, travelling at 5m/s, speeds up to 30m/s in a time of 10s. ��
A car, travelling at 5m/s, speeds up to 30m/s in a time of 10s.
A car, Atravelling
car,
Thetravelling
change atin5m/s,5m/s,speeds
atspeed
Example isspeeds up up
��to to 30m/s
� 30m/s
30 � 5in a intime
a time of 10s.
of 10s.
The change in speed is �� 30 � 5
The change in speed
The change Aiscar,is travelling
in speed =30
��at�5m/s, 25m/s
� 5 up to 30m/s in a time of 10s.
speeds
= 25m/s
The change in speed is �� 30 � 5
= 25m/s
= 25m/s

��
and the time
t taken is i �� 10�� thus a =
��
andand thethe
t timetaken
time taken is iis ∆��t =�10s 10�� thus a =
thus
��
=
��
=
�� 2
and the time
t taken isi �� 10�� = 2.5m/s
thus a=
��
= 2.5m/s2
Decelerationis used to describ bemotion when w an��objeect slows do own. It uses the same
=
equation
Deceler n asationis
accelera
Deceleration ation.
use
is used dtotodescribemotion
describ bemotion whenwhenw
an object��an slows
objeect slows
down. do
It uses own. It uses
the same the same
equation
as acceleration.
equation n as acceleraation. = 2.5m/s2
Examplee
Example Decelerationis used to describ bemotion whenw an objeect slows do own. It uses the same
Examplee equationn as acceleraation.
A parach hutist in freee fall eventu ually opens her parachu ute and find ds that in 1.8 8 seconds she
A parachutist in free fall eventually opens her parachute and finds that in 1.8 seconds she slows
slows do
A parachown from
hutist in 50
Example 0m.s
free
down from 50m.s- to 5m.s e1 e -1 to 5m
fall -1 m.s
eventu -1
ually opens her parachu ute and findds that in 1.88 seconds she
slows do ownAfrom parach 50 0m.s
hutist
-1 to 5m
in freee fallm.s
-1
eventu ually
The parachutist’s acceleration is a =
�� opens her parachuute and findds that in 1.88 seconds she
The paraachutist's slows accceleration
doown from 50 isa =to 5m
0m.s -1 m.s-1
��
The paraachutist's accceleration isa = ��
The paraachutist's accceleration isa =��
��
=
�.��
= = �.�
�.� 2
= -2.5m m.s
= -2.5m m.s2
We can say that the parachutist is = -2.5m
decelerating m.s
at
2
25m.s -2 or accelerating at -25m.s-2 .
We can say s that Wethecanparachutis t is decelera
s that the parachutis
say atingating
t is decelera at 25matm.s-
25mm.s-or
2 2 acce elerating
or acceelerating at -25m.s-
at -25m.s- 2.
2.
We FREE
can FALL
s that
say FREE
the
FAALL
parachutist is deceleraating at 25m m.s-2 or acceelerating at -25m.s-2 .
FREE FA ALL
FREEA freeFAALL A free
falling falling
object object
is an objectis an object
that t that is
is falling falliing
under theunder
sole thhe sole influ
influence ofuence of gra
gravity. avity.
Any Any ob
object bject
that
A free isfabeing
lling acted
object
that is is
be an
eing object
acted t
upon
u that
only is
byyfalli
theing
forceunder
o
of thhe
gravity isssole
said
upon only by the force of gravity is said to be in a state of free fall.
influ
to be uence
i
in a of
state ofgra
f avity.
free fall. Any ob
bject
that
A is
freebeeing acted
falling upon
u is only
object by
an object y the force
t that o gravity
of
is falli ing under iss said
th to beinflu
he sole i uence
in free
a stateofoffgra avity. fall.
Any obbje
that is beeing acted upon u only by y the force of o gravity iss said to be in i a state off free fall.
http://www http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&1
w.google.com/u
url?sa=i&rct=j&q
q=&
There are twoThere arre two impo

important ortant
motion motioon character
characteristics thatristics thatof
are true a free-falling
are true of free-falling
f objects: objects:
o
• Free-falling objects do not come across air resistance.
• Free-falling objeccts do not come across air resistan nce.
• w.google.com/u
http://www All free-fallingurl?sa=i&rct=j&q
objects (on Earth)
q=& accelerate downwards at a rate of 9.8 m.s-2.
• All freee-falling ob
bjects (on Earth) acceleerate downw wards at a rate
r of 9.8
http://www w.google.com/u m.s .
-2
url?sa=i&rct=j&q q=&
There arreScience
118 : Basic two Under
impo ortant
su motio
uch conditio onall
ons, character
obje ristics
ects will thatthe
falll with a same
ares truerate
of free-falling
fof
o accelera o
objects:
ation,
There arre two impo
regardle ortant
ess motio
of theirr masson. characterristics that are a true of free-falling
f o
objects:
Under such conditions, all objects will fall with the same rate of acceleration, regardless of their
mass.
Consider a 1000kg baby

Consider elephant
a 1000kg babyand a 1kgand
elephant mouse
a 1kgfree falling.
mouse free falling.

Source:http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/u2l3e.cfm
Source:http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/u2l3e.cfm
The ratio of force to mass (Fnet/m) is the same for the elephant and the mouse under situations
involving freeThe
fall ratio of force to mass (Fnet/m) is the same for the elephant and the mouse under
situations involving free fall
Physics Lab Activities: Applications of free fall
Do the following investigations. Show your calculations neatly on a separate

sheet of paper. Clearly label each section. Turn in one paper for each person.
Physics Lab Activities: Applications of free fall
Do the following investigations. Show your calculations neatly on a separate sheet of paper.
Option 1 - Measure your reaction time -- Pair
Clearly label each section. Turn in one paper for each person.
1. Hold your fingers open about one inch.
2. Have your1partner hold a ruler or meter stick vertically between your fingers
Option
soMeasure
that 0 cm is reaction time -- Pair
your
1. Holdyour
between yourfingers.
fingers open about one inch.
2. Have your
3. Drop the meterstick partner andhold
havea ruler
your or metertry
partner stick
and catch it.
vertically between your fingers so that
4. Record the distance the meterstick travels through 0 cm is the fingers.
5. Repeat for three
between your trials and average the distances
fingers.
6. Use the average displacement of the meterstick and the fact that the
3. Drop the
meterstick is inmeterstick
free-fall to and have your
calculate the partner try and
time it took catch it.
to catch the meterstick
4. Record the
- Your reaction time. distance the meterstick travels through the fingers.
5. Repeat
7. Repeat andfor three trials
calculate theand average time
reaction the distances
of the person dropping the
6. Use the average displacement of the meterstick and the fact that the meterstick is in
meterstick.
free-fall to calculate the time it took to catch the meterstick - Your reaction time.
7. Repeat and calculate the reaction time of the person dropping the meterstick.
Option 2 - Measuring your hang time (total time in the air) while jumping
and estimating your initial jump velocity. -- pair
1. Have one person jump vertically upward and place a piece of masking
tape at the highest point that he/she can reach on the wall.
2. Measure the height of the jump (distance from your fingertips held straight
above your head while standing on the ground to the tape)
3. Calculate the amount of time you were in the air (remember: at your
maximum height, your velocity is zero, and the time is ½ the total jump
time)
4. Calculate your initial velocity (this could be used to find the force your legs
apply to floor )
Sorce:http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/u2l3e.cfm
120 : Basic Science

CHAPTER 4: EARTH AND BEYOND
CHAP
PTER
UNIT 1:4: E SYSTEM
EARTH
SOLAR AN
ND BEYON
ND
CHAP
PTER 4: EARTH
E AN
ND BEYON
ND
4.14.1.1 OUR
O SOLA
AR SYSTEM
M OUR SOLAR SYSTEM
4.1 O
OUR SOLA
AR SYSTEM
M
CHAP
PTER 4: EARTH
E AN
ND BEYON
ND
4.1 O
OUR SOLA
AR SYSTEM
M
COMET
COMET
A comet is an icy bo
ody that releeases gas orr dust. They are often co
ompared to
o dirty
A comet
COMETis an icy bo ody that releeases gas orr dust. They are often co ompared to o dirty
snowbal
COMETlls, though recentr reseaarch has led some scien ntists to call them snow wy dirtballs.
snowballls, though recent r reseaarch has led some scien ntists to call them snow wy dirtballs.
Comets
Comets c
c is andus
contain
contain
A comet dus st, ice,
st,body
icy thatcarbo
ice, carbo on
on dioxide,
dioxide,
releases a
ammonia,
gasammonia,
aor dust. They
m compared
methane
m are oftenand
methane
and d more.
d more. Som tome Som
me researche
researche
dirty ers
snowballs, ers
A comet is an icy bo ody that releeases gas orr dust. They are often co ompared to o dirty
think
think com
though
com
metsmets
recent might
might research
have have hasorigin
led nally
some brough httosome
scientists call ofwater
thethem thesnowy
water an
nd organic
dirtballs. Comets m
molecules
contain to
o
snowbal lls, though r origin
recent nally
resea archbrough
has ledht some
some of
scien
ntists an
ndsnow
to call them organic m
molecules
wy dirtballs. to
o
dust,tha
Earth ice,
at carbon
now dioxide,
mak ke upammonia,
life re.methane
hedioxide, and more. Some researchers think comets might
Earth thaat
Cometsnow c mak
contain ke up
dusst, life
ice, he
carbore.
on
have originally brought some of the water and organica
ammonia, m molecules
methane andd more.
to Somme researche
Earth that nowers make up
lifethink
here.com
mets might have originnally brough
ht some of the water an
nd organic molecules
m to
o
Earth thaat now mak
ke up life here.
Sourc
Sourc w.planetsforrkids.org/pag
w.planetsfor
ce:http://www
ce:http://www ge.php?seo=
rkids.org/pag =what_is_a_c
ge.php?seo= comet comet
=what_is_a_c
w.planetsforrkids.org/pagge.php?seo=
Sourcce:http://www =what_is_a_ccomet
As a comet approaches and get close to the sun it starts spewing dust and gas. This debris forms
As a commet approaches and gett close to thee sun it starrts spewing dust and gaas. This debris
As a a
com metwhich
tail approacis thehesimage and we
gettare
close to the
familiar e sunthe
with, it star
tail rts
will spewing
always point dust andfrom
away gaas.the
This deb
sun. ris
The
As mainforms
a acom a t
tail which is
s the image we are fammiliar with, th
he tail will a
always poin
nt away fromm
forms t met
reason
tail approac
which foris
sthis
the hes and we
is image
because get
oftare
close
thefam to heat
sun’s theewith,
miliar sun
andth itradiation.
hestar rtswill
tail spewing
Occasionally
a
always dust
poin and
antcomet
away gaas. m debris
This
streaks
from
the sun. The main re eason for th
his is becaus se of the sunn's heat and d radiation. Occasional ly a
forms
througha tail
t thewhich
inner solariss the image
system; some wedoare fammiliarsome
so regularly, with,only th
heonce
tail will
everyalways
afew centuries.
poin ntMany
away from
m
the sun.
peopleThe main
sttreaks
comethave reeason
throu
never for
ugh the
seen th
his is becaus
inneer solar
a comet, but syst se of
tem;who
those the
some sun n's
d so
do
have heat
regula
won’t andd radiation.
arly, some
easily forgetothe
nly once very
ev
celestial show. ly a
Occasional
the sun.
comet few The
cent
treaks
st main
turies.
throu Many
ugh reeason
ythe
people for
innehav
erve thhis
solar issyst
never becaus
see se of but
en a comet,
tem; some the sun
d those
do so n's
w heat
who
regula have
arly,and
w don't
some radiation.
only onceOccasional
easily very
ev ly a
comet
few cent forget
turies.th
heMany
sttreaks celestial
throu show.
s
ugh
y people the
hav inne
ve er solar
never seeensyst
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do
but those wregula arly,wsome
have only once ev
on't easily very
few cent
forget he turies.
th celestialMany
s y people hav
show. ve never seeen a comet, but thoseScience
w Book
who have won't
2 - Lower 121
easily
Secondary:
forget th
he celestial show.
s
METEORITES
METEORITES
Meteorites are fragments of rock and/or metal that fall to Earth from space. Having
broken away
Meteorites are from a larger
fragments ofextraterrestrial
rock and/or metal body, that
meteorites
fall to can measure
Earth anythingHaving
from space. from a broken
METEORITES
fraction of a millimeter to the size of a football pitch and bigger.
away from a larger extraterrestrial body, meteorites can measure anything from a fraction of a
Meteorites are fragments of rock and/or metal that fall to Earth from space. Having
millimeter to the size of broken
a football pitch and bigger.
away from a larger extraterrestrial body, meteorites can measure anything from a
fraction of a millimeter to the size of a football pitch and bigger.
Source: NASA Website
Source: NASA WebsiteSource: NASA Website

As it enters the earth’s atmosphere, they are accelerated to speeds of over 11.2 kilometers per
As it enters the earth's atmosphere, they are accelerated to speeds of over 11.2 kilometers
second. It glows,
As it enters theflashing
earth's across
second. the
atmosphere,
per sky likeare
they
It glows, a firework,
flashing across thebefore
accelerated sky to afinally
likespeeds crashing
of
firework, over to kilometers
before11.2 the
finally ground.
crashing to theMost
meteorites
per second. areItfragments thatMost
glows, flashing
ground. have
across come
the sky
meteorites away
arelike aasfirework,
fragments two
thatasteroids
have comecollide.
before finally
away Asteroids
crashing
as two toare
asteroids theirregular-
collide.
ground.
shaped Most
rocks Asteroids
meteorites
that orbit theare are irregular-shaped rocks that orbit the sun.
sun.fragments that have come away as two asteroids collide.
Asteroids are irregular-shaped
There are threerocks that
main orbit
types the sun.
of meteorites.
There are three main types of meteorites.
There are three main types of meteorites.
• iron meteorites are almost completely metal.
• stony
• stony iron meteorites have ironequal
nearly meteorites have nearly
amounts equaland
of metal amounts of metal
silicate and silicate crystals.
crystals.
122 : Basic Science

• stony meteorites are dominated by silicate minerals.
Source: AEROLITE METEORITES WEBSITE

Source: AEROLITE METEORITES WEBSITE
Each group
Each group of meteorites of meteorites
is split into manyismore
split into manyand
classes more classes
types and types depending
depending on the
on the minerals
minerals they contain, their chemistry and their structure.
they contain, their chemistry and their structure.
There are three types of meteorites: stony, iron, and stony-iron. A meteorite is heavier
than an ordinary rock and will be attracted to a magnet. The condition of a meteorite can
There are three types of from
range meteorites: stony,
fresh to very iron, and stony-iron. A meteorite is heavier than an
weathered.
ordinary
MILKYrock
W and will be attracted to a magnet. The condition of a meteorite can range from
WAY
fresh to very weathered.
MILKY WAY MILKY WAY

W
The Milkky Way is th

he galaxy thaat contains our Solar Syystem. Its name "milkyy" is derived d
The Milky
from itsWay is the
appearancee asgalaxy
Thea dim
Milk that
kygllowing
Way contains
band
is th
he galaxy thaatour
d arching Solar
accross
contains the System.
ournigght sky
Solar Sy Its
Its name
in which
ystem.w “milky”
the"milky
name naaked isd derived from its
y" is derived
eye cannnot distinguish individu ual stars.
appearance as a dim glowing band arching across the night sky in which the naked
from its appearance e as a dim gllowing bandd arching ac
cross the nig
ght sky in w
which the naaked eye cannot
eye cann
not distinguish individu
ual stars.
distinguish individual stars.
Im

mage of the nig ght sky above ParanalP on 21 July
J 2007, takeen by
Image
ESO astronomoferthe night
mage of sky
YuriIm
Beletskky.the A nigabove d ofParanal
ght sky above
wide band P
Paranal
stars don
andondust J212007,
21 July Julytake
2007,
en by taken
by ESO astronomer ESO astronom er Yuri Beletsk ky.wide
A wide band d of stars and d and dust
dust
clouds, spann than Yuri
ning moreclouds, 100
spann
Beletsky.
degrees o
on theA sky,
ning more than 100 degrees on is s band
seen. of stars
o the sky, is seen.
s
clouds,
This is the Milspanning the more
ky Way, This isalaxy
Ga the Milwe than
ky belon
Way,ng 100
theto.
Ga Atdegrees
alaxytheweceentre
belon ng on
to. Atthe sky, is seen.
the ce
entre
This the two
of theisimage, Milkybright
Way, objects
of the thearetwo
image, visible
Galaxy e. The
bright we
obj brightest
ects belong t is e. The
are visible to. brightest
At the t iscentre of
the planet Jup piter, whilethethe
planet Jup
other piter,
is thewhile
sttar the other isThthe
Antares. reesttar
of Antares. Three of
the image,
the four 8.2-m
two
m telescopes
bright
the four
fo 8.2-m
orming
objects
mESO's
telescopes
VLT are
are
fo
orming visible.
seen,ESO's
The brightest
w VaLT are seen, with
with w a is the
planet
laser beaming Jupiter, while the
laser beaming
g out from Yepu other
g out is
from Yepu the
un,
un, Unit Telesccope number 4. The
Unitstar
TelescAntares.
cope number Three
4. The of the
laser points diirectly at the Galactic
G Centre. Also visible are
four 8.2-m
laser points telescopes
diirectly at three Gof theforming
the Galactic Centre.
1.8-m
ESO’s
Also
Auxiliary visible VLT
Telescopes
are
are use seen, with a laser
ed for
beaming
three of the 1.8-m outAuxiliary
from Yepun,
Telescopes
interferomete Unit
r. Theyuseed Telescope
show forsmall
s light beam number
ms d4. The laser
which are diodes
interferomete
points r. Theyat
directly showthe
located s Galactic
small light
on the beam
e domes. ms
Centre.
Thewhich
e are
exposure dtimevisible
diodes
Also are
is 5 minutes anthree of the
nd
located on thee domes.because e the tracking
The exposure time was
is 5 ma ade on the
minutes anndstars, the telescoppes
1.8-m Auxiliary a Telescopes
are slightly blur rred. used
because the tracking was maade on the stars, the telescop
for interferometer.
pes
They show
So
ource: NASA asmall
are slightlylight beams which are diodes located on the domes.
blurrred.
The exposure time is 5 minutes and because the tracking was
Soource: NASA made on the stars, the telescopes are slightly blurred.)

UNIT 2: EARTH
4.2.1 ORIGIN OF THE EARTH

ORIGIN OF THE EARTH
THE BIG BANG THEORY
THE BIG BANG
Most astronomers THEORY
suggest that galaxies formed shortly after a cosmic “big bang” that began
the universe
Mostsome 10 billion
astronomers to 20that
suggest billion yearsformed
galaxies ago. Inshortly
the milliseconds following
after a cosmic this explosion,
"big bang" that
began the universe some 10 billion to 20 billion years ago. In the milliseconds
clouds of gases began to come together, collapse, and compress under gravity to form the following
building this explosion,
blocks clouds of gases began to come together, collapse, and compress under
of galaxies.
gravity to form the building blocks of galaxies.
ScientistsScientists
are divided on just on
are divided how
justgalaxies first formed.
how galaxies Some
first formed. believe
Some that
believe smaller
that smallerclusters
clustersof
of about one million stars, known as globular clusters, formed first and later
about one million stars, known as globular clusters, formed first and later gathered into galaxies. gathered into
galaxies.that
Others believe Others believe
galaxies that galaxies
formed formed
first and first and
that only laterthat
didonly
the later
stars did the them
within stars within
begin to
them begin to gather
gather into smaller clusters. into smaller clusters.
Scientists cannot be sure exactly how the universe evolved after the big bang. Many believe
Scientiststhat as time
cannot bepassed and matter
sure exactly howcooled, more diverse
the universe evolvedkinds of the
after atomsbigbegan
bang. to Many
form, and they
believe
eventually
that as time passed condensed
and matter intocooled,
the starsmore
and galaxies
diverse of ourof
kinds present
atomsuniverse.
began to However,
form, andmany
they
are still contradicting with the idea of the "big bang".
eventually condensed into the stars and galaxies of our present universe. However, many are still
contradicting with the idea of the “big bang”.
CREATION
CREATION
Christians believe that the world was created by God. In the Bible it says,
Christians believe that the world was created by God. In the Bible it says, “In the beginning God
created "In
thethe
heavens andGod
beginning thecreated
earth”.the
Genesis 1:1and the earth". Genesis 1:1
heavens
The
The world world
was was created
created in six days.
in six days.
CreationCreation
theory istheory
a theoryis aabout
theorythe origin
about theoforigin
the universe. The theory
of the universe. Theintheory
a general sense suggests
in a general sense
that God’s actions
suggests resulted
that in the resulted
God's actions creationinofthe
the universe.
creation He universe.
of the spoke andHe things came
spoke and to be.
things
It standscame
in direct
to be.opposition
It stands intodirect
theory of evolution
opposition such of
to theory asevolution
the Big Bang Theory.
such as After
the Big Bangcreation
there was life on earth. The Bible says in Genesis 1 and 2 that after God had created the perfect
environment, man was then created to subdue it.
124 : Basic Science

LIVING ON EARTH
Earth is unique in the Solar System as being the only planet which is able to support life in all its
forms; from basic living micro-organisms to highly sophisticated and intelligent human beings.
There are many reasons why this happens.
To name a few, on earth we have:
1. WATER
Earth has water which is believed to be the most important chemical necessary for life. It
contains the oxygen needed for life.
2. ATMOSPHERE
Earth has a breathable atmosphere. Oxygen is the gas that is required for the life of most
creatures. This is present in earth’s atmosphere and also in water. Oxygen is constantly put into
the atmosphere by plants and trees.
3. CLIMATE
Earth has a suitable climate. This is caused by the moderate amount of carbon dioxide in the
planet’s atmosphere, which is constantly refreshed whenever there is a volcanic eruption. The
temperature on Earth does not go from one extreme to the other.
4. LIGHT
All planets receive light from the Sun, but no planet uses it as usefully as Earth. Trees and
plants on the planet produce oxygen through a process called photosynthesis. Plants need
the Sun to grow.
4.2.2 4.4 OUR CHANGING EARTH

OUR CHANGING EARTH
WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?

WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?
Climate change is a large-scale, long-term shift in the planet’s weather patterns or average
Climate change is a large-scale, long-term shift in the planet's weather patterns or
temperatures.It simply refers to general changes in climate patterns, including temperature,
average temperatures.It simply refers to general changes in climate patterns,
precipitation, winds, and other factors.
including temperature, precipitation, winds, and other factors.
Scientists have warned that the world's climate has changed a lot, and has affected many
living and non-living things. Many places that were warmer areScience
now Book 2 - Lower
getting and125
Secondary:
colder,
many colder regions are getting much more colder or even warmer (known as Global
Warming).
Scientists have warned that the world’s climate has changed a lot, and has affected many living
and non-living things. Many places that were warmer are now getting colder, and many colder
regions are getting much more colder or even warmer (known as Global Warming).
The following are examples of climate change:

1. Higher temperatures
the average temperature of the planet’s surface - has risen by 0.89 °C from 1901 to 2012.
2. Changing rainfall
3. Changes in nature
Changes in the seasons are bringing changes in the behavior of species, for example,
butterflies appearing earlier in the year and birds shifting their migration patterns.
4. Sea level rises-
Since 1900, sea levels have risen by about 19 cm globally, on average. The rate of sea-level
rise has increased in recent decades.
5. Retreating glaciers-Glaciers all over the world - in the Alps, Rockies, Andes, Himalayas, Africa
and Alaska - are melting and the rate of shrinkage has increased in recent decades.
6. Sea ice-Sea ice melting does slightly contribute to sea level rise since the fresh melt water
is less dense than the salty ocean water it displaces. According to Dr. Robert Grumbine of
NOAA’s sea ice group, if the entire world’s sea ice melted, it would contribute to about 4
millimeters of global sea level rise. This is a tiny figure compared to the 20 feet of potential
sea level rise locked up in the ice of the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is on land.
7. Ice sheets- Together, the ice sheets from Greenland and Antarctica hold more than 99% of
the world’s freshwater ice. These are enormous stores of frozen water, held on land. If they
fully melted, Greenland and Antarctic would respectively cause 7.2 m and 61.1 m of global
sea level rise.
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

A layer of greenhouse gases – primarily water vapor and including much smaller amounts of
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide – act as a thermal blanket for the Earth, absorbing
heat and warming the surface to a life-supporting average of 59 degrees Fahrenheit (15 degrees
Celsius). Most climate scientists agree the main cause of the current global warming [warming
those results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space] trend is human
expansion of the “greenhouse effect”.
These climate change effects are due to the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
These gases, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and fluorocarbons, are principally from the
burning of fossil fuels, forest destruction and agriculture (rice field cultivation and the keeping
of livestock). Water vapour in the atmosphere also plays a role.The increase in carbon dioxide
is largely due to the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) over the last two centuries. It is the
major greenhouse gas produced by humans, which is having the single greatest effect on
climate change.
OZONE DEPLETION
The ozone layer absorbs most of the Sun’s harmful radiation (UV radiation). Without the ozone
layer, life would not exist due to the presence of very strong and harmful radiation from the sun..
126 : Basic Science

The ozone layer protects Earth from dangerous UV radiation from the sun — which can cause
mutations. In humans, a depleted ozone layer would likely mean higher rates of skin cancer,
cataracts, and immune system problems. Further, an increase in UV radiation could affect plants
and marine ecosystems in unpredictable ways — which could, in turn, trigger other ecological
changes.
Source: http://www.environmedia.com/what-are-the-consequences-of-ozone-depletion.htm
Source: http://www.environmedia.com/what-are-the-consequences-of-ozone-depletion.htm
1. CFC's released and rise into ozone layer

1. CFC’s 2.
released and rise
UV releases into ozone
chlorine (Cl) fromlayerCFC's
2. 3. Cl destroys
UV releases ozone
chlorine (Cl) from CFC’s
3. 4. Depleted
Cl destroys ozone ozone-more UV so more skin cancer
4. Depleted ozone-more UV so more skin cancer
Ozone is present in the stratosphere. The stratosphere reaches 30 miles above the Earth,
and at the very top it contains ozone. The sun's rays are absorbed by the ozone in the
Ozonestratosphere
is present inandthethus
stratosphere.
do not reach The thestratosphere
Earth.Ozonereaches 30gas
is a bluish miles
thatabove theby
is formed Earth,
threeand
at the atoms
very top it contains
of oxygen (O3).ozone.
The formTheofsun’s
oxygenraysthat
arehumans
absorbed by the
breathe ozone inofthe
in consists twostratosphere
oxygen
and thus do not reach the Earth.Ozone is a bluish gas that is formed by three
atoms, O2. The ozone layer protects both plant and animal life on the planet.The fact atoms ofthat
oxygen
(O3). The form of
the ozone oxygen
layer that humans
was being depletedbreathe in consists
was discovered of two
in the oxygen atoms,
mid-1980s. The mainO2.cause
The of
ozone
layer protects both
this is the plant
release of and
CFCs,animal .
life on the planet.The
chlorofluorocarbons fact that the ozone layer was being
depleted was discovered in the mid-1980s. The main cause of this is the release of CFCs,
chlorofluorocarbons.

GREENHOUSE GREENHOUSE
EFFECT EFFECT
In some countries, people
In some build a small
countries, peopleglass house
build to plant
a small glass crops
housein
toit.plant
It is crops
built toinkeep
it. It is built to kee
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
the sun's heat from escaping
the sun's heat from
from the glasshouses.
escaping from the glasshouses.
In some countries, people build a small glass house to plant crops in it. It is built to keep the sun’s
heat from escaping from the glasshouses.
Source:http://www.cropking.com/nft_lettuce_herbs.shtml
In a way, the earth is like a glasshouse. The earth has some very important gasses in the
Inatmosphere that keeps
a way, the earth
In a way,
usa warm.Some
is likethe glasshouse. of these
earth is likeThe
gases
earth are water
has some
a glasshouse. veryvapor,
The earth
carbon
important dioxide,
gasses
has some very
nitrous
in the
important gasses in th
oxide and methane.
atmosphere that keeps us warm.Some of these gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide,
atmosphere that keeps us warm.Some of these gases are water vapor, carbon dioxid
nitrous oxide nitrous
and methane. and methane.
When the sun heats theoxide
earth, these gases keep the heat on the earth’ssurface. Without these
gases, heat would escape back into space and Earth’saverage temperature would be about
When the sun heats the earth, these gases keep the heat on the earth'ssurface. Without
60°F colder. When the sun heats the earth, these gases keep the heat on the earth'ssurface. Without
these gases, heat would
these escape
gases, heatback into
would spaceback
escape and Earth’saverage temperature would
into space and Earth’saverage be
temperature would
about 60°F colder.
Tip... about 60°F colder.
Did you know that Methane (a greenhouse gas) is produced when vegetation is burned,
Tip... or rotted with no oxygen present? Garbage dumps, and grazing cows and other
digested Tip...
Did you know
livestock that lots
release Methane (a greenhouse gas) is produced when vegetation is burned,
Did you of methane.
know that Methane (a greenhouse gas) is produced when vegetation is burned
digested or rotted with no oxygen present? Garbage dumps, and grazing cows and other
digested or rotted with no oxygen present? Garbage dumps, and grazing cows and othe
livestock release lots of methane.
How does thelivestock
Greenhouse Effect
release happen?
lots of methane.
How does How
the Greenhouse Effect happen?
does the Greenhouse Effect happen?
The earth’s atmosphere is all around us. It is the air that we breathe.
Sunlight enters the Earth’s
Sunlight enters the Earth’s
atmosphere, passing through the
atmosphere, passing through t
blanket of greenhouse gases.
blanket
Sunlight enters the Earth’sof greenhouse gases.
atmosphere,
passing through the blanket of
greenhouse gases.
128 : Basic Science

AsAsitititreaches
As reachesthe
reaches the
earth’s
the earth’s
surface,
earth’s surface,
surface,
As
As it
it reaches
reaches the
the earth’s
earth’s surface,
surface,
the
theland
the landand
land and
andwater
water absorbs
water absorbs
absorbsthethe
the
the
the land
land and and water absorbs
water absorbs thethe
sunlight’s
sunlight’s
sunlight’s energy.
energy.
energy.
Once
Onceabsorbed,
absorbed, the
theenergy
energyis sent
is sent
Once
Once absorbed,
absorbed, the
the energy
energy is
is sent
sent
back
backinto
intothe
theatmosphere
atmosphere in inthethe
back
back into
into the
the atmosphere
atmosphere in the
in the
form
form
Once of
ofinfra-red
infra-red
absorbed, rays.
therays.
energy is sent
form of infra-red rays.
back into the atmosphere in the
Some
Someofofthe theenergy
energy passes
passes back
backinto
into
Some
Some Some of
of the
the
of energy
energy
the energypasses
passes back
back
passes into
into
back
space,
space,but butmuchmuchofof it it
remains
remains
space,
into
space, but
space, much
butinmuch butof it
much remains
ofatmosphere of it remains
it remains
trapped
trapped inthetheatmosphere bybythethe
trapped
trapped
trapped in
in the
in atmosphere
the the atmosphere
atmosphere by
by the
the by
greenhouse
greenhouse gases,
gases, causing
causing ourourglobe
globe
greenhouse
the greenhouse
greenhouse gases,
gases, causing
gases,our
causing our globe
causing
globe
(earth)
(earth)
our globe totowarm
warm
(earth)up.up.
toThis
This
warm warming
warming
up. This
(earth)
(earth) to
towe warm
warm up.
up. This
This warming
warming
isis what
what
warming weiscall
callGlobal
what Global Warming,
Warming,
weWarming,
call Global
is what
isand
what we
we call
call Global
Global Warming,
and ititisiscaused
Warming, caused
and by it by
isthe
the greenhouse
causedgreenhouse
by the
and
and it is caused
it is causedeffect. by the greenhouse
by the greenhouse
greenhouse
effect.
effect.
effect.
effect.
The
Thegreenhouse
greenhouseeffect effect is is
important.
important.
The
The greenhouse
greenhouse
The greenhouse
effect
effect
effect
is
is important.
important.
is important.
Without
Withoutthe thegreenhouse
greenhouse effect,
effect, thethe
Without
Without
Without the greenhouse
the greenhouse
the greenhouse effect,
effect,
effect, the
the the
earth
earthwould
would not
notbebewarm warm enough
enough forfor
earth
earth would
earth
wouldwould not
not be
not
be warm
be
warm warm enough
enoughfor
enough forfor
humans
humanstotolive. live.But
But if ifthethegreenhouse
greenhouse
humans
humans
humans to
to live.
live. But if
if the
to live. But
But the greenhouse
if the greenhouse
greenhouse
effect
effectbecomes
effectbecomes
becomes stronger,
stronger,
stronger,it could
it itcould
could
effect
effect becomes
becomes stronger,
stronger, it
it could
could
make
make
makethe
the earth
earth
the earth warmer
warmer
warmer than
than
than usual.
usual.
usual.
make
make the
the earth
earth warmer
warmer than
than of usual.
usual.
Even
Even
Evenaalittle
little extra
a little extrawarming
extra warming
warming of
the
ofthe
the
Even
Even a
a little
little extra
extra warming
warming of
of the
the
earth
earth
earth may
may may
cause
causecause
problems
problems problems
forfor for
earth
earth may
humans,
cause
may plants
cause
plants
problems
problems
and
for
for
animals
humans,
humans, plants and
and animals
animals
humans, plants and
humans, plants and animals animals

GLOBAL WARMING
GLOBAL Global
WARMING warming is primarily a problem of too much carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
atmosphere—which
Global warming is primarily a acts as a blanket,
problem trapping
of too much heat dioxide
carbon and warming
(CO2) the planet.
in the As we burn
atmosphere -
fossil
which acts fuels
as a like coal,
blanket, oil and
trapping natural
heat gas for energy
and warming or cutAs
the planet. down and burn
we burn fossil forests
fuels liketocoal,
create
pastures
oil and natural gasand
forplantations,
energy or cutcarbon
downaccumulates and overloads
and burn forests to create our atmosphere.
pastures Certain
and plantations,
carbon waste management
accumulates and and agricultural
overloads our practices
atmosphere.aggravate
Certainthewaste
problem by releasing other
management and
agricultural practices
potent globalaggravate the problem
warming gases, by releasing
such as methane andother
nitrouspotent
oxide.global warming gases,
such as methane and nitrous oxide.
While some regions

While someare likely are
regions to get wetter
likely as wetter
to get the world warms,
as the other
world regions
warms, thatregions
other are already on
that are
the dry side are likely
already on the todry
getside
drier.are likely to get drier.
Global warming affects evapotranspiration—the

Global warming movementmovement
affects evapotranspiration—the of water into the atmosphere
of water from
into the atmosphere
land andfrom
water surfaces
land and surfaces
and water plants due toplants
and evaporation and transpiration
due to evaporation and transpiration
RISE IN SEA LEVEL

Two major RISE IN SEA LEVEL
mechanisms are causing sea level to rise.
1. Shrinking
Twoland
majorice, such as mountain
mechanisms glaciers
are causing sea and
levelpolar ice sheets, is releasing water into the
to rise.
oceans.
2. As ocean1. temperatures
Shrinking landrise,
ice,the
such as mountain
warmer glaciers and
water expands. polarwithin
Trapped ice sheets, is releasing
a basin boundedwater
by
into the oceans.
the continents, the water has nowhere to go but up. In some parts of the world, especially
2. river
low-lying As ocean
deltas,temperatures
local land isrise, the warmer
sinking (known aswater expands. Trapped within
subsidence)—making a basin
sea levels that
much higher. bounded by the continents, the water has nowhere to go but up. In some parts of the
world, especially low-lying river deltas, local land is sinking (known as subsidence)—
The consequences making ofsea
sealevels
level rise
thatinclude:
much higher.
• Threats to coastal communities
Some 40 percent of the world’s population lives within 62 miles (100 kilometers) of the ocean,
putting millions of lives and billions of dollars’ worth of property and infrastructure at risk.
• Saltwater intrusion
Sea-level rise can mean that saltwater intrudes into groundwater drinking supplies,
contaminates irrigation supplies, or overruns agricultural fields. Low-lying, gently sloping
coastal areas are particularly vulnerable to contamination of freshwater supplies.
130 : Basic Science

HOW HAVE PEOPLE ADAPTED TO SUCH CHANGES
Response to climate change seeks to reduce vulnerability of biological systems to climate
change effects.Vulnerability refers to the inability to withstand the effects of a hostile environment.
Humans are already adapting to climate change, and further adaptation efforts will be necessary
during coming decades. However, adaptation alone is not expected to be able to cope with
all projected effects since the options diminish and the costs increase with rising temperatures.
Below are some ways people have adopted to climate change:
1. Mitigation measures that aim to reduce greenhouse gases emissionsto help avoid, reduce or
delay impacts, is implemented in order to ensure that adaptation capacity is not exceeded.
2. Drought tolerant crop varieties
Indigenous communities around the world are highly vulnerable to climate change but have
centuries-old knowledge of adapting to extreme weather patterns. In recent years they have
i. adjusted their migration patterns and switched to more drought resistant strains of livestock.
ii. have tried intercropping which improves a farmer’s chances of getting at least one good
crop and can improve soil quality.
3. Improving education and information
4. Land-use planning, and is focused on the allocation of space to balance economic
prosperity with acceptable living standards and the conservation of natural resources.
5. More spending on irrigation
6. Rainwater storage
7. Weather control - Russian and American scientists have in the past tried to control the
weather, for example by seeding clouds with chemicals to try to produce rain when and
where it is needed
Adapting to climate change is seen as a very costly practice
Tip...
Sustainable development refers to a mode of human development in which resource

use aims to meet human needs while ensuring the sustainability of natural systems and
the environment, so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for
generations to come.

come. . environment, so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for generations
come. .
+
+
EARTHQUAKES AND TSUNAMIS

HOW DO TSUNAMIS DEVELOP?
A tsunami is a huge waveisin
A tsunami the ocean
a huge wave inthat
thedevelops
ocean thatasdevelops
a result of
as an earthquake.
a result It can reach
of an earthquake. It can
a height of 100 A
feeta(30tsunami
meters).is a huge wave in the ocean that develops as a result of an earthquake. It can
reach height of 100Afeet
tsunami can travel
(30 meters). even faster
A tsunami thaneven
can travel a commercial
faster than jet. This
a commercial
powerful wall of reach a height of 100and
feet (30
canmeters). aAlot
tsunami can travel even faster than a commerci
jet.water
Thisreaches
powerfulthewallcoast
of water reachescause
the coast of damage.
and can cause a lot of damage.
jet. This powerful wall of water reaches the coast and can cause a lot of damage.
Usually, it is an Usually, it is an
underwater underwater
earthquake earthquake
that causes athat causes
tsunami toadevelop.
tsunami to develop.
Usually, it is an underwater earthquake that causes a tsunami to develop.
This happens when the plates underneath the Earth’s surface move so that one slips under
another. From deep in the ocean the energy of the earthquake causes the water level to rise
above sea level. Gravity causes the water to spread into a wave that travels at an incredible
speed and with amazing power. A tsunami gets bigger as it gets close to shore. When it hits
shallow water the huge wave travels more slowly. The water from along the shore moves into the
ocean, and then the massive wave crashes onto the shore and keeps traveling inland.
To determine whether an earthquake will generate a tsunami, and to predict how severe it will
be, researchers measure the height and energy of the ensuing wave by using ocean-pressure
sensors and tide gauges, according to the United States Geological Survey (USGS).
132 : Basic Science

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BASIC SCIENCE

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT UNIT

Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 1

Copyright @ Ministry of Education, Fiji

CHAPTER 1: LIVING THINGS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 3

CHAPTER 4: EARTH AND BEYOND

Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 5

1.1.1 ANATOMY OF A DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Did You Know?

Activity 1: Dissecting a Frog

1. Put on safety goggles, gloves, and a lab apron.

Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 7

Organ Description Function

2. Liver dark maroon, lobe shape makes bile (aids in digestion)

3. Pancreas thin, yellowish ribbon like makes insulin (aids in digestion)

5. Stomach greyish white, J shaped first site of chemical digestion,

7. Oesophagus greyish white, tube like carries food to the stomach

10. Gall bladder greenish sac stores bile

11. Fat bodies bright yellow, finger like stores fats

Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 9

1. What is the purpose of your body’s digestive system?

2. Place these events in the correct order. Number each sentence 1 - 5.

3. How would you determine what the frog has eaten?

5. Why do foods have to be digested?

Digestion and Absorption

Nutrient Absorbed as……..

There are two types of digestion:

After we swallow, our food passes through these organs in turn:

Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 11

Liver and Pancreas

Pathway of food through an animal

Ingestion Phyical digestion Chemical digestion

Activity 2: Breakdown of Starchy Foods by Saliva

Food test – to find out what the food usually contain.

Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 15

Time Glucose Starch

(a) Which substance, starch or glucose, passed through the tubing?

(e) What is the visking tubing similar to in our body?

Red Blood Cells

White Blood Cells

Science Book 2 - Lower Secondary: 17

A bag of blood plasma

Circulation and the Blood

Arteries Capillaries Veins

The diagram below shows the structure of the heart.

Poster – Construct an information poster on heart problems in Fiji. Include:

During light breathing, the breathing action is mainly

muscles between the ribs are used when greater amounts of

Breathing out (exhaling)–When you breathe out, the

Experiment: Making aa model

1. Remove the bottom of your bottle.

5. Put the straw

4. Flaps of connective tissue called _________________________ prevent blood from flowing

6. Match each structure of the respiratory system with its description.

1.1.5 EXCRETORY SYSTEMS

Excretion – the removal of waste products from the body.

Structure of the Human Urinary System

out of the bladder is athe

1. Dialysis is a procedure used on a person who has:

A. neuron B. peptide C. nephron D. ureter

Developmment of the foetus

Here are some