Green Science and Environment 7 Final 2076

Approved by Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Curriculum
Development Centre, Sanothimi, Bhaktapur as an additional material
Green
Health and Physical Education
7
Editor
Dr. Deepak Chand
M.Sc. (TU, Kirtipur, Kathmandu)
Ph.D. (University of Idaho, USA)
Author
Bishnu Prasad Bhatt
M.Sc. (TU, Kirtipur, Kathmandu)
Lalitpur, Nepal, Tel: 977-1-5529899

e-mail: greenbooksnepal@gmail.com
www.greenbooks.com.np
Publisher: Green Books 7
Copyright: Author (2074 BS)
All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means
without prior permission in writing from the
author and editor.
Edition
First : B.S. 2074 (2017 AD)
Reprint : B.S. 2075 (2018 AD)
Revised : B.S. 2076 (2019 AD)
Revised : B.S. 2077 (2020 AD)
Illustrator
Prakash Samir
Layout
The Focus Computer
focus.dipendra@gmail.com
Printed in Nepal
Preface
It gives me an immense pleasure in presenting this book-
Green Science and Environment for class 7. This book
is written specially to meet the requirements of the new
syllabus introduced by the Government of Nepal, Ministry
of Education, Curriculum Development Centre, Sano Thimi,
Bhaktapur, Nepal.
My aim and effort while writing this book has been to help
students understand, enjoy and appreciate the fascinating
subject of Science and Environment by making the process of
learning enjoyable and stimulating. I have attempted to present
the subject matter covering the entire prescribed syllabus in a
simple language and interesting style with a large number of
illustrative examples for easy understanding and application
of the fundamental principles of science. Each unit of the book
has been carefully planned to make it student-friendly and
present the subject matter in an interesting, understandable and
enjoyable manner. A Structural Programme Learning Approach
(SPLA) has been followed and exhaustive exercises are given
at the end of each unit to test knowledge, understanding and
applications of concepts taught/learnt.
The text is supplemented with weighting distribution, learning
objectives, word power, teaching instructions, sample test
papers and a large number of well-labelled accurate pictures. I
sincerely hope that this book will serve its intended purpose and
be received enthusiastically by both the students and teachers
concerned.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Green Books Team for
publishing this book. My hearty thank goes to Focus Computer
for excellent type setting and layout.
I also wish to acknowledge my great indebtedness to many
teachers for their valuable suggestions and advice concerning
the textbook. I am confident that as result of their suggestions
this book will be more useful than any other textbooks. However,
sympathetic criticisms and constructive suggestions for further
improvement of the book, if any, will be welcomed and with
warm regards incorporated in the subsequent editions.
Author
Kathmandu, Nepal
September 2016
Contents
Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1. Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Force and Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3. Simple Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4. Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5. Energy, Work and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
6. Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7. Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8. Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9. Magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
10. Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11. Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
12. Mixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
13. Metal and Non-Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
14. Some Useful Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
15. Living Beings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
16. Cell and Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17. Life Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Geology and Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

18. Structure of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
19. Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
20. The Earth and Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Environment Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

21. Environment and Its Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
22. Environmental Degradation and Its Conservation . . 267
23. Environment and Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . 286
Physics
UNIT
Measurement
1
Weighting Distribution (Approximate) Teaching periods : 5 Marks (in %): 1
Before You Begin

Physics is a science of measurement. We take measurement of
various things in our daily life. Measurement is essential for buying
and selling goods, making medicines, sewing clothes, performing
experiments and so on. To measure a physical quantity, we
compare the given physical quantity with a known standard
quantity of the same kind. This process is called measurement. So,
measurement is called the comparison of an unknown physical
quantity with a known standard quantity of the same kind. The
quantities that can be measured are called physical quantities.
Length, mass, area, volume, temperature, etc. can be measured.
So these quantities are called physical quantities. Different devices
are used to measure different physical quantities.
Learning Objectives Syllabus

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to measurement
i. introduce measurement and tell its importance. • SI system
ii. introduce the SI system of measurement and its use. • Length, mass and time
iii. calculate the surface area of regular and irregular • Regular and irregular objects
objects.
• Introduction to area and
iv. explain the method for measuring the volume of volume
liquids and calculate their volume.
• Measurement of area and
v. solve simple numerical problems related to area and volume
volume.
Glossary: A dictionary of scientific/technical terms
• Introduction to measurement
• SI system
• Length, mass and time
• Regular and irregular objects
• Introduction to area and volume
• Measurement of area and volume
GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 5

Measurement
Measurement is an important and useful process in our day to day life. When
you go to a tailor to prepare your school uniform, s/he takes measurement
of your body by using a measuring tape. Similarly, when you go to buy
sugar in a shop, the shopkeeper compares the sugar with a standard mass
by using a physical balance. Thus, there is a necessity of measurement. To
know the magnitude of a physical quantity, we compare the quantity with a
known standard quantity of the same kind. So, measurement is the process of
comparison of an unknown physical quantity with a known standard quantity
of the same kind.
Fig.
1.1
We measure different physical quantities like length, weight, mass, volume,

area, temperature, pressure, etc. The quantities which can be measured are
called physical quantities. Different measuring devices are used to measure
various physical quantities. For example, a watch is used to measure time and
thermometer is used to measure temperature.
SI system
In October 1960, the 12th General Conference of Weight and Measures in
France, agreed to use international system of units to bring uniformity in
scientific measurement throughout the world. This system is called SI system.
SI means 'system international de units' in French. SI system is the standard
international system of units.
There are seven fundamental units of seven physical quantities in SI system
which are as follows:
S.No. Physical quantity Fundamental unit Symbol
1 Length meter m
2. Mass kilogram kg
6 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

3. Time second s
4. Temperature kelvin K
5. Electric current amper A
6. Luminous Intensity candela Cd
7. Amount of substance mole mol.
These fundamental units are also known as standard units of measurement as
they are accepted, applied and valid all over the world.
Length and its Measurement

We measure the length of different objects by using a measuring tape or scale.
Length is the distance between any two points. For example, the length of a
stick is 2m means that the distance between the upper tip and lower end of
the stick is 2 times longer than the length of a metre rod. In our practical life,
we use different forms of length like breadth, thickness, depth, radius, height,
diameter, etc. We use different measuring devices such as scale, inch tape,
metre rod, measuring tape, etc. to measure length.
Do You Know
There are seven fundamental physical
quantities in SI system. They are length, mass,
Fig.
time, temperature, electric current, luminous

intensity and amount of substance.
1.2
Ruler Measuring tape
Length is a fundamental physical quantity which is measured in metre (m)
unit in SI system. While measuring length, the given object is compared with
the standard length of a scale, metre rod or a measuring tape.
Activity 1
Make a list of any five measuring devices and write their uses.
S.N. Names of measuring devices Uses
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

In SI system, length is measured in metre (m). It may be too big for measuring
the length of very small objects. So, submultiples of metre like centimetre,
millimetre, micrometre, nanometre, etc. are used. Metre is too short for the
measurement of large length/distances. So multiples of metre like kilometre,
light year and astronomical units are used. The various units of length and
their interrelationship are given below.
10 millimetre = 1 centimetre
10 centimetre = 1 decimetre
10 decimetre = 1 decametre
10 decametre = 1 hectometre
10 hectometre = 1 kilometre
Among different units of length, millimetre, centimetre, metre and kilometre
are widely used.
Ways to take the correct and exact reading of length

i. We should place our eyes vertically above the point where the measurement
is to be taken.
ii. We should keep the scale exactly along the length to be measured.
iii. The ends of the ruler must not be damaged.
Correct
Incorrect Incorrect
Fig.
1.3
Activity 2
Measure the given objects by using your scale and fill the table with their
measurement.
S.N. Objects Length Breadth Height
1. Science book
2. Chalk box
3. Brick
4. Blackboard
5. Instrument box

Measurement of diameter of spherical objects
The diameter of spherical objects like volleyball, football, etc. is measured
by using two similar solid blocks. In this process, the spherical object whose
diameter is to be measured placed on top of a plane surface. Two similar
blocks are placed on the either side of the spherical object. The lower surface
of the blocks should be adjusted along the ruler. The reading of the position
of two faces one of each block touching the spherical object, is taken. Then the
difference between these two readings is calculated which is the diameter of
the spherical object.
Solid block Spherical object (Football)
Solid block
Fig.
1.4
Mass
We buy sugar by measuring its mass. Similarly, we buy potatoes and onions
by measuring their mass. Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a body.
In SI system, mass is measured in kilogram (kg). Mass is also measured in
milligram (mg), gram (g), quintal, metric ton, etc.
Mass of a body is measured by using a beam balance or a physical balance.
A beam balance is a physical balance which has a horizontal beam supported
at its centre. It is fixed by a needle. Two identical pans are supported at equal
distances from the needle. Needle indicates balance of mass on both pans of
the beam balance.
Fig.
1.5
Beam balance Spring balance Grocer's balance
The object whose mass is to be measured should be placed on the right pan of
the beam balance. The standard mass are kept on the left pan. We should add
or remove the masses until both the pans are balanced which is indicated by a
straight needle of the beam. When both pans of the balance are at equilibrium,
the total mass of the object is calculated by adding the masses of the weights
kept on the left pan.
Units of Mass
The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg). Milligram, gram, kilogram, quintal, etc.
are other units of mass.
The mass of light objects is measured in gram (g) and milligram (mg) whereas the
mass of the heavy objects is measured in kilogram (kg), quintal, metric ton, etc.
The multiples and sub-multiples of mass are given below:
1000 milligram = 1 gram 1000 gram = 1 kilogram
100 kilogram = 1 quintal 10 quintal = 1 metric ton
Activity 3
Measure the mass of some objects like small stone, book, brick, pen,
instrument box, etc. by using a beam
balance. Note down their mass in your
science copy.
Fig.
1.6
Time
Ram takes 30 minutes to reach school from home. Hari takes 10 minutes to
reach home from school. This duration is called time. The interval or gap
between two events is called time. The SI unit of time is second (s).
Time is measured by a clock. There are different types of clocks like pendulum
clock, quartz clock, mechanical clock, atomic clock, electronic clock, wristwatch,
etc.
Fig.
1.7
Pendulum clock Wrist watch Stop watch
We measure time in second, minute, hour, day, week, month, year, decade, etc.
A short duration of time is measured in second, minute and hour. Similarly, a
long duration of time is measured in decade, century, millenium, etc.
The multiples and sub-multiples of time are given below:
60 seconds = 1 minute 60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day 7 days = 1week
365 days = 1 year 10 years = 1 decade
100 years = 1 century 10 decades = 1 century
1000 years = 1 millenium
Regular objects
Those objects which have a fixed geometrical shape and proper dimension
are called regular objects. Book, chalk box, pencil, brick and chalk are some
examples of regular objects.
Fig.
1.8
Book Pen Ball
Irregular objects
Those objects which do not have a fixed geometrical shape and proper
dimension are called irregular objects. A piece of stone, leaf, a piece of paper
and a piece of broken glass are some examples of irregular objects.
Fig.
1.9
Piece of a brick Leaf Broken glass

Activity 4
Collect any eight objects from your surroundings.
Observe their shape and classify them as regular and irregular objects.
Area
The total surface possessed by a body is called its area. The SI unit of area is
square metre (m2). It is also measured in cm2, km2, etc.
We can measure the area of regular plane surfaces by using the given formulae.
1. Area of a rectangular object (A)
= length (l) × breadth (b) breadth
\A=l×b length
2. Area of a square (A) = (length)2
length
\ A = l2
radius
3. Area of a circle (A) = p × (radius)2
A = pr2 qwhere, p = r
22

7
Worked out Example: 1

The length of a rectangular room is 10 metre and its breadth is 8 metre.
Calculate its area.
Solution
Length (l) = 10 m
Breadth (b) = 8 m
Area (A) = ?
We know that,
Area of a rectangular body (A) = length (l) × breadth (b)
= 10 m × 8 m
= 80 m2
\ Area of rectangular body (A) = 80 m2
Activity 5
Calculate the area of your science notebook by measuring its length and
breadth.
Calculate the area of your classroom by measuring its length and breadth.
The area of an irregular body cannot be measured by using different formulae
because they have no proper dimension for the measurement of length,
breadth, height, etc. So the area of an irregular body can be measured by using
graph paper.
The irregular object (say a leaf) is placed on a
graph paper and its outline is drawn by using a
sharp pencil. Then the leaf is removed and the
number of complete squares and squares which
are half and more than half within the outline is
counted. However, the squares which are less
than half are ignored. By multiplying the total
counted squares and area of unit square of a
graph paper, the approximate area of the given
irregular object is calculated.
Activity 6
Calculate the area of a leaf by using a graph paper.
Calculate the area of a piece of stone by using a graph paper.
Volume
Volume of a body is defined as the total space occupied by the body. Its SI unit
is cubic metre (m3). The volume of a solid object is measured in mm3, cm3, m3,
etc. Similarly, the volume of liquid substances is measured in millilitre (ml),
litre(l), etc.
The volume of regular solid objects can be calculated by the given formulae:
i. Volume of a rectangular solid or a cuboid (V)
= length (l) × breadth (b) × height (h)
h
\V=l×b×h
Fig.
l b
1.10
ii. Volume of a cube (V) = (length )3

Fig.
\ V = l3
l
1.11

4
iii. Volume of a sphere (V) = p (radius)3
3 r
Fig.
pr qwhere p = r
4 3 22
\V=
3 7
1.12
r
iv. Volume of a cylinder (V) = p × (radius) × height (h)
2
\ V = pr2h h
Fig.
1.13
The radius and height of a cylinder are 7 cm and 25 cm respectively. Calculate
the volume of the cylinder.
Solution:
Radius of the cylinder (r) = 7 cm
Height of the cylinder (h) = 25 cm
Volume (V) = ?
We known,
V = pr2h
22
or, V = × (7)2 × 25
7
= 3850 cm3
\ The volume of the cylinder (V) = 3850 cm3.
Measurement of the volume of a liquid

The volume of liquids is measured by 100 ml
different measuring devices. In the 90 ml
science laboratory, volume of different 80 ml
Wrong
liquids is measured by using a measuring 70 ml
cylinder. Measuring cylinders are of 60 ml Correct
different capacities like 10, 25, 50, 100, 50 ml
250, 500, 1000 millilitres. Volume of a 40 ml
Wrong
liquid is measured in millilitres (ml) 30 ml
Fig.
or cubic centimetre (CC) and litre (l). Water 20 ml

To measure the volume of a liquid, the 10 ml
1.14
liquid is poured into a measuring cylinder. The reading at the surface of the
liquid is noted which is the volume of the liquid.
Different liquids form different surfaces in a measuring cylinder. Liquids
like water, alcohol, kerosene, oil, etc. form a concave surface and liquids like
mercury form a convex surface in the cylinder. The eye should be kept in the
level with the bottom of the meniscus in the concave surface and eye should
be kept at the upper meniscus in the convex surface of liquid in the measuring
cylinder to avoid parallax error.
Upper meniscus
Lower meniscus
Water Mercury
Fig.
1.15
Measurement of the volume of irregular solid objects

The volume of irregular solid objects can be measured by displacing water (liquid)
using a measuring cylinder. When an irregular body is completely immersed in
the liquid (water), it displaces liquid (water) equal to its volume and the level of
water increases. The increase in the volume of water is the volume of that object.
This method is called a water displacement method. It is applicable for irregular
solid objects which are insoluble in liquid (water) and can be handled by using a
measuring cylinder.
Experiment: 1
To measure the volume of a piece of brick by a water displacement method
Materials Required: Measuring cylinder, a piece of brick, thread, water
Procedure
• Take a measuring cylinder and fill it in half with water.
• Record the level of water in the cylinder. Let it be Vi which is the initial
volume of water.
• Now, tie the given piece of brick with a thread and immerse it into the
water in the measuring cylinder. The level of water rises in the cylinder.
• Record the level of water rise. It is the final volume (Vf) of water.

100 ml 100 ml
90 ml 90 ml
80 ml 80 ml
70 ml 70 ml
60 ml 60 ml
50 ml 50 ml
40 ml 40 ml
30 ml 30 ml
Fig.
20 ml 20 ml
10 ml 10 ml
1.16
Observation
Initial volume of water in the cylinder (Vi) = 50 ml
Final volume of water in the cylinder (Vf) = 80 ml
Volume of given irregular body (V) = Vf - Vi = 80 ml - 50 ml = 30 ml
\ Volume of the piece of brick = Volume of the water displaced
= 30 ml
= 30 cm3 [\ 1 ml = 1cm3]
Precautions
1. Measuring cylinder should be placed on a plane surface and water should be
at rest.
2. The reading of level of the water should be taken at the bottom of the menisus.
Activity 6
Take a piece of stone and measure its volume by water displacement method.
Key Concepts
1. Measurement is the comparison of an unknown physical quantity with the
known standard physical quantity of the same kind.
2. SI system is developed to bring uniformity in measurement all over the
world.
3. Those quantities which can be measured are known as physical quantities.

4. The things having a fixed geometrical shape and proper dimension are
called regular objects.
5. The things which do not have a fixed geometrical shape are called irregular
objects.
6. The distance between any two points is called length.
7. Mass is the total quantity of matter contained in a body. Its SI unit is kilogram
(kg).
8. The interval between any two events is called time. Its SI unit is second (s).
Exercise
1. Put a tick (√) for the correct statement and a cross (×) for the incorrect one.
a. Physical quantities cannot be measured.
b. In SI system, mass is measured in metre.
c. The duration between any two events is called time.
d. The volume of a solid object is measured by a measuring cylinder.

e. The area of an irregular object can be measured by using a
graph paper.
2. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words

a. The ......................... which can be measured are called physical
quantities.
b. In SI system, amount of substance is measured in .........................
c. The interval between any two events is called .........................
d. ......................... is the SI unit of temperature.
e. The volume of ....................... is measured by using measuring cylinder.
3. Tick (√) the best answer from the given alternatives.

a. The SI unit of mass is .......
newton kelvin
kilogram metre
b. The total quantity of matter contained in a body is called ..........
time mass
length measurement
c. SI unit is accepted throughout the ........
Nepal Asia
World France
d. The volume of a sphere can be measured by the formula .......
pr2h 2prh
4 3
l×b pr
3
4. Answer the following questions.

a. What is measurement? Define physical quantity.
b. What is SI system of measurement?
c. Name any five physical quantities.
d. Define length. Write its SI unit.
e. What is meant by the mass of a body? Write its SI unit.
f. What is the duration between any two events called? Write down its SI
unit.
g. Define regular body with any three examples.
h. What is area? How is the area of a leaf measured?
i. Define volume. Write its SI unit?
5. Differentiate between
a. Area and Volume
b. Regular Body and Irregular Body
c. Mass and Volume
6. Give reason.
a. Standard physical quantity is used for correct measurement of the
given body.

b. Graph paper is used to measure the area of an irregular body.
c. A measuring cylinder is used to measure the volume of an irregular
solid object.
7. Numerical problems
a. The length of a white board is 80 cm and its breadth is 65 cm. Calculate
its area. (Ans: 5200 cm2)
b. Study the given figure and calculate the area of the leaf.
Area of each square

= 1 cm2
c. The length, breadth and height of a box is 8m, 6m and 3m respectively.

Calculate its volume. (Ans: 144 m3)
d. A cylindrical body has 6m height and its radius is 2m; calculate its
volume. (Ans: 75.428 m3)
e. The radius of a volleyball is 0.05 m, calculate its volume.
(Ans: 0.00052 m3)

UNIT
Force and Motion
2
Before You Begin

Force can be defined as the pull or push which changes or tends
to change the position of a body. In our daily life, force is used for
pulling, pushing, pressing, lifting, stretching, twisting, etc. Force
can change the shape and size of a body. Force can stop a moving
body and change its direction. Similarly, force can bring a body
from rest to motion. The SI unit of force is newton (N). Force is a
vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction. A body is
said to be in motion when it changes its position with respect to
the objects in its surroundings.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Force and its types
i. introduce force and explain various types of force. • Distance and displacement
ii. introduce distance and displacement. • Scalar and vector quantity
iii. define speed and velocity and explain uniform and • Speed and velocity
non-uniform velocity.
• Acceleration
iv. define acceleration.
v. solve some simple numerical problems related to
force and motion.
force : the pull or push which changes or tries to change the position of a body
centripetal : acting towards the centre
centrifugal : the force acting between any two bodies due to their masses
acceleration : the rate of change in velocity

Force and Motion
In our every day life, we need force to do a variety of works. For example,
pulling a bucket from a well, opening (pushing) and closing (pulling) doors
and windows, kicking a football, lifting different loads and so on. We push the
door while opening and pull the door while closing. The pulling or pushing
process of an object brings a change in the position and motion. So, the pull
or push which changes or tends to change the position of an object from rest
to motion or motion to rest is called force. Force is used for pulling, pushing,
lifting, pressing, twisting and so on. Force is an external agent which is applied
on a body. Force has magnitude as well as direction. So, it is called a vector
quantity. In SI system, force is measured in newton (N). In CGS system, it is
measured in dyne.
Force acting on a body can do the following things:
i. Force can change the shape of a body.
ii. Force can change the position of a body.
iii. Force can change the direction of a moving body.
iv. Force can stop the moving body.
v. Force can change the speed of a moving body.
Types of force
There are different types of force. Among them, the main types of force are
given below:
i. Pulling force
ii. Pushing force
iii. Centripetal force and centrifugal force
iv. Gravitational force
v. Magnetic force
vi. Electrostatic force
vii. Frictional force
viii. Muscular force

i. Pulling force
The force which is used to pull any object
is pulling force. We can pull lighter objects
more easily than heavier ones. A force is
used to pull a cart on the road. A force
is used to pull a door to close it. A force
is used to reduce the speed of a moving
Fig.
object. These examples explain the pulling
force. However, pulling force may or may 2.1
not change the position of the body pulled.
ii. Pushing Force

The force which is used to push an object
is a pushing force. We can push lighter
objects more easily than heavier ones. We
push a door to open it. Similarly, kicking
a football, throwing a ball, squeezing a
Fig.
lemon, etc. are acts of pushing. We use

pushing force to push different objects in 2.2
our daily life.
iii. Centripetal force and Centrifugal force

When a body moves in a circular
path, a force acts towards the centre
which is called centripetal force and
another force acts away from the
centre which is called centrifugal
force.
Fig.
When a cyclist turns a bicycle in

a circular path, the cyclist bends
2.3
towards the centre due to centripetal
force. Similarly, when a bus is moving in a bend, the passengers experience a
force which acts away from the centre, that force is a centrifugal force. If there
is more centripetal force, a moving body bends towards the centre and if there
is more centrifugal force, the moving body goes away from the centre of the
circular path. A body moves in a circular motion, if there is balance between
centripetal and centrifugal force.

Centrifugal
force
Centripetal
force
Fig.
2.4
Activity 1
Take a small tin can and tie it with a rope of a length of about 100 cm. Hold
the can in your hand firmly and rotate it in
a circular path as shown in the given
figure. Can you experience centripetal
and centrifugal force?
Fig.
2.5
iv. Gravitational force

If we throw a stone upwards, it returns to the ground. Similarly, flowers and
fruits of plants fall on the ground. Water flows from high to low land. These
activities are caused due to the force of attraction exerted by the earth on all the
bodies towards its centre which is called gravity. Like the earth, other planets
and satellites have their own gravity. The planets of the solar system revolve
around the sun. A kind of force exists between the planets and the sun. The
force of all attraction between any two objects due to their masses is called
gravitational force.
Do You Know
Some effects of gravity of the earth are rainfall,
blowing of wind, flowing of river, falling of
fruits towards the earth's surface, etc.
Fig.
2.6
Activity 2
Take a ball and throw it upward. What do you observe after a while? After
sometime, the ball returns to the ground.
v. Magnetic force
The force exerted by a magnet to the
magnetic substances is called a magnetic
force. Iron, cobalt, nickel, etc. are called
magnetic substances. The magnetic force
cannot be exerted on non-magnetic
Fig.
substances. When iron nails are kept near
by a magnet, it attracts the nail towards its
surface or poles. Such types of force is 2.7
called magnetic force.
S Attraction N Repulsion
N S
N S
Fig.
S N
2.8
Magnetic force is used in our daily life

in many devices. It is used to make Do You Know
different electrical and electronic Like poles of magnets repel and unlike
devices. Similarly, magnetic force is poles attract each other.
used by doctors to remove iron dust The force exerted by a magnet is called
from the eyes of patients. It is also magnetic force.
used to shift and lift heavy loads of
iron and steel in industries and used to separate magnetic substances from
garbages.
Activity 3
Take some iron nails and spread them on a sheet of paper. Bring a bar magnet
near the nails. The nails will move towards the poles of the magnet. The clips
get drawn towards the magnet due to the influence of magnetic force. Such
types of force is called magnetic force.

vi. Electrostatic force
The force exerted by an electrically charged
object is called electrostate force. If you Rubber pen
bring a plastic pen near the pieces of papers,
nothing happens. But when we rub the pen
in dry hair several times and bring it near
Attraction
the pieces of paper, they are drawn towards
Fig.
the pen. Here pen became charged and it Pieces of paper
attracted the uncharged pieces of paper. So, 2.9
an electrically charged object can exert an
electrical force on uncharged object or another charged object.
Activity 4
Take a piece of paper and cut it into many small pieces. Keep those pieces on
a table. Now, rub the comb for several times in dry hair and bring it near the
pieces of paper. What do you observe? Why?
vii. Frictional force

The force which opposes the motion of one body over another when they are in
close contact is called a frictional force. It depends on the extent of roughness
and smoothness of the surfaces in contact. If the contact surfaces are rough,
the friction will be more. But if contact surfaces are smooth, the friction will
be less. Frictional force also depends on the weight of the sliding body on the
surface of another body. If weight is more, frictional force will be more and if
weight is less, frictional force will be less.
Advantages of frictional force

1. Friction enables us to write on paper with a pen.
2. Friction enables us to apply brakes and stop a moving vehicle.
3. Friction enables us to walk on the ground without slipping.
4. Friction enables nails and screws to hold things together and nuts to be tied,
to cut wood, to burn a matchstick, etc.
Disadvantages of frictional force

1. Friction reduces the efficiency of machines.
2. The moving parts of machines get heated up due to friction.
3. Friction gradually tears away the sole of our shoes and tyres of vehicles.
4. Friction slows down the motion of moving parts of a machine.

Methods of reducing friction
1. The friction between movable parts of a machine can be reduced by using
lubricants like oil or grease.
2. The friction between moving parts of some complex machines can be reduced
by using ball bearings between the moving surface.
3. The friction of rough surface can be reduced by polishing of surface.
Activity 5
Take a wooden log and tie it with a rope and drag it with the help of a rope
on the ground. Now put some pieces of cylindrical wood below the log and
drag it again on the ground.
How much effort do you apply in both of the cases?
What do you conclude from this activity?
viii. Muscular force

The force exerted by the muscles of a
body is called muscular force. A horse
uses muscular force to pull a cart. Human
beings use muscular force for pulling,
Fig.
pushing, lifting, pressing, running,

jumping, fighting, etc.
2.10
Scalar and Vector Quantities

A physical quantity which is described
completely by its magnitude only is
Do You Know
called a scalar quantity. Thus, a scalar The sum of scalar is always positive but
the sum of vectors may be positive, zero
quantity has only magnitude but no
or negative.
direction. Length, distance, time, area,
Scalars are added by the rules of simple
temperature, speed, mass, energy,
algebra but vectors are added by the rules
power and volume are some examples of vector algebra.
of scalar quantities.
Scalars are not written in a special way but
A physical quantity which requires vectors are written in a special way, e.g.
both magnitude and direction for vector PQ is denoted by PQ .
its complete description is called a
vector quantity. Thus, a vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.
Displacement, velocity, force, acceleration and weight are some examples of
vector quantities.

Differences between Vector and Scalar quantity
Vector quantity Scalar quantity
1. Vector quantity has both 1. Scalar quantity has only
magnitude and direction. magnitude.
2. The sum of vectors may be 2. The sum of scalars is always
positive or zero or negative. positive.
Speed and Velocity

The speed of a moving body is defined as the distance covered by it per unit
time, i.e.
Distance covered
Speed =
Time taken
The SI unit of speed is metre per second (m/s) and CGS unit is centimetre per
second (cm/s). Speed is a scalar quantity. The speed of fast moving bodies
like car, bus, motorcycle, aeroplane, etc. is expressed in kilometre/hour (km/h).
The speed of a moving body may be uniform or non-uniform.
The velocity of a moving body is defined as the distance covered by a body per
unit time in a fixed direction. It is also called the rate of change of displacement.
Displacement (s)
Velocity (v) =
Time taken (t)
The SI unit of velocity is metre per second (m/s). Velocity is a vector quantity.
Difference between Speed and Velocity

Speed Velocity
1. The rate of change of distance of a 1. The rate of change of displacement
moving body is called speed. of a moving body is called velocity.
2. Its magnitude is always positive. 2. Its magnitude can be negative,
zero or positive.
3. It is a scalar quantity. 3. It is a vector quantity.

A bus travels a distance of 400 km in 6 hours; calculate the speed of the bus.
Solution
Given,
Distance covered by the bus (s) = 400 km
Time taken by the bus (t) = 6 hr
Speed of the bus (v) = ?
According to the formula
s
v =
t
400
=
6
= 66.67 km/hr
\ The speed of the bus is 66.67 km/hr.

A car is moving in a straight line towards the north. If it covers a distance of 8
km in 40 minutes, calculate the velocity of the car.
Solution
Displacement (s) = 8km
= 8 × 1000 [ 1km = 1000 m]
= 8000 m
Time taken (t) = 40 minutes
= (40 × 60) seconds
= 2400 s
According to the formula,
s
Velocity (v) =
t
8000
=
2400
= 3.34 m/s
\ The velocity of the car is 3.34 m/s.

Distance and Displacement
Distance
The total length of the path travelled by a body is called distance. In SI system, it
is measured in metre (m). For example, if a motorbike travels from Chapagaon
to Lagankhel, the distance covered by the motorbike is the total length of the
road from Chapagaun to Lagankhel.
Suppose, a motorbike travels from a place A to B (5 km), B to C (2 km) and C to
D (10 km), then the total distance travelled by the motorbike is AB + BC + CD
= 5km + 2 km + 10 km = 17 km.
Therefore, the distance travelled by the motorbike is 17 km.
C D
10 km
2 km
Fig.
2.11 A 5 km B
Distance is a scalar quantity as it has magnitude but no direction.
Displacement
Displacement is the shortest distance between the initial position and the final
position travelled by a moving body in a particular direction. The SI unit of
displacement is metre (m).
It is also measured in centimeter (cm), kilometre (km), etc. For example, if the
motorbike travelled from Chapagaoun to Langakhel, the displacement of the
bike is given by straight distance between Chapagaoun to Lagankhel towards
north.
When a motorbike travels, from a place A to place D, the distance covered by
the motorbike is 17 km but the displacement is only 15 km.
C 10 km D
2 km 2 km
Fig.
2.12 A 5 km B 10 km E
Displacement is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction.

Uniform velocity
If a body travels in a straight line and moves equal distance in equal interval of
time, then the velocity is called uniform velocity. In practical life, a body rarely
has uniform velocity.
Fig.
10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s 10 m/s

East West
2.13 5s 4s 3s 2s 1s 0s
In the given figure, a car is travelling from west to east, the car covers 10m in
every one second so the velocity of the car is uniform.
Variable velocity (non-uniform velocity)

If a body travels in a straight line and does not travel equal distance in equal
interval of time, then the velocity of the body is called variable velocity or non-
uniform velocity. Variable velocity is very common in our practical life.
3 m/s 5 m/s 4 m/s 6 m/s 10 m/s

Fig.
East West
2.14 5s 4s 3s 2s 1s 0s
In the given figure, a car is moving from west to east. The car travels different
distances in every one second. So, the velocity of the car is called variable
velocity.
Average velocity
Average velocity of a moving body is the arithmetic mean of the initial
velocity and the final velocity of a moving body is called average velocity. If
'u' is the initial velocity and 'v' is final velocity of a body, then average velocity
Initial velocity (u) + final velocity (v)
(vav) =
2
u+v
\ Average velocity (vav) =
2
Acceleration
Let us consider a car is at rest at the place 'A' (i.e, initial velocity 'u' = 0 m/s),
when it starts moving on the road. Its velocity goes on increasing and reaches
40 m/s after 20 seconds until it attains an uniform velocity from B to C place.
0 m/s
A
20 sec.
Fig.
40 m/s 40 m/s
2.15 B 20 sec. C
The velocity of the car changes while moving from place A to place B. But the
velocity of the car does not change while moving from place B to place C. So
the change in the velocity of the car, i.e. acceleration is given by:
40 m/s
Acceleration (a) =
20 s
= 2 m/s2
The acceleration of a body is defined as the rate of change of velocity.
Final velocity (v) – initial velocity (u)
i.e. Acceleration (a) =
Time taken
v–u
=
t
v–u
\a=
t
The SI unit of acceleration is metre/second2.

v–u
i.e. a =
t
m/s
=
s
= m/s × s
a = m/s2
Acceleration is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction.

A bus starts from rest and gains a velocity of 25 m/s towards west after 15
seconds. Calculate the acceleration of the bus.
Solution
Given,
Initial velocity (u) = 0 m/s [ The bus starts from rest.]
Final velocity (v) = 25 m/s
Time taken (t) = 15 s
Acceleration (a) = ?
v–u
a =
t
25 – 0
=
15
= 1.66 m/s2
\ The acceleration of the bus is 1.66 m/s2.
Activity 6
Make a track of 50 metre in your play ground with the help of a measuring
tape and lime powder. Make a group of five students and run along the track
one by one and record the time taken by each student to cover the distance
of 50 m with the help of a stop watch. Calculate the velocity of each student.
Key Concepts
1. The physical quantity which changes or tends to change a body from rest to
motion or motion to rest is called force.
2. Forces are of various types. The main types of forces are:
i. Centripetal force ii. Gravitational force
iii. Magnetic force iv. Electrostatic force
v. Frictional force
3. The length of the path covered by a moving body is called distance.
4. The shortest distance covered by a moving body in a fixed direction is called
displacement.
5. The distance covered by a body per unit time is called the speed of a body.
6. The arithematic mean of initial velocity and final velocity of a moving body
is called average velocity.
7. The physical quantity which has only magnitude but no direction is called
a scalar quantity, e.g. time, speed, distance, length, etc.
8. The physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a
vector quantity, e.g. force, displacement, acceleration, etc.
9. The rate of change of velocity of a body is called acceleration. Its SI unit is
m/s2.

Exercise
1. Tick (√) the correct statement and cross (×) the incorrect one.
a. Force can change the direction of a moving body.
b. Rainfall occurs on the earth due to effect of gravity.
c. The SI unit of displacement is m/s.

d. The force of attraction between any two bodies of the universe is
called centripetal force.
e. Vector quantity has magnitude but no direction.
2. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

a. The force which acts towards the centre is called ........................... force.
b. An electrically charged body exerts ........................... force.
c. An apple falls towards the earth's surface due to ...........................
d. The shortest distance between any two points is called ...........................
e. The SI unit of velocity is ...........................
f. The rate of change of ........................... is called accelration.
3. Write differences between:

a. Centripetal force and centrifugal force
b. Distance and displacement
c. Scalar and vector quantity
d. Speed and velocity
e. Velocity and acceleration

a. In SI system, force is measured in ...........................
pascal newton
dyne metre

b. The force that acts away from the centre is called ...........................
centripetal force centrifugal force
gravitational force electrostatic force

c. The force used by a man to pull a bucket from a well is ...........................
pushing force muscular force
pulling force gravitational force

d. The SI unit of velocity is ...........................
m/s km/s
ms m
e. The rate of change of velocity of a body is called ...........................
speed velocity
acceleration motion

a. What is force? Name any four types of force.
b. What is centripetal force? Write with example.
c. Define gravitational force. Give any two examples.
d. How can you demonstrate the magnetic force? Write with an example.
e. How does frictional force produce? Write down any two effects of
friction.
f. What is electrostatic force? Give one example.
g. Define vectors and scalars with any three examples of each.
h. What is meant by distance and displacement?
i. What do you mean by average velocity? Write its SI unit.
j. What is acceleration? Write its formula and SI unit.
6. Give reason:
a. A magnet attracts iron nails.
b. The moon revolves around the earth.
c. Displacement is called a vector quantity.
d. If we drop a stone from the roof of a house, it falls downwards.
e. Grease is applied to the moving parts of a machine.
7. Match the following:

A B
Centripetal force Force exerted by a magnet
Gravitational force Force exerted by a charged body
Magnetic force Force acting towards the centre
Electrostatic force Force which opposes motion
Frictional force Force acting between any two objects
a. A bicycle covers a distance of 100 metres in 5 seconds. Calculate the
speed of the bicycle. [Ans: 20 m/s]
b. A car is moving with the velocity of 20 m/s. Calculate the distance
covered by the car in 10 seconds. [Ans: 200 m]
c. The initial velocity of a micro van is 15 m/s. It gains a velocity of 40 m/s
in 10 seconds. Calculate the average velocity and acceleration of the
van. [Ans: 27.5 m, 2.5 m/s2]
d. A racing car starts from rest. If it gains an acceleration of 5m/s2 in 10
seconds, calculate the final velocity. [Ans: 50 m/s]

UNIT
Simple Machines
3
Before You Begin

We use a variety of machines like knife, scissors, pulley, screw, axe,
beam balance, crow-bar, etc. to make our work easier and faster.
These machines have simple structure. So they are called simple
machines. Simple machines help us to work more efficiently. They
help us to perform mechanical work using our muscular energy.
Simple machines help to multiply force, change the direction of the
force and increase the speed of work. We can make our life easier by
using a variety of simple machines.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to simple
i. introduce simple machines with examples. machines
ii. explain types of simple machines with examples. • Types of simple machines
- Lever and its types
iii. explain the utilities of simple machines and utilize
them in their daily life. - Pulley
- Wheel and axle
- Inclined plane
- Screw
- Wedge
• Utilities of simple machines in
our daily life
machine : a piece of equipment with moving parts that is designed to do a particular

work
load : the force exerted by a machine after application of effort
effort : the force applied on a machine while doing work
convenient : easy or quick to do
input work : the work done on a machine
output work : the work done by the machine
ideal : perfect, most suitable
fulcrum : the point on which a lever turns or is supported
screw : a modified inclined plane with grooves cut in it
wedge : a simple machine having two or more sloping surfaces

Simple Machine
We use different types of machines in our daily life to make work easier, faster
and comfortable. A pulley is used to pull a bucket of water from a well. A
crowbar is used to overcome a heavy stone. A knife is used to cut vegetables. A
nail cutter is used to cut nails. A bottle opener is used to open the lid of a coca
cola bottle. A screw driver is used to unscrew or tighten the nuts and so on. So,
a simple machine is a device having simple structure which makes our work
easier, faster and more convienent.
Fig.
3.1
Nail cutter Bottle opener Knife Crowbar
We use simple machines for different purposes which are as follows.
• Simple machines multiply the
force applied.
Do You Know
The machines which make our work easier,
• Simple machines change the faster and more convenient and simple in
direction of the force applied structure are called simple machines. For
example pulley, crowbar, nail cutter, bottle
• Simple machines help to apply
opener, screw driver, etc.
force at a convenient point.
Types of Simple Machines

Simple machines are classified into six types on the basis of their structure and
use which are as follows:
1. Lever 3. Wheel and axle 5. Screw
2. Pulley 4. Inclined plane 6. Wedge
1. Lever
We use simple machines like scissors, beam balance, crow bar, wheel-barrow,
forceps, etc. These simple machines are called lever. A lever is a straight or
bent rigid bar which moves freely about a fixed point. The fixed point of a
lever is called fulcrum. In a lever, effort is applied at one point to lift a load
kept on another point. A lever consists of three parts. They are: fulcrum, effort
and load.
Effort (E)
Load
Fulcrum (F) (L)
Fig.
Effort arm Load arm
3.2
The distance between the fulcrum and the point where effort is applied is
called effort arm or effort distance. The distance between the fulcrum and the
point where load acts is called load arm or load distance.
When lever is ideal and in balanced
Do You Know
condition, input work is always
The work done on a machine is called input
equal to the output work. It is called work and the useful work done by the
principle of lever. machine is called output work.
i.e. Input work = Output work

or, Effort × Effort arm = Load × Load arm
Types of lever
Lever is classified into three types on the basis of position of fulcrum, effort
and load. They are as follows:
i. First class lever
ii. Second class lever
iii. Third class lever
i. First class lever Effort

In scissors, the Load
fulcrum lies in Fulcrum
Fig.
between load and Effort arm Load arm

effort. It is called first
3.3
class lever. The lever
in which the fulcrum lies between
the load and the effort is called first Do You Know
class lever. Scissors, see saw, beam In first class lever, effort arm is longer than the
load arm.
balance, crowbar, pliers, etc. are
examples of first class lever.

Fig.
3.4
Scissors See-saw Beam-balance
ii. Second class lever

In a wheel-barrow, Effort
load lies in between
Load
fulcrum and effort. Fulcrum
It is called second
Fig.
class lever. The Effort arm

lever in which the 3.5 Load arm
load lies between
the effort and the fulcrum is called Do You Know
second class lever. Bottle-opener, In second class lever, effort arm is always
paper-cutter, lemon-squeezer, wheel longer than the load arm. So second class lever
barrow, nut-cracker, etc. are some always multiplies the effort applied on it.
examples of second class lever.
Fig.
3.6
Wheel-barrow Nut-cracker Lemon-squeezer
iii. Third class lever

In a fishing rod, the Effort
effort lies in between Load
load and fulcrum. It is Fulcrum
Fig.
called third class lever.

The lever in which the
3.7

effort lies between the fulcrum and the Do You Know
load is called third class lever. Shovel, In third class lever, effort arm is always shorter
spade, forceps, fire tongs, fishing rod, than the load arm. Therefore, third class lever
etc. are examples of third class lever. increase the speed of work done, but it can't
overcome the heavy loads.
Fig.
3.8
Fire tongs Fishing rod Shovel
Activity 1
Collect different types of lever present at your home.
Identify load, effort and fulcrum in these levers one by one.
Classify these levers in terms of first class, second class and third class.
2. Pulley
Have you seen people lifting water
from a well using a pulley? Have you
observed the structure of a pulley? Wooden disc
It consists of a circular disc having a
groove over which a rope is passed. Groove
A simple machine having a groove Rope
in circular metallic disc or wooden
Fig.
disc over which a rope passes is

called pulley. In a pulley, the load is Effort Load
connected to one end of the rope and 3.9
effort is applied at another end. When the rope moves, the disc rotates.
Types of pulley
There are two types of pulleys on the Do You Know
basis of mobility. They are as follows: Pulley is commonly used to lift heavy loads.
Pulley makes our work easier by changing the
i. Fixed pulley direction of force applied.
ii. Movable pulley

i. Fixed pulley
If a pulley remains at a fixed point and does
not move up and down along with load, it
is called a fixed pulley. The wheel of a fixed
pulley rotates about an axle fixed to a support
and does not move as the load is raised.
In a single fixed pulley, a rope passes over
the groove of the pulley, one end of which
Fig.
is connected to the load and effort is applied Load
at the other end of the rope. Effort is applied Effort
downward and the load can be raised 3.10
upward. So, it is used to change the direction of applied force. A fixed pulley
is generally used to lift water from a well and in a flag pole to raise the flag.
ii. Movable pulley Effort

A movable pulley is the pulley which moves
up and down along with the load and is not Rope
fixed at a point. In this pulley, one end of rope
is fixed at a point and the effort is applied at the
another end. The load is connected to the axle
of the pulley. Pulley
Do You Know
The effort applied to lift a load is shared
Fig.
equally by both parts of a rope supporting the

pulley. So, we can lift load two times heavy by
Load
applying an effort on a single movable pulley. 3.11
In a movable pulley, downward effort can be used to overcome the load and
pull upward.
3. Wheel and axle

Wheel
You might have seen simple machines having
two cylinders of different radius like screw Axle
driver, knob of a tap, the steering of a car,
bobbin of a kite, paddle of bicycle, etc. These Rope
simple machines are examples of wheel and
Fig.
axle. Wheel and axle is a arrangement of two

co-axial cylinders of different radius attached Effort
3.12 Load
to each other. The cylinder which has longer radius is called a wheel and that
having a shorter radius is called an axle. The rope is wound around the wheel
and axle.
If we rotate the wheel, the axle also rotates and when the wheel completes one
rotation, the axle also completes the same. But distance covered by the wheel
is more than the axle due to different radius. So the effort is applied to the free
end of a rope wound around the wheel and the load is connected to the free
end of the rope wound around the axle. The effort applied on the wheel is
magnified and a heavy load of axle will be overcome by a small effort applied
on the wheel.
Fig.
3.13
Steering of a car Screw driver Bobbin of a kite Handle of sewing
machine
4. Inclined plane
We know that it is very difficult to climb
up hilly areas by vehicles without winding
roads. Similarly, it is very difficult to load
a heavy drum of kerosene into a truck. But
it can be lifted easily by using a wooden
plank. So a plane (a wooden plank) which
Fig.
makes an angle with the horizontal and

is used to push things upward is called
3.14
inclined plane. It is considered as a simple
machine because it makes work easier and comfortable by carrying heavy
loads.
Fig.
3.15
Ladder Steep road Children slide

5. Screw
A screw is a simple machine which Do You Know
is used to lift very heavy loads and Jack screw is used to lift heavy automobiles.
tighten the nuts. Actually, screw is Screws and bolts are used to fasten two or
a modified form of inclined plane more pieces of wood or metal.
with grooves cut in it. It looks like a
nail having winding edges called a
thread. The distance between two screw thread is called a pitch. The force is
applied to the head of screw with the help of a screw driver. Examples: screw
nail, driller, jack screw, etc are some examples of screws.
Fig.
3.16
Jack screw Driller Screw nails
6. Wedge Effort
A wedge is a simple machine which has (Blunt surface)
two or more sloping surfaces that taper
to form a sharp edge or pointed edge.
Examples: axe, knife, sickle, nail, etc.
Wedges are used for splitting, cutting Load Load
and drilling holes. A wedge consists of (Slope)
a blunt and a sharp or pointed end. We
Fig.
should apply effort to the blunt end of

the wedge to work with the sharp or 3.17 (Sharp or pointed surface)
pointed end.
Fig.
3.18
Axe Knife Sickle

Importance of Simple Machines
Simple machines are very important for human beings. We do a variety of work
in our day to day activities. We need to apply more effort to do difficult work.
Such type of work can be done by using simple machines. Simple machines
make our work easier, faster and comfortable. They help to multiply the force
applied and makes our work easier and faster.
Activity 2
Identify the given simple machines. Write down their name, type and uses
in the given table.
Fig.
3.19
S.N. Name of simple machine Type Use

1. Scissors Lever To cut things like
2. paper
Write conclusion of your activity.
Key Concepts
1. A machine having a simple structure which makes our work easier, faster
and convenient is called a simple machine.
2. Simple machines are used to change the direction of force applied, multiply
the force applied and to apply force at a convenient point.
3. A lever is a rigid bar which moves freely about a fixed point called fulcrum.
4. First class lever is the lever in which fulcrum lies between effort and load.
5. Second class lever is the lever in which load lies between fulcrum and effort.
6. Third class lever is the lever in which effort lies between fulcrum and load.
7. Pulley is a simple machine having a grooved circular metallic disc or wooden
disc over which a rope passes.
8. Wheel and axle is a simple machine having two co-axial cylinders of different
radius.
9. Inclined plane is a plane which makes an angle with the horizontal and is
used to push things upward.
10. Screw is a modified form of inclined plane with groove cuts in its edges.
11. Wedge is a simple machine having two or more sloping surfaces that tapers
either to form a sharp edge or pointed edge.
Exercise
1. Tick (√) the correct statement and cross (×) the incorrect statement.
a. Simple machines make our work easier and faster.
b. Wheel-barrow is an example of a second class lever.
c. In a movable pulley, pulley moves along with load.
d. In wheel and axle, load is connected at the wheel.
e. Jack screw is used to lift heavy automobiles.
f. An axe is a good example of wedge.
a. Beam balance is an example of ............... class lever.
b. ............... is a fixed point about which a lever can rotate.
c. Nut cracker is an example of ............... class lever.
d. A ................. is a simple machine which changes the direction of applied

force.
e. Knife and axe are examples of ...............
f. In third class lever, ............... is situated between fulcrum and load.

3. Answer the following questions:
a. Define simple machine with any five examples.
b. How many types of simple machines are there? Write their names.
c. What is a lever? Write the name of various types of lever.
d. Write down the principle of lever.
e. What is a first class lever? Write any three examples of it.
f. What is a second class lever? Write any three examples of it.
g. What is a third class lever? Write any three examples of it.
h. What is a pulley? Why is it used in our daily life?
i. Define fixed pulley with an example.
j. What is a movable pulley? Draw its figure.
k. What is a wheel and axle? Write any three examples.
l. What is an inclined plane? Write any three examples.
m. What is a screw? Write any three examples.
n. What is a wedge? Write any three examples.
4. Differentiate between:
a. First class lever and Second class lever
b. Pulley and Wheel and axle
c. Fixed pulley and Movable pulley
d. Input work and Output work
5. Match the following

A B
First class lever Axe
Second class lever Bicycle paddle
Third class lever Beam balance
Wedge Fire tongs
Inclined plane Wheel-barrow
Wheel and axle Steep road

a. Lemon squeezer is an example of ............
wedge first class lever
second class lever Third class lever
b. The point from which lever can rotate is called ..........

load effort
fulcrum all of the above
c. A useful work done by a machine is called ....

fulcrum input work
output work effort
d. A wedge is a simple machine used to ......

apply force at a convenient point
multiply the force applied
multiply the load
cut and split things
e. Bobbin of a kite is an example of ....

wheel and axle fixed pulley
screw wedge
7. Give reason.
a. A beam balance is called first class lever.
b. An axe is called a wedge.
c. A screw driver is used to tighten the screw.
d. A pulley is called a simple machine.

8. Classify the given levers.
i. Shovel ii. Broom iii. Fire tongs
iv. Nut cracker v. Wheel-barrow vi. Crow-bar
vii. Khukuri viii. Fishing rod ix. Bottle opener
9. Draw the diagram of following simple machines.

a. Nut cracker d. Fixed pulley
b. Shovel e. Moveable pulley
c. Beam balance f. Axe

a. A load of 2000 N can be lifted by applying an effort of 500 N. If the
load arm is 50 cm, calculate the effort arm. [Ans: 200 cm]
b. An effort of 40 N is applied to lift a load. If the load arm and effort arm
are 30 cm and 75 cm, calculate the load. [Ans: 100 cm]
c. Study the given figure and calculate the effort distance. [Ans: 70 cm]
200 N
700 N
20 cm
d. An effort of 10 N is applied to lift a load of 50 N. If the effort arm

is 10 cm, calculate the load arm, input work and output work
[Ans: 2 cm, 100 Nm, 100 Nm]

UNIT
Pressure
4
Before You Begin

We feel difficult to chop vegetables with a blunt knife. So we prefer a
sharp knife. The cutting surface of the blunt knife has more area than
that of a sharp knife. The force of our hand falls over more area of the
blunt knife and exerts less pressure. The force acting perpendicularly
on a unit area of a surface is called pressure. It can also be defined as
the thrust acting per unit area of a surface. Pressure exerted by a body
depends on force applied and area over which the force acts.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to pressure
i. introduce pressure with its formula and SI unit.
• Formula and SI unit of
ii. explain the application of pressure in our daily life pressure
with examples.
• Measurement of pressure
iii. solve some simple numerical problems related to
pressure. • Differences between force and
pressure
• Application of pressure in our
daily life
pressure : the thrust acting per unit area of a surface

thrust : the force acting perpendicularly on a surface
stud : the small round piece of something which is attached to the surface of
something
blunt : having a thick edge, not sharp
sharp : having a thin edge that is able to cut things or a fine point that is able to
make hole in things

Pressure
Pressure is defined as the thrust acting per unit area of the surface. If 'F' is the
thrust, i.e. perpendicular force acting on a surface area 'A', then the pressure
Thrust (F)
(P) acting on the surface is given by: Pressure (P) =
Area (A)
F
\ P=
A
SI Unit of Pressure
The SI unit of thrust (F) is N and that of area (A) is m2. So, the unit of pressure
(P) is N/m2 (newton per square metre) or Pa (pascal).
Factors Affecting Pressure

1. Thrust or force acting perpendicularly on a surface
2. Area over which force acts
Pressure is directly proportional Do You Know
to the thrust applied and inversely One pascal pressure is the pressure exerted
proportional to the area that on a surface area 1m2 by a thrust of 1 N.
receives the thrust. Therefore,
same thrust can produce different 1N
In short, 1 Pa =
pressures depending on the area 1m2
over which it acts. When a thrust
acts over a large area of a surface,
it produces small pressure. But if the same force acts over a small area, it
produces a large pressure. Therefore, we prefer a sharp knife than a blunt one
to chop vegetables. A sharp knife cuts vegetables better due to its sharp edge.
The force of our hand falls on less area and produces more pressure. It makes
cutting of vegetables easier. When the thrust acting on a surface increases,
pressure also increases.
Measurement of Pressure
Pressure is the total perpendicular force acting per unit area of the object. It
can also be represented as follows:
Force (F)
Pressure (P) =
Area (A)

From the above relation, pressure depends upon the following two factors:
i. Force applied ii. Contact area
The same force can produce different pressure which depends upon the
contact area over which force acts. It means if force acts over a large area of
a surface, it produces a small pressure but if the same force acts over a small
area, it produces a larger pressure.
When force acting on a surface area increases, the pressure also increases and
vice-versa.

A metallic box of 2000N occupies 2m² surface area. Calculate the pressure
exerted by the box. If the box covers a surface area of 4m2, calculate the pressure
exerted.
Solution:
Given,
Weight of metallic box or force (F) = 2000N
Covered area (A) = 2m²
Pressure (P) = ?

F
P =
A
2000
=
2
= 1000 N/m²
\ The pressure exerted by the box (P) = 1000N/m² or (Pa).
Now,
Force (F) = 2000 N
Area (A) = 4m2
Pressure (P) = ?
We know,
F
P =
A
2000
=
4
= 500 N/m²
\ The pressure exerted (P) = 500 Pa.
Differences between force and pressure

Force Pressure
1. The pull or push which changes 1. The force acting per unit area of a
or tries to change the position of a surface is called pressure.
body is called force.
2. Force is measured in newton (N). 2. Pressure is measured in newton
per square meter (N/m²) or pascal
(Pa).
Activity 1
Take some coins, cardboards and two bricks. Place the coins uniformly on a
thin cardboard placed over two bricks as shown in figure (a) and pile up the
coins and place them on the cardboard at its middle as in figure (b) separately.
Observe the bending of cardboard by the coins in both cases. Also, comment
on your observation.
Coins Cardboard Coins
Cardboard
Fig.
4.1 Bricks Bricks
Application of pressure in our daily life

1. Sharp knives, khukuri, axe, etc. are used to
cut things. Cutting edges of these articles are
sharp and occupy less area which exerts more
pressure on the things and make it easy to cut.
Fig.
4.2

2. Pointed nail is used to hammer in wooden
blocks than a blunt one. Pointed nail occupies
less area and exerts more pressure to pierce in
Fig.
the block.
4.3
3. Wooden slippers are kept below railway line.

Wooden sleepers cover more area and control
or decrease the pressure exerted by the train
and the railway line does not sink into the
Fig.
ground.
4.4
4. Heavy trucks are fitted with double wheels

to cover more area of contact and control or
decrease the pressure exerted by the weight of
Fig.
truck on the ground.
4.5
5. Studs are kept on football players’ boots to

increase the pressure by decreasing contact
area on the ground and make it easy to
Fig.
perform activities.
4.6
6. The foundations of houses and buildings are

made wider to increase the area of contact and
control the pressure exerted by the weight of
Fig.
house and building. It prevents houses and

buildings from sinking into the ground.
4.7
Key Concepts
1. The perpendicular force acting per unit area of a surface is called pressure.
2. The SI unit of pressure is N/m2 or Pa.
3. The same force can produce different pressures depending on the area over
which the force acts.
4. One pascal pressure (1 Pa pressure) can be defined as the pressure exerted
when one newton force acts on 1 m2 surface area.
5. When the force acting on a surface increases, the pressure also increases and
vice-versa.
6. Pressure depends on the area of contact and force applied.
7. There are many applications of pressure in our daily life.
Exercise
a. The perpendicular force acting per unit area of a surface is called
pressure.
b. In SI system, pressure is measured in Pa.
c. Pressure depends on the force and area of the surface.
d. A sharp knife can exert less pressure than a blunt one.

e. The thin string exerts more pressure on the shoulder of a school
bag carrier.

a. The force acting per unit ....................... is called pressure.
b. ....................... is the SI unit of thrust.
c. One end of nail is made pointed to increase .......................
d. When area decreases, the pressure .......................
e. The pressure exerted by a body depends on ....................... and
.......................

a. What is pressure? Write its SI unit.
b. Which formula is used to calculate pressure?
c. Name the factors on which pressure depends on.
d. Why do we prefer a sharp knife to cut vegetables?
e. Write any three differences between pressure and force.
f. Write down the importance of pressure in our daily life.
g. What is the difference in pressure exerted on the ground while walking
on a single foot and both feet?
4. Give reason.
a. One end of a nail is pointed.
b. Studs are made on the football player’s boot.
c. Foundations of tall buildings are made wide.
d. A camel can walk quickly on desert.
e. We prefer a sharp knife to chop vegetables.

a. ................ is the force acting per unit area of a surface.
Volume Density
Pressure Pascal
b. In SI system, pressure is measured in ................

kg/m³ N/m²
Nm² N/m
c. The two factors that affect pressure are ................
Force and mass Force and area
Force and volume Area and density

d. When the force acting on a body decreases, the pressure ................
decreases increases
divides multiplies
6. Numerical problems:
a. A force of 500N acts on the area of 2.5m²; calculate the pressure
exerted. [Ans: 200 Pa]
b. Calculate the force applied when 400 Pa of pressure is exerted by a box
of surface area 2m². [Ans: 800 N]
c. The weight of a stone is 1400N. If it exerts a pressure of 700 Pa, calculate
the area. [Ans: 2m2]
d. A force of 2000 N acts on 5m2 surface area. Calculate the pressure
exerted. [Ans: 400 Pa]

UNIT
Energy, Work and
5 Power
Before You Begin

If a person can do a lot of work, we say the person is very energetic.
Energy of a body is the capacity or ability of a body to do work. Living
beings cannot survive in the absence of energy. Similarly, energy is
required to operate machines in industries, to run automobiles and so
on. Work is said to be done when the force acting on a body produces
motion in the direction of the force. In SI system, work is measured in
joule (J). The rate of doing work is called power. Its SI unit is watt (W).
Energy, work and power are interrelated to each other.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to energy
i. introduce energy, work and power. • Types of energy
ii. explain the types of energy. • Introduction to work
• Types of work
iii. write the formula to calculate energy, work and
power. • Introduction to power
• Relationship among energy,
iv. solve simple numerical problems related to energy,
work and power. work and power
• Transformation of energy
• Simple numerical problems
related to energy, work and
power
energy : the capacity of doing work

work : the product of force and displacement
power : the rate of doing work
potential energy : the form of energy that an object gains as it is lifted
kinetic energy : the form of energy that an object gains when it moves
nuclear : related to nucleus of an atom

Energy
We cannot operate automobiles without
fuel. The fuel burns in the engine of these
automobiles and provides energy to move
them. Similarly, we cannot work for a long
time without food. We get energy from the
food that we eat. The capacity or ability of
a body to do work is called energy. Living
Fig.
beings get energy from the food. So plants
and animals cannot survive without food.
5.1
In the SI system, energy is measured in
joule (J). Energy is a scalar quantity.
Energy provides force to do work. The object having no energy cannot do
work. Whenever work is done, energy is consumed.
Types of Energy
There are different forms of energy in nature. They are as follows: (i) Mechanical
energy, (ii) Chemical energy, (iii) Sound energy, (iv) Heat energy, (v) Light
energy, (vi) Electrical energy, (vii) Nuclear energy and (viii) Magnetic energy.
1. Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its state of motion
or of position. It is of two types:
a. Kinetic energy (KE)
b. Potential energy (PE)
a. Kinetic energy
A moving hammer has kinetic
Do You Know
energy. So it can do work on a nail
Running water and blowing air have kinetic
it strikes. Similarly, running water energy. So we can rotate a turbine with the
has kinetic energy so it can rotate a help of running water and blowing air to
turbine. The energy possessed by a generate electricity.
body by virtue of its motion is called
kinetic energy. Running water, blowing air, the bullet fired from a gun, moving
vehicle, rolling ball, etc. possess kinetic energy.

Fig.
5.2
Bullet fired from a gun Moving car Moving wind mill
Following formula is used to calculate the kinetic energy of a moving body.
1
Kinetic energy (KE) = mv2
2
Where, m = mass of a moving body
v = velocity of a moving body
From the above relation, it becomes clear that kinetic energy of a moving body
is equal to the product of half of its mass and square of its velocity.
Activity 1
Take a volleyball. Throw it slowly and ask your friend to catch the ball. Repeat
this activity by increasing the speed of the ball while throwing. Ask your friend
to say the difference while catching the ball in both cases. More force is required
to catch the ball thrown at a high speed than that in low speed.
Repeat above activity with a tennis ball. The mass of a volleyball is more
than that of a tennis ball. So less force is required to catch a tennis ball than
that to catch a volleyball thrown at the same speed.
This activity proves that kinetic energy increases with increase in mass and
velocity of the moving body and vice-versa.
Worked out Numerical: 1

A metal ball of a mass of 5 kg is moving with the velocity of 25 m/s. Calculate
the kinetic energy.
Given,
Mass of the metal ball (m) = 5 kg
Velocity (v) = 25 m/s
Kinetic energy (KE) = ?

1
KE = mv2
2

1
= × 5 × (25)2
2
= 1562.5 J
\ Kinetic energy (KE) = 1562.5 J
b. Potential energy Football

The water stored in a dam possesses potential
energy. When this energy is released, it can rotate Mass (m)
the turbine. The potential energy of a body is defined
as the energy possessed by the body by virtue of its
position or configuration (change in shape or size).
The energy stored in the stone lifted from the ground, Height (h)
stored water in a dam, stretched spring, stretched
Fig.
elastic, etc. are some examples of the objects having
potential energy. Football at a certain height from 5.3
the ground possesses potential energy.
Following formula is used to calculate the potential energy (PE) of a body.
\ PE = mgh
Where, m = mass of a body

g = acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8 m/s2)
h = height from the surface of the ground

A stone of a mass of 25 kg is located at a height of 15 m from the ground.
Calculate the potential energy stored in the stone. [Take g = 9.8 m/s2.]
Given,
Mass (m) = 25 kg
Height (h) = 15 m
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s2
Potential energy (PE) = ?
We know,
PE = mgh

= 25 × 9.8 × 15
= 3675 J
\ Potential energy (PE) = 3675 J
Activity 2
Take a catapult. Stretch the elastic of the catapult and throw a pebble in
an open place. Be careful while throwing the pebble as it may hit birds,
animals or people. Which energy helps to throw the pebble? Name the type
of energy present in the stretched elastic of the catapult.
2. Chemical energy
When petrol is burnt in the engine of a car, the chemical energy stored in petrol
is used to run the car. The energy stored in a matter is called chemical energy.
Bread, coal, petrol, diesel, battery, wood, oil, etc. have chemical energy stored
in them. Chemical energy is released when chemical change takes place. Some
sources of chemical energy are given below:
Fig.
5.4
Bread Kerosene Cell
3. Sound energy
Sound energy is a form of energy which is
produced due to the vibration of a material
medium. A vibrating body possesses sound
energy. Loudspeaker, radio, television, horn of
vehicles, temple bell, etc. are some sources of
sound energy.
Fig.
Sound can be experienced as a form of energy

5.5
when the window panes shatter due to an
Loudspeaker produces
explosion or loud sound produced by a low-
sound
flying aeroplane.

4. Light energy
Light is a form of energy which makes things
visible. Light is produced by extremely hot
objects. The sun, lantern, torch light, electric
bulb, kerosene lamp, etc. are some sources of
Fig.
light energy. The sun is the main source of light
energy for the earth. 5.6
The sun
5. Electrical energy
The form of energy which is produced due to
continuous flow of electrons is called electrical
energy. Cell, photocell, battery, generator, etc. are
the sources of electrical energy. Electrical energy
Fig.
is used to rotate fans, drive trains, light bulbs,
operate equipment like television, computer,
5.7
camera, mobile phone, etc.
Lighting CFL
6. Heat energy
The form of energy which gives the sensation
of warmth is called heat energy. Electric heater,
sun, burning coal, etc. are some sources of
heat energy. The burning of diesel in a truck
Fig.
engine provides the energy needed to run the

truck. Similarly the heat energy produced from
5.8
burning fire is used to cook food, etc.
Burning coal
7. Magnetic energy
The energy obtained from a magnet
is called magnetic energy. It is used in
electric bell, loudspeaker, mobile phone,
television, radio, etc. Similarly, magnetic
Fig.
energy is used to generate electricity.

5.9
8. Nuclear energy Magnet attracting iron
The energy obtained from the nucleus of nails
an atom is called nuclear energy. This energy can produce a large amount
of heat and light energy. Nuclear energy is used in atomic power plants to
produce electricity. Similarly, nuclear energy is used for making atom bomb,
hydrogen bomb, etc.
Work
Work is said to be done when the force acting on a body produces motion
in it in the direction of the force. In other words, work done is defined as the
product of force and displacement. In the SI system, work is measured in joule
(J) or newton-metre (Nm).
Formula of work done

Work done (W) = Force (F) × Displacement (s) \ W=F×s
No mechanical work is done when a student studies for 2-3 hours sitting on
a chair. Similarly, no work is done by a teacher teaching a class. Work is said
to be done only if the force applied to a body succeeds in moving it. When a
person pushes a wall, no work is done because the wall does not cover distance.
But work is done when a person pushes a cart because the cart covers some
distance. Therefore, the work done by a body depends on:
a. The magnitude of force applied (F)
b. The distance covered in the direction of the force (s) applied
Fig.
5.10
A man is pushing a wall (No work A man is pushing a cart (Some
is done) work is done)
One joule work

When one newton force displaces a body through a distance of one metre, the
work done is called one joule.
In short,
1 joule = 1 newton × 1 metre [ W = F × s]
Types of Work
There are two types of work. They are:
a. Work done against friction b. Work done against gravity

a. Work done against friction
The work done by pushing or pulling an
object on a surface is called work done
against friction. For example, work done
by pulling a wooden log on the road,
Fig.
work done by pushing a cart, etc.
5.11
b. Work done against gravity
The work done by lifting a body vertically upward from the earth's surface is
called work done against gravity. For example, work done by a crane by lifting
a wooden log vertically upward from the ground.
Do You Know
Friction is the force which opposes the motion
of a body moving on other body when they are
in contact.
Fig.
5.12
Formula of work done against gravity

Work done against gravity (W) = Force × displacement
or, W = Weight × height [ Force = Weight (mg), Displacement = Height (h)]
\ W = mgh

A force of 300 N displaces a body through 20 m. Calculate the work done.
Given,
Force (F) = 300 N
Displacement (s) = 20 m
Work done (W) = ?
We know,
W = F × s = (300 × 20) Nm = 6000 J
\ Work done (W) = 6000 J.

A crane lifts a wooden log of 150 kg upto a height of 10 m from the earth's
surface. Calculate the work done against gravity. [Take g = 9.8 m/s2.]
Given,
Mass of wooden log (m) = 150 kg
height (h) = 10 m
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s2
Work done (W) = ?
We know,
W = mgh
= 150 × 9.8 × 10
= 14700 J
\ The work done against gravity (W) =- 14700 J.
Power
Power can be defined as the rate of doing work. The SI unit of work done is
joule (J) and that of time is second (s). So the SI unit of power is J/s or W (watt).
Power is also measured in kilowatt (kW), megawatt (MW), horsepower (h.p.),
etc.
Formula to calculate power (P)

Work done (W)
Power (P) =
Time taken (t)
W
\ P=
t
From the above relation, it becomes clear that power (P) depends on two
factors, viz. amount of work done (W) and time taken (t).
Two persons that do the same amount of work can have different power. For
example, Ram completes 100 J work in 10 seconds. But Hari completes 100 J
work in 5 seconds.
W 100
Power of Ram (P) = = = 10 W
t 10
W 100
Power of Hari (P) = = = 20 W
t 5
From the above calculation, it becomes clear that when a body or a person
takes lesser time to do a particular work, the power is said to be greater and
vice-versa.
One watt power

One watt power can be defined as the rate of doing one joule work in one
second time.
1 joule
In short, 1 watt =
1 second
Meaning 20 W written on an electric bulb: It means that the electric bulb
converts 20 J of electrical energy into heat energy and light energy in 1 second.
20 J
\ 20 W =
1s
Relation among watt (W), kilowatt (kW), megawatt (MW) and horse power
(h.p):
1000 W = 1 kW
1000 kW = 1 MW
746 W = 1 h.p.

A man pulls a cart of 40 kg and covers a distance of 10 m in 5 seconds. Calculate
the power.
Given,
Mass (m) = 40 kg
\ Weight or Force (F) = m × g
or, Force (F) = 40 × 9.8 [ g = 9.8 m/s2]
= 392 N
Distance (s) = 10 m
time (t) = 5 s

We know,
W
P =
t
F×s
=
t
392 × 10
=
5
= 784 W
\ Power of the person (P) = 784 W

A crane lifts a load of 50000 N upto a height of 50 m in 10 seconds. Calculate
the power of the crane in horsepower.
Given,
Load (F) = 50000 N
Height (h) = 50 m
Time (t) = 10 s
Power (P) = ?
We know,
W
P =
t
F×h
= [ W = F × h]
t
50000 × 50
=
10
= 250000 W
250000
= h.p. [ 1 h.p. = 746 W]
746
= 335.12 h.p.
\ Power of the crane (P) = 335.12 h.p.

Key Concepts
1. The capacity or ability of a body to do work is called energy.
2. There are different forms of energy. They are mechanical energy, heat energy,
light energy, sound energy, chemical energy, electrical energy and magnetic
energy.
3. Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its state of
motion or of position. It is of two types, viz. kinetic energy and potential
energy.
4. The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic
energy.
5. The potential energy of a body is defined as the energy possessed by the
body by virtue of its position or configuration (change in shape or size).
6. The work done by pushing or pulling an object on a surface is called work
against friction.
7. The work done by lifting a body vertically upward from the earth's surface
is called work done against gravity.
8. The rate of doing work is called power. Its SI unit is watt (W).
Exercise
a. The SI unit of energy is joule.
b. The PE of a body kept on the earth's surface is zero.
c. The rate of doing work is called power.
d. Running water consists of potential energy.
e. Burning coal consists of heat energy.
2. Fill in the blanks using appropriate words.

a. The formula of kinetic energy is .......................
b. Battery and bread consists of ....................... energy.
c. The rate of doing work is called .......................
d. The SI unit of work done is .......................
e. The formula of power is .......................
a. Which of the following is the source of heat energy?
heater moon bread candle
b. ....................... energy is produced due to vibration of material medium.

heat light sound chemical
c. The SI unit of work done is .......................

N J Pa W
d. The formula of power is .......................

W W
P= P = W × t P = W × d P=
t F
a. What is energy? Write down its SI unit.
b. Name any five types of energy.
c. Define mechanical energy with any two examples.
d. What is a potential energy? Write down the formula to calculate
potential energy.
e. Define kinetic energy with any two examples.
f. What is chemical energy? Name any three objects having chemical
energy.
g. Define heat energy and light energy.
h. What is nuclear energy? Write its one use.
i. What is meant by work done? Define one joule work.
j. What is meant by work done against gravity? Give one example of
work done against friction.
k. What is power? Write its SI unit.
l. Define one watt power.
a. Kinetic energy and Potential energy
b. Work done against friction and Work done against gravity
c. Work and Power
d. Heat energy and Sound energy
6. Name the form of energy present in the given objects/devices.

a. Fire b. Bread
c. Running water d. Water stored in a pond
e. Burning coal f. Bullet fired from a gun
g. Lighting bulb h. Ringing bell
7. Numerical Problems.
a. Calculate the potential energy stored in a metal ball of a mass of 80 kg
kept at the height of 15 m from the earth's surface. [Take g = 9.8 m/s2]
[Ans: 11760 J]
200 kg
b. Study the given figure and calculate the potential

energy. [Take g = 9.8 m/s2]
50 m
[Ans: 98000 J]
c. A ball of a mass of 1.5 kg is moving with the velocity of 20 m/s.

Calculate the kinetic energy of the bullet. [Ans: 300 J]
d. Sanu carries an object 20 m away by applying 500 N force. Calculate
the work done. [Ans: 16000 W]
e. A crane lifts a load of 4000 N to a height of 20 m in 5 seconds. Calculate
the power of the crane in horse power. [Ans: 32.17 h.p.]

UNIT
Heat
6
Before You Begin

When we touch a hot iron pot we feel hot and when we touch ice we
feel cold. How do we get such a sensation? It is due to the flow of heat
from a hot object to a cold one. When we touch a burning candle, heat
flows from the flame of candle to our body and we feel hot. When
we touch ice, heat flows from our body to the ice and we feel cold.
Heat is the form of energy which gives us the sensation of warmth,
i.e. hotness or coldness. The degree of hotness or coldness of a body
is called its temperature. Heat is measured in joule and temperature
is measured in kelvin.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduce to heat
i. introduce heat and state the effects of heat. • Transmission of heat
ii. explain various methods of transmission of heat. - Conduction
- Convection
iii. introduce temperature and thermometer.
- Radiation
iv. explain the structure of thermometer and measure
• Thormos flask- structure and
temperature by using it.
utility
• Temperature
• Structure and working of
thermometer
• Thermometric liquids
heat : the form of energy which gives us the sensation of warmth

temperature : the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
conduction : the process of transfer of heat from one particle to another without actual
movement of particles
convection : the process of transfer of heat by the actual movement of molecules of a
medium
radiation : the transmission of heat from a hot body to a cold body without affecting
a medium

Heat
Concept of Heat
We feel hot which we touch a burning coal and we feel cold while touching
ice cubes. When heat energy flows into our body, we get sensation of warmth
and when heat flows out from our body, we get the sensation of coldness. The
sensation of warmth or coldness is caused due to gain or loss of heat. So, heat
is a form of energy which gives sensation of warmth or coldness. When we rub
palm of our hands against each other, they become warm. Heat is produced
due to the movement of molecules. Heat is measured in joule (J) or calorie
(Cal.). It is measured by a device called caloriemeter. In our day to day life, we
use heat energy for various purposes such as cooking foods, drying clothes,
boiling tea, running engines, etc.
Fig.
6.1
We get heat energy from different sources like the sun, burning substances,
electric heater, light bulb, running vehicles, etc. The sun is the main source of
heat energy.
Effect of Heat
The major effects of heat are as follows:
1. Expansion of the substances
2. Change in the state of substances
3. Change in the temperature of substances
4. Change in the solubility of substances
Transmission of Heat
Heat energy flows from a hot body to a cold one. Heat flows from one place to
another due to the difference in temperature between them. When we mix hot
water (high temperature) and cold water (lower temperature), heat flows from
hot water to the cold water. The flow of heat energy from a body at a higher
temperature to another body at a lower temperature is called transmission of
heat. This process also takes place within a body of different temperature at
two parts.
There are three ways of transmission of heat. They are:
a. Conduction b. Convection c. Radiation
a. Conduction
Conduction is the process of transfer of heat from one particle to another
without actual movement of the particles. When one end of metallic (iron) rod
such as iron, copper, etc. is heated its another end also becomes hot. In solids
like iron, molecules are compactly arranged with each other. When one end
of the metallic rod is heated, the molecules of that end absorb heat and starts
vibrating. The vibrating molecules collide with their nearby molecules and
transfer a part of absorbed heat in each of them. In this way, transmission of heat
takes place in the solids till both ends of the body are at the same temperature.
This process of transfer of heat from one particle to another particle without
actual movement of the particles of a solid (conductor) is called conduction.
In this method, no physical movement of the particles within the material
medium takes place.
Experiment: 1
Aim: To demonstrate the transmission of heat in solids by conduction method
Materials required
Clamp stand, iron rod, iron nails, wax, candle
Procedure
i. Clamp the iron rod and the clamp stand.
ii. Fix some (4-5) iron nails on the iron stand with the help of wax.
iii. Heat the iron rod at one end with the help of a burning candle.
Wax
Stand
Iron Nail
Fig.
nails (falling)
6.2
Observation
After few minutes of heating, it can be observed that the iron nails fall one by
one starting from the end of the rod nearby the flame of candle.
Conclusion
This experiment proves that the heat is transferred from higher temperature
(hot end) to the lower temperature (cold end) of the body by conduction
method.
Activity 1
Take two frying pans with handles. The handle of one pan should be covered
with bakelite (plastic) and that of other should be naked. Now heat both of
pans for the same time by a bunsen burner. Wait for a while and touch the
handles. What do you feel?
Good conductor and Bad conductor

The substance which conducts heat easily is called good conductor of heat.
Metallic substances like iron, cobalt, nickel, silver, aluminium, copper, etc. and
their alloys are good conductors of heat.
The substance which does not conduct heat easily is called bad conductor or
insulator of heat. Glass, plastic, paper, wood, cloth, etc. are bad conductor or
insulators of heat. All liquids except mercury and gases are poor conductor of
heat.
b. Convection
The process of transmission of heat through liquids and gases from one point
to another due to the actual movement of molecules is called convection. In
liquids and gases, molecules are loosely arranged and are free to move, so it is
possible for the actual movement of molecules. But in the solids, molecules are
tightly arranged and convection is not possible.
When liquid (water) is heated, the water molecules at the bottom of the vessel
get heated first. Heated molecules expand and become lighter. These light
molecules rise up whereas cold molecules come down as they are heavier. In
this way, molecules of bottom get heated and rise up and cold molecules fall
down at the bottom. This action sets the flow of water molecules. This process
is known as convectional current.
As in liquids, air also transmits the heat by the actual movement of particles or
molecules by convection method.

The air molecules nearby land surface get heated at the day time due to the
heat of the sun. These molecules expand and become lighter and rise up. It
creates the vacuum and the vacuum is filled by the cold molecules from the
surroundings. In this way, the movement of hot air molecules and cold air
molecules take place, which is commonly known as blowing of air or wind.
Experiment: 2
Aim: To demonstrate the transmission of heat by convection method
Materials required
Water, crystals of copper sulphate, beaker, tripod stand, wire gauge, bunsen
burner
Procedure
i. Take a beaker and
fill it partially Burner
with water.
Water
ii. Put a crystal
of potassium
permangnate. Wire guaze
iii. Heat the beaker Potassium

by using a bunsen permangnate
burner. What do
you observe?
Tripod stand
Observation Bunsen burner

Fig.
It can be observed
that the coloured 6.3
water rises from the
bottom of the beaker where heat is applied and the coloured water spreads
and fall down at the side of the beaker. In this way, convectional current can be
observed. This current transfers heat to the entire molecules of water by actual
movement of heated molecules.
Conclusion
This experiment shows that the transmission of heat takes place by the actual
movement of molecules in liquids. This method of transmission of heat is
called convection.

c. Radiation
Radiation is the transmission
of heat from a hot body to a
cold one without affecting the
medium. The transmission of
heat from the sun to the earth is
an example of radiation. We can
dry up a wet cloth in heat of the
sunlight. We know that there
is not any material medium
between the earth and the sun
except the earth's atmosphere.
Then how does the heat travel Fig.
from the sun to the earth? It 6.4
is because of the third way of
transmission of heat which does not require a material medium. This mode
of heat transfer is called radiation. The transmission of heat by radiation does
not require any material medium. So, radiation also takes place in a vacuum.
Transmission of heat from an electric heater to its surrounding is possible due
to the radiation process.
Thermos flask Do You Know

A vessel which is used to keep hot Thermos flask was invented by James Dewar
liquids hot and cold liquids cold for in 1890 AD.
several hours is a thermos flask. It
preserves heat by reducing heat lost
and decreasing effect of conduction,
convection and radiation. A thermos
flask consists of double-walled
glass vessel, outer case (plastic or Stopper
steel), cork support, stopper and lid.
Vacuum
There is a vacuum created between
two glass walls to reduce the loss Double glass shell
of heat due to the conduction and
convection process.
Silver coating
The outer surface of the inner wall
and the inner surface of outer wall
Fig.
Casting
are silvered to reduce the loss of
heat due to radiation. The mouth of 6.5
the flask is closed by a wooden cork,
which is a bad conductor of heat. The glass vessel is fitted by using cork pads at
the different points surrounded at outer with an outer case.
Concept of Temperature Do You Know

The temperature of a body is defined Heat always flows from the body at higher
as the degree of hotness or coldness temperature to the body at lower temperature.
of a body. It can also be defined as
the average kinetic energy of the
molecules present in a body. Temperature of a body is the measure of the
average kinetic energy or thermal energy of its molecules. Temperature is the
property of a substance which determines the direction of the flow of heat.
Temperature is measured by using thermometer.
Units of temperature
The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K). But temperature is commonly
measured in degree Celsius (°C) and degree Fahrenheit (°F).
Differences between Heat and temperature

Heat Temperature
1. Heat is the sum of kinetic energy 1. Temperature is the average
present in the molecules of a kinetic energy present in the
body. molecules of a body.
2. It is measured by using 2. It is measured by using
calorimeter. thermometer.
3. Its SI unit is joule (J). 3. Its SI unit is kelvin (K).
Thermometer
A device used to measure the temperature of a body is
called thermometer. So, thermometer is a device which is
used to measure the temperature of a body.
Principle of construction of thermometer

When a body is heated, it expands and when it is cooled, it
contracts. This is the working principle of a thermometer.
Fig.
Thermometer can be made by using liquid or gas as they

expand more than the solids. However, we commonly use 6.6
liquid thermometers.
Thermometer
Types of Thermometer
There are different types of thermometers. But in this unit, we will study two
types of thermometer, viz. laboratory thermometer and clinical thermometer.
And in this unit, we will study the structure of a laboratory thermometer.
Laboratory thermometer
The thermometer which is used to measure the temperature
of various objects in a laboratory is called a laboratory
thermometer. It consists of a capillary tube made of glass in
which one end is closed and the other end is connected to a
cylindrical bulb.
The cylindrical bulb has a small portion of the capillary
Fig.
tube filled with mercury or coloured alcohol. The air from
the capillary tube is completely taken out before closing the 6.7
open end of the capillary tube. The scale in the laboratory Laboratory
thermometer ranges from – 10° C to 110° C. thermometer
While measuring the temperature of a body, the bulb of the thermometer is
kept in close contact of the body. As the bulb comes in contact with the hot
body, the thermometric liquid inside the bulb expands and rises upwards
in the capillary tube. Finally, the liquid gives a constant level, which is the
temperature of the body. When the bulb of the thermometer is kept in a cold
body, the thermometric liquid contracts upto a constant level which shows the
temperature of the cold body.
Thermometric Liquids
Two liquids, i.e. mercury and alcohol are used in a thermometer. These liquids
are called thermometric liquids. The liquids which are used in a thermometer
are called thermometric liquids.
Advantages of mercury as a thermometric liquid

1. Mercury can be seen clearly in the capillary tube as it is a silvery white liquid.
2. It has a uniform rate of expansion and contraction.
3. It is a good conductor of heat as it is a liquid metal.
4. It can measure a wide range of temperature because the freezing point of
mercury is –39°C and boiling point is 357°C.
5. Mercury does not stick to the inner wall of a capillary tube.
Disadvantage of mercury as a thermometric liquid
A mercury thermometer cannot measure very cold temperatures as the freezing
point of mercury is –39°C. Therefore, mercury thermometer is not suitable to
measure very low temperatures in cold countries.
Advantages of alcohol as a thermometric liquid

1. Alcohol is suitable to measure very low temperatures in cold countries as its
freezing point is –115°C.
2. It can measure temperatures accurately as its rate of expansion is six times
more than that of mercury.
3. It is not very expensive.
Disadvantages of alcohol as a thermometric liquid

1. Alcohol is not suitable to measure the temperature above 78°C because its
boiling point is 78°C.
2. It is a bad conductor of heat. So, it has no uniform rate of expansion and
contraction.
3. It cannot give accurate measurement of temperature because it sticks to the
inner wall of the capillary tube.
Activity 2
Go to your science laboratory with the science teacher. Study the structure
and working mechanism of a clinical and laboratory thermometer.
Measure the temperature of melting ice, hot water and boiling water using
a laboratory thermometer.
Activity 3
Take a clinical thermometer and measure your body temperature.
Compare your body temperature with your friend's body temperature.
Key Concepts
1. Heat is a form of energy which gives the sensation of warmth. In the SI
system, heat is measured in joule.
2. The process of transfer of heat is called transmission of heat.
3. There are three modes of transmission of heat: (a) Conduction (b) Convection
(c) Radiation.
4. The process of transfer of heat from one particle to another particle without
actual movement of particles is called conduction. It commonly occurs in
solids.
5. The process of transfer of heat by the actual movement of molecules in
liquids and gases is called convection.
6. The process of transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold body without any
material medium is called radiation.
7. The vessel which keeps hot liquid hot and cold liquid cold for several hours
is called a Thermos flask.
8. The degree hotness or coldness of a body is called its temperature.
9. A device which is used to measure temperature is called a thermometer.
10. A thermometer is constructed on the principle that liquid expands on
heating and contracts on cooling.
11. The liquid, which is used inside a thermometer is called thermometric
liquid.
Exercise
a. Heat is a form of energy which gives the sensation of warmth.
b. Convection takes place only in liquid, not in gas.
c. Radiation does not require any material medium.

d. The device which is used to measure heat energy is called a
calorimeter.
e. The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called its temperature.

f. The SI unit of temperature is °C.

a. In solid, molecules are .................... arranged.
b. .................... is not required for radiation.
c. The substances which conduct heat easily are called ....................
d. The degree of hotness or coldness of a body is called ....................
e. Mercury and .................... are thermometric liquids.

a. The SI unit of heat is ....................
degree celcius kelvin
joule fahrenheit
b. Convection takes place in ....................
liquid gas
solid all of the above

c. The transmission of heat due to actual movement of molecules is called
....................
conduction convection
radiation non of the above

d. The freezing point of mercury is ....................
39 °C 100 °C
212 °C 357 °C
e. The transmission of heat which takes place is called ....................
conduction convection
radiation temperature

a. Define heat and write any three effects of heat.
b. What do you mean by transmission of heat?
c. What is conduction? Give one example.
d. What are good conductors? Write any three examples.
e. What are insulators? Write any three examples.
f. What is convection? How does wind blow?

g. What is radiation? Can this process take place in a vacuum? Why?
h. What is temperature? Write its SI unit.
i. What is a thermos flask? Write its use.
j. What is a thermometric liquid? Write examples.
k. What is a thermometer?
a. Heat and Temperature
b. Conduction and Convection
c. Thermometer and Calorimeter
d. Conductor and Insulator

A B
Conduction Thermometer
Heat Liquid
Convection Vacuum
Thermometer Solid
Radiation Calorimeter
7. Draw a neat and labelled figure of a thermos flask.
8. Describe the structure of a laboratory thermometer.

UNIT
Light
7
Before You Begin

In a dark room, we cannot see the things kept there although our eyes
are open. We need light to see the things kept there. So, light is a form
of energy which makes things visible. It is produced from extremely
hot objects. The objects which emit light are called the sources of light.
The sun is the main source of light on the earth. Some other sources of
light are light bulb, burning candle, kerosene lamp, etc.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to light
i. introduce light and its sources with examples. • Sources of light
ii. define reflection of light and its types. • Ray and beam of light
iii. state the laws of reflection of light and demonstrate • Reflection of light and its types
them. • Laws of reflection of light
iv. construct some equipment like periscope and • Reflection of light from a plane
kaleidoscope and describe their working mechanism. mirror
• Periscope and Kaleidoscope
light : the form of energy which makes things visible

luminous : shining in the dark due to its own light
beam : a collection of several rays of light
normal : a perpendicular drawn on the surface at the point of incidence
image : a picture of something/somebody seen in a mirror

Light
Light is one of the important forms of energy essential for all living beings.
Animals are able to see things of their surroundings due to the presence of light.
We can easily experience and understand about the effect of light in our vision.
We cannot see anything in a dark place though we keep our eyes open. But
we can see things with the help of a torch light. We can see things only in the
presence of light. So, light is a form of energy which gives sensation of vision.
Light travels in a straight line as long as it propagates in the same medium. It
travels very fast with the speed of 3 lakh kilometer per second (300000 km/s.).
The sunlight takes 500 seconds to reach the earth from the sun.
Sources of Light
Those objects which emit light are called sources of light. For example, the
sun, star, torchlight, burning candle, glowing bulb, firefly, etc. The sun is the
main source of light. Some sources of light which can emit their own light
like the sun, star, glowing bulb, firefly, etc. are known as luminous objects. So,
luminous objects are the objects which emit light of their own.
Fig.
7.1
Luminous objects
Some objects like plastics, glass, rock, paper, soil, etc. do no emit light of their
own. Those objects which do not emit light of their own are called non-luminous
objects.
Fig.
7.2
Non-luminous objects
Activity 1
Classify the given objects in terms of luminous and non-luminous sources of
light.
- star - sun - stone - soil - sand - plastic - pencil
- pen - paper - book - bulb - burning candle - black board
Ray of Light
Fig.
A very narrow path of light is called a ray
of light. It is represented by a line with an
arrowhead. The arrowhead shows the direction 7.3
of propagation of light. A ray
Beam of Light
The collection of several rays of light is called a
beam of light. It is broader and consists of many Fig.
rays.
7.4
A beam of light
Reflection of Light
When we stand in front of a plane mirror, we see our own image in it. It is
possible only due to the reflection of light by the mirror. When the rays of light
fall on a shiny or polished surface, the rays are returned to the same medium.
This phenomenon is called reflection of light. The phenomenon of returning
of the light to the same medium after striking a surface is called reflection of
light.
Incident rays
Reflected rays
Fig.
7.5 Mirror
Reflection of light

We are able to see things when light from a luminous body falls on these things.
It is due to the reflection of light by these things. Non-luminous objects do not
absorb all light, they reflect some light which enters our eyes. As a result, we
see them. Therefore, the objects in our surroundings are visible due to the
reflection of light.
Types of Reflection of Light

There are two types of reflection of light on the basis of direction of reflected
rays. They are as follows:
a. Regular reflection of light b. Irregular reflection of light
a. Regular reflection of light

When a parallel beam of light strikes on a smooth surface, the reflected rays
are also parallel to each other. This type of reflection of light is called regular
reflection. For example, reflection of light from a plane mirror or any highly
polished surface. A plane mirror or polished surface appears bright due to the
regular reflection of light.
Fig.
x y
7.6
Regular reflection of light
b. Irregular reflection of light

When a parallel beam of light strikes a rough surface, the reflected rays are
not parallel to each other. This type of reflection of light is called irregular
reflection. The reflected rays scatter in different directions. For example,
reflection of light from furniture, clothes and other rough surfaces.
Fig.
x y
7.7
Irregular reflection of light
Some Terms Related to Reflection
1. Mirror 2. Incident ray 3. Point of incidence
4. Reflected ray 5. Normal 6. Angle of incidence
7. Angle of reflection
I N R
∠i ∠r
Fig.
X Y
7.8 O
In the figure 7.8,
XY - Mirror ON - Normal
IO - Incident ray ∠ION - Angle of incidence
O - Point of incidence ∠RON - Angle of reflection
OR - Reflected ray
1. Mirror
Any smooth or polished surface which can return back the rays of light into
the same medium is called mirror. For example, looking glass, highly polished
metal surface, still water or oil, polished furniture, etc.
2. Incident ray
A ray of light striking a reflecting surface is called the incident ray.
3. Point of incidence
The point at which the incident ray strikes the reflecting surface is called point
of incidence.
4. Reflected ray
The light ray obtained after reflection from the surface in the same medium in
which incident ray is travelling is called reflected ray.
5. Normal
The perpendicular drawn to the surface at the point of incidence is called
normal.
6. Angle of incidence
The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence is called the angle of incidence. It is denoted by ∠i.
7. Angle of reflection
The angle which the reflected ray makes with the normal at the point of
incidence is called angle of reflection. It is denoted by ∠r.
Laws of Reflection of Light I N R
In
Laws of reflection of light state that:
y
cid
ra
d
en
i. the incident ray, the reflected ray
cte
tr
fle
and the normal lie on the same
ay
Re
plane at the point of incidence.
60° 60°
ii. the angle of incidence is equal to
Fig.
the angle of reflection.

7.9 O
Reflection of Light from a
Plane Mirror
A plane mirror consists of a
smooth or polished surface
which can return back the
rays of light falling on it into
the same medium. A looking Reflected surface
Fig.
glass is a mirror. One side of x y

it is coated with silver due to 7.10 Shaded surface
which another side of it acts
as a reflecting surface. Similarly, highly polished metal surface, still water or
oil, highly polished furniture, etc. act as plane mirror.
While drawing the diagram of a mirror, the reflecting surface is represented by
a straight line and the silver coated side is represented by shaded lines.

Activity 2
Fix a sheet of white paper firmly on a fixing board with the help of thumb
pins. Draw a straight line XY on the paper. Place the long edge of the mirror
along the line. Fix two pins A and B vertically in front of the mirror. Try to
locate image A' and B' of the two pins. Fix two more pins C and D on the
paper in front of the mirror, so that they both lie along the line A' and B'.
A'
B'
X Y
O
B D
Fig.
A C
7.11
Mark the position of pins with a pencil and remove the pins and the mirror.
Draw a line joining the point A and B. It meets the mirror at point O on the
line XY. Now, join the O, D and C. Now, measure the angle of incidence and
angle of reflection.
O Plane mirror
Point of incidence
∠i ∠r
Angle of incidence Angle of reflection
Incident ray Reflected ray

Fig.
Normal
A N C
7.12
M1
Periscope 45°
45° Plane mirror
A periscope is a simple
device based on the principle
of successive reflections from
two plane mirrors.
Fig.
45°
A periscope consists of
two plane mirrors M1 and 7.13 M2 45°

M2 facing each other fixed at 45° to the frame-work of a tube (card board or
wooden) which is bent twice at right angle.
The beam of light entering the tube from the object strikes the mirror M1 at 45°.
That beam is reflected by the mirror M1 and travelled through the tube and
strike at the mirror M2 at 45°. That beam finally gets reflected from the mirror
M2 parallel to its original path and reaches to the eye of the viewer.
The main uses of a periscope are as follows:
1. It is used to see over the heads of a crowd.
2. It is used to observe the enemies activity above the ground by a soldier sitting
in a trench.
3. It is used to see the movement of ships over the surface of the sea from a sub-
marine.
Kaleidoscope
Kaleidoscope is a simple toy based
on the principle of the formation of
several images by inclined mirrors.
Fig.
Mirror
Tape
Construction of a Kaleidoscope 7.14 Card board
Take three mirror strips and join them to form a triangular prism. You can join
the strips with the help of rubber bands or cello tape. Wrap them by a black
paper. Now, place a few pieces of coloured glass (broken bangles) inside the
tube. Cover both the open ends of the tube with white tissue papers. Now
hold and rotate the kaleidoscope pointing towards light. You can see beautiful
patterns of colours.
Activity 3
Prepare a periscope and a kaleidoscope and demonstrate in your school.
Key Concepts
1. Light is a form of energy which gives the sensation of vision.
2. The speed of light in a vacuum is about three lakh kilometer per second.
3. An object which emits lights of its own is called a luminous object.
4. An object which does not emit light of its own is called non-luminous object.
5. A very narrow path of light represented by a straight line with an arrowhead
is called a ray.

6. The collection of several rays of light is called a beam of light.
7. Regular reflection of light means when a parallel beam of light strikes a
smooth surface and the reflected rays are parallel to each other.
8. Irregular reflection of light means when a parallel beam of light strikes on a
rough surface and the reflected rays are not parallel to each other.
9. A ray of light striking a reflecting surface is called an incident ray.
10. A ray of light which gets reflected after striking a reflecting surface is called
a reflected ray.
11. The perpendicular drawn on the surface at the point of incidence is called
normal.
12. A periscope and kaleidoscope are constructed on the basis of reflection of
light.
Exercise
a. Light travels in a straight line.
b. Light is a form of energy which makes things visible.
c. Reflection of light on a smooth surface is irregular reflection.
d. Smooth and highly polished surface is called a mirror.

e. The angle between a normal and an incident ray is called angle of
incidence.

a. Light is a form of energy which gives the sensation of ...................
b. The speed of light in a vacuum is ...................km/s.
c. An object which emits light of its own is called a ................... of light.
d. A ray of light which strikes a surface is called ................... ray.
e. ................... is the perpendicular drawn at a point of incidence.

a. Define light. Write down the speed of light in a vacuum.
b. What do you mean by the source of light? Give any four examples of
it.
c. What is reflection of light? Mention its types.
d. What is regular reflection of light? Draw a figure showing regular
reflection.
e. State the laws of reflection of light.
f. Write the name of devices which works on the principle of reflection
of light.
g. What is a periscope? Write its use.
h. What is a kaleidoscope? Write its use.
i. Define the following terms.
i. Incident ray ii. Reflected ray
iii. Normal iv. Angle of incidence
v. Angle of reflection
j. Draw diagrams showing regular and irregular reflection of light.
a. Luminous object and Non-luminous object
b. Regular reflection and Irregular reflection
c. Ray and Beam of light
d. Incident ray and Reflected ray

a. Which of the following object is a luminous object?
wood water
star soil
b. Which one of the following is a living source of light?

oil-lamp torch light
firefly burning candle

c. If the angle of incidence is 45°, the angle of reflection is ...................
35° 54°
45° 50°
d. The angle between normal and a reflected ray is ...................

acute angle reflected angle
incident angle right angle
e. The phenomenon of returning the light to the same medium after

striking a surface is called ................... of light.
dispersion refraction
reflection propagation
6. Study the given figure and answer the following questions.

a. Which phenomenon is shown in I N R
the given diagram?
b. Name the angle of incidence,
angle of reflection and normal.
c. What is the magnitude of ∠r? 45° ∠r
Why?

UNIT
Sound
8
Before You Begin

In our surroundings, we use different things that produce sound.
When materials vibrate, sound is produced. So, sound is the form
of energy which is produced due to vibration of a material medium.
Sound produces sensation of hearing. The substances that produce
sound are called sources of sound. Temple bell, horn of vehicles,
loudspeaker, guitar, television, etc. are some sources of sound. Sound
waves are produced when a material vibrates. Sound propagates in
the form of a wave.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to sound
i. introduce sound and sources of sound. • Sources of sound
ii. define sound wave (longitudinal wave) and explain • Wave motion
its propagation.
• Types of wave
iii. explain the factors affecting the propagation of sound. - Transverse wave
iv. demonstrate that the speed of sound in different - Longitudinal wave
media is different.
• Propagation of sound wave
• Speed of sound in different
media
sound : the form of energy which is produced due to vibration of a body

wave motion : a periodic disturbance travelling through a medium which is produced by
a vibrating body
frequency : the number of complete cycles made in one second
transverse wave : a wave that vibrates at 90° to the direction in which it is moving
longitudinal wave : a wave that vibrates in the direction that it is moving

Sound
We hear different types of sound around us everyday. We hear the sound of our
parents and friends, the sound of vehicles running on the roads, the barking
of dogs, sound of aeroplanes, the clatter of pans in the kitchen, the chirping of
birds and so on. In the night, most sounds cease but we can still hear the sound
of some insects. All these sounds produce a sensation of hearing in our ears.
So, sound is form of energy which produces a sensation of hearing in our ears.
Activity 1
Make a list of any eight types of sound heard by you. Write down the names
of the object, living or non-living, which sound the loudest and which the
faintest.
Sound Produced by Vibrating Bodies

When a school bell is hammered, it vibrates and produces sound. When it
stops vibrating, sound is ceased. Sound is produced by the vibration of bodies.
So, every vibrating body is a source of sound.
Activity 2
Take a scale and hold its one end firmly on the table with your one hand.
Flick the free end of the scale with your
another hand. What do you observe? The
scale is seen vibrating and a humming
sound is heard. The humming sound is
produced by the to and fro motion of the
ruler. The ruler produces sound as long
Fig.
as it remains vibrating.
8.1
Vibrating ruler
Activity 3
Pluck the wire of a guitar or sitar. It produces sound. Touch the wire when it
is producing sound. What happens to the sound? Why?
From the above examples, it can be concluded that sound is produced from
vibrating bodies. When vibration stops, the sound also stops. So, we can
conclude that the main source of sound is a vibrating body.

Sources of Sound
We have seen many things like bell,
guitar, loudspeaker, radio, television, Do You Know
etc. that produce sound. These things
Vibration is the rapid to and fro motion of a
are called sources of sound. An object particle or a body about its mean position.
which produces sound is called a A body can be vibrated by hitting, stroking,
source of sound. Radio, television, plucking, blowing, etc.
guitar, animals, vehicles, machines,
etc. are some examples of sources of
sound. Actually, every vibrating object is the source of sound.
Wave Motion
Sound requires a material medium for its propagation. It can travel through
solids, liquids and gases. But sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Sound
propagates in the form of waves. Wave motion is a periodic disturbance
travelling through a medium which is produced by a vibrating body. Wave
motion travels in all possible directions through the medium at a constant
speed. However, articles of the medium do not move from one place to another.
They only vibrate passing on energy they posses from one particle to another.
Wave motion can be easily understood by
the following example. If we drop a piece
of stone in a pond, ripples spread out in
all directions on the surface of water. If we
keep a piece of paper on the water surface,
it does not move away along the wave. It
Fig.
moves up and down at the same place. It

means wave motion carries energy and not
8.2
matter.
Wave motion does not carry
From this experiment, the following matter with it.
conclusion can be obtained:
i. The disturbance moves from one place to another but water is not carried
along with it.
ii. When a stone is dropped into a pond, the energy carried by the stone disturbs
the water molecules and they start to vibrate by gaining energy from the stone.
Vibrating molecules transfer some energy to the nearby water molecules and
move up and down in the form of ripples.

Types of Wave
There are two types of waves. They are:
i. Transverse wave ii. Longitudinal wave
Transverse wave
Visit a nearby pond and drop a piece of stone at the centre of the pond. You can
see ripples on the surface of water in the pond. The ripples produced on the
surface of pond are called transverse waves. The wave in which the particles of
the medium vibrate up and down perpendicular to the direction of the wave
is called a transverse wave.
For example: ripples produced on the water surface in a pond, vibration of
stretched string in musical instruments, waves formed in a slinky when move
up and down. A transverse wave can propagate only in solids and at the
surface of liquids.
Crests
Fig.
Troughs
8.3
A transverse wave consists of crests and troughs. Crest is the point of maximum
positive displacement of a transverse wave. Similarly, trough is the point of
maximum negative displacement of a transverse wave.
Longitudinal wave
A wave in which particles of the medium vibrate to and fro in the direction
of the wave is called a longitudinal wave. For examples, sound wave, wave
formed in a slinky when pulled and pushed, etc.
Fig.
Rarefaction Compression
8.4
A longitudinal wave consists of regions of compressions and rarefactions. A

compression is that part of a longitudinal wave in which the particles of the
medium are closer to one another and rarefaction is the part of the wave in
which the particles are farther apart.

Differences between transverse wave and longitudinal wave
Transverse wave Longitudinal wave
1. In this wave the particles of the 1. In this wave, the particles of the
medium vibrate up and down medium vibrate to and fro in the
perpendicular to the direction of direction of the wave.
the wave.
2. It is produced only in solids and 2. It is produced in solid, liquid and
surface of liquids. gas.
3. It consists of crests and troughs. 3. It consists of compression and
rarefaction.
Propagation of sound wave Do You Know

Sound needs material medium for Propagation of sound is the transmission of
its propagation. The sound from a sound wave from one place to another.
vibrating body propagates through
air and reaches our ears and we hear
the sound. So the transmission of the sound from one place to another is called
propagation of sound. The propagation of sound takes place through solids,
liquids and gases. Sound cannot propagate through vacuum.
Air is one of the media for the propagation of sound. The speed of sound in air is
about 332 m/s. Sound wave cannot propagate in the absence of air. So, sound cannot
propagate on the surface of the moon as that happens on the surface of the earth.
Liquid is another medium for propagation of sound. The speed of sound in
water is about 1498 m/s. The sound produced by aquatic animals like dolphin,
whale, etc. propagates through water.
Similarly, solid is a medium through which sound propagates. The speed of
sound in the steel medium is about 5200 m/s. The sound wave travels farther
in solids than in liquids or gases.
Sound propagates in the form of longitudinal wave. When sound wave propagates
through air, the particles of air vibrates to and fro parallel to the directions of
propagation of sound wave. It forms regions of compressions and rarefactions
which are shown in the given figure.
Compression
Fig.
8.5 Rarefaction
Speed of Sound in Different Media
The speed of sound is not the same in all material medium. It is maximum
in solids and minimum in gases. In solids, molecules are packed closer than
in gases. So, molecules of solids carry vibrations farther than by liquids and
gases. The speed of sound in some common media is given below:
Medium Speed
Water 1498 m/s
Wet air 400 m/s
Dry air 345 m/s
Copper 3700 m/s
Glass 5000 m/s
Steel 5200 m/s
Activity 1
To demonstrate the propagation of sound through a solid.
Button Thread
Fig.
Can
8.6 Speaking Hearing
Make a toy telephone by using two empty cans, two small buttons and a
long thread. Make a hole at the bottom of each tin can, pass the thread
through the hole and tie its ends to a button. Use this telephone to talk
to your friends. This activity proves that sound can travel through a thread
(solid).
Activity 2
To demonstrate the propagation of sound through liquids.
Take a squeaking toy and keep it in a polythene bag. Hold the toys in a bucket
of water and squeeze it. Can you hear its squeak. Place your ear against the
side of the bucket and squeeze the toy again. Do you hear its squeak? In
which case did you hear the sound more clearly? This activity shows that the
sound travels through liquid.

Key Concepts
1. Sound is a form of energy which gives the sensation of hearing in our ears.
2. Sound is produced due to the vibrating body, so vibrating body is the source
of sound.
3. Sound can travel in solid, liquid and gas but it cannot travel in a vacuum.
4. A periodic disturbance travelling through a medium which is produced by
a vibrating body is called wave motion.
5. There are two types of waves. They are transverse wave and longitudinal
wave.
6. Sound travels in the form of longitudinal wave.
7. A transverse wave is the wave in which particles of the medium vibrates
up and down perpendicular to the direction of the wave. A transverse wave
consists of crests and trough.
8. Crest is the point of maximum positive displacement of a transverse wave.
9. Trough is the point of maximum negative displacement of transverse wave.
10. Longitudinal wave is the wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate
to and fro in the direction of the wave.
11. Propagation of sound is the transmission of sound from one place to another.
Exercise
a. Sound is a form of energy which produces sensation of sound.
b. Sound can propagate through a vacuum.
c. Sound travels faster in gas than in solid medium.
d. The speed of sound in the air is 332 m/s.
e. Longitudinal wave consists of crests and troughs.

a. Sound is produced from a ................... body.
b. The wave of sound is a ................... wave.

c. ................... medium is required for the propagation of sound.
d. A ................... wave consists of crests and troughs.
e. Sound cannot travel in ...................
3. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.

a. Sound is a form of energy which gives the sensation of ...................
vision warmth
hearing all of above
b. Sound cannot travel through a ...................

solid liquid
gas vacuum
c. The speed of sound in air is ...................

332 m/s 1500 m/s
5200 m/s 2500 m/s
d. The speed of sound is minimum in ...................

solid liquid
gas air
e. Which one of the following medium produces sound?

solid medium liquid medium
gas medium vibrating medium

a. What is sound?
b. How is sound produced?
c. What is source of sound? Write any four examples.
d. What is a wave motion?

e. What are two types of waves?
f. What is a transverse wave? Write any two examples.
g. What is a longitudinal wave? Write any two examples.
h. What is meant by propagation of sound?
i. Why is speed of sound more in solids than in gases?
5. Write the differences between:

a. Transverse wave and Longitudinal wave
b. Crests and Troughs
c. Compressions and Rarefactions
6. Give reason:
a. We cannot talk in the moon as in the earth.
b. The speed of sound is higher in solids than in liquids.
c. Sound cannot propagate through a vacuum.
7. Describe an activity to prove that sound can travel in a liquid medium.
8. Describe an activity to prove that sound can travel in a solid medium.

UNIT
Measurement
9
Before You Begin

A magnet is a substance which attracts iron, cobalt, nickel, etc.
A bar magnet always rests in the north south direction when
suspended freely. A magnet has two poles, viz. north pole and
south pole. Magnets may be natural or artificial and temporary
or permanent. Magnets are quite useful for human beings. We
use magnets in various equipment like radio, television, mobile
phone, loudspeaker, microphone, toys, motors, generators, etc.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Magnet : Introduction
i. introduce magnet and state its types. • Natural magnet and artificial
ii. differentiate between natural and artificial magnet. magnet
iii. introduce permanent and temporary magnets. • Permanent and temporary
magnets
iv. describe the methods of making magnet with
demonstrations. • Methods of making magnets
v. state the uses of magnet. – Rubbing method and
electrical method
• Uses of magnets
magnet : the substance which attracts iron, cobalt, etc and rests in north-south
direction when suspended freely
natural : existing in nature and not made or caused by people, coming from nature.
artificial : not natural or real
electrical : of or relating to electricity
electromagnet : the magnet made by using electric currents

Magnet
Natural magnet
A magnet which is found in nature is called
a natural magnet. Lodestone is an example
of a natural magnet. It was discovered by a
shepherd boy Mangers while roaming on Mt.
Ida of Asia Minor. He noticed that his iron
straped sandals got stuck to the black stone.
The black stone had a special property to
Fig.
attract iron. The black stone was the ore of
iron called magnetite or lodestone. It is found 9.1
in irregular shapes and the attractive property Lodestone (Natural magnet)
is very less in natural magnets. Therefore,
natural magnets are not much useful.
Artificial magnets
The magnets which are made by human beings by various methods are called
artificial magnets. They are of different shape, size and strength. Some common
artificial magnets are given below.
Bar magnet U-shaped magnet Horse shoe-shaped

magnet
Fig.
9.2
Magnetic compass Magnetic needle (Dip Cylindrical magnets
needle)
Types of Artificial Magnets
1. Permanent magnets
2. Temporary magnets
1. Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are those magnets which retain their magnetism for a
long time. We use iron, cobalt, nickel and steel to make permanent magnets.
They are used in radio, loudspeaker, television, mobile phone, tape recorder,
transistor, doors of refrigerator, watch, etc. Permanent magnets are of different
shapes and sizes.
2. Temporary magnets
Temporary magnets are those magnets in
which magnetism retains only for a short
period of time. Electromagnet is an example of
temporary magnet. Electromagnets are made
by passing electric current through an insulated
copper wire. An electromagnet behaves as
Fig.
a magnet until current flows through the

insulated copper wire. We use electromagnets
in electric fan, generator, electric bell, electric 9.3
motor, etc. Electromagnet
Activity 1
Take some small iron nails and spread them on a table.
Now, bring a bar magnet near the iron
nails. Does the magnet attract them?
When a magnet is brought near the iron nails, it
attracts them. This property is called attractive
Fig.
property of a magnet.
9.4
Activity 2
Take a thread, a bar magnet and a wooden stand. Tie the magnet with the
thread and suspend the magnet in the stand so that the magnet rotates
freely.

Leave the magnet undisturbed and wait until the magnet rests. The magnet
rests by pointing in the north-south
direction.
Now, take another bar magnet and
Thread
repeat the above activity. This magnet
also rests by pointing in the north-
south direction. This activity proves N S Magnet
Fig.
that a freely suspended magnet rests in
Wooden stand
the north - south direction.
9.5
Differences between Natural magnet and Artificial magnet

Natural magnet Artificial magnet
1. It is found in nature. 1. It is made by human beings.
2. It is not found in all parts of the 2. It can be made in all parts of the
earth. earth.
3. Its shape is irregular. 3. Its shape is regular.
Example : lodestone Example : U-shaped magnet
Methods of Making Magnets

Magnets can be made by various methods. Generally, we use iron and steel to
make artificial magnets. But we cannot make magnet by using non-magnetic
substances. Some common methods of making magnets are given below:
1. Rubbing method
Rubbing method is the method of developing magnetism in a magnetic
substance by rubbing a bar magnet over the magnetic substance for many
times. It can be done by two methods.
i. Single touch method ii. Double touch method
i. Single-touch method
The rubbing method in which single Magnet S
magnet is rubbed with a magnetic
substance for many times in only
one direction is called single touch
Fig.
N
method. By this method, we can
develop magnetism in iron bar, blade, 9.6 Iron bar
iron clips, iron rod, etc.

Activity 3
Take a steel bar and a bar magnet.
Prepare a magnet by single touch method.
Observe whether the newly formed magnet attracts iron nails or not.
ii. Double-touch method

The rubbing method in
which a pair of magnet is N
Bar magnets S
rubbed for several times
over a magnetic substance
is called double touch S N
Fig.
method. In this method,

two bar magnets are rubbed Steel bar
9.7
at the center of the magnetic
substance with the unlike poles of two magnets simultaneously.
Activity 4
Take a steel bar and two bar magnets.
Develop magnetic property on the steel bar by double-touch method.
2. Electrical method
Electrical method is the method of making electromagnet by passing electric
current through an insulated copper wire wound around a soft iron core.
Electromagnet is a temporary magnet as it retains magnetism until electric
current flows through the wire.
Do You Know
While making an electromagnet,
winding should be done from only
one side.
An insulated copper wire is used
for winding around soft iron core,
Fig.
short circuiting takes place if we

use naked wire.
9.8
Electromagnet

Activity 5
Take two dry cells, a soft iron core, a switch, iron nails and a 5 metre long
insulated copper wire.
Prepare an electromagnet by using these materials.
Test the magnetism of the newly formed electromagnet by using iron nails.
Uses of Magnets
1. Magnets are used in various equipment like electric bell, electric fan, speaker,
microwave woven, etc.
2. They are used in radio, television, computer, dynamo, generator, electric
motor, etc.
3. They are used in toys, doors of refrigerator, tape recorders, video recorders,
etc.
4. They are used to lift heavy loads of iron and to remove eye splinters.
5. They are used to find directions.
6. They are also used in magnetic therapy.
Key Concepts
1. A magnet is a substance which attracts iron, cobalt, nickel, etc.
2. Magnets may be natural or artificial and temporary or permanent.
3. The magnet which is found in nature is called natural magnet. Lodestone is
an example of natural magnet.
4. The magnets which are made by human beings by various methods are
called artificial magnets.
5. Permanent magnets are those magnets which retain their magnetism for a
long time.
6. Temporary magnets are those magnets in which magnetism retains only for
a short period of time.
7. Rubbing method is the method of developing magnetism in a magnetic
substance by rubbing a bar magnet over the magnetic substance for many
times.
8. The rubbing method in which single magnet is rubbed with a magnetic
substance for many times in only one direction is called single touch method.
9. The rubbing method in which a pair of magnet is rubbed for several times
over a magnetic substance is called double touch method.
10. Electrical method is the method of making electromagnet by passing electric
current through an insulated copper wire wound around a soft iron core.
11. Magnets are used in various equipment like electric bell, electric fan, speaker,
microwave woven, etc.
Exercise
a. Lodestone is a natural magnet.
b. Electromagnet is a permanent magnet.
c. We can prepare magnet by using non-magnetic substances.
d. Magnet is used to find directions.
a. The magnet which is found in nature is called ………………
b. ……………… is a temporary magnet.
c. Magnet can be made only from ……………… substance.
d. ……………… is used in electric bell.

a. The shape of a natural magnet is ………………
regular irregular round cylindrical
b. ……………… is a temporary magnet.

compass lodestone
electromagnet bare magnet
c. A magnet has ……………… poles.

one two three four

a. What are magnets? Write any two properties of magnets.
b. Who discovered the magnet?
c. What is lodestone?
d. What are natural magnets?
e. Define artificial magnets with any three examples.
f. Define permanent and temporary magnet with one example of each.
g. Write any two methods of making magnets. Describe any one of them.
h. Write any three uses of magnets.
i. Name any three equipment in which magnets are used.
5. Describe the method of making magnet by single touch method with a

neat figure.
6. Describe the method of making magnet by electrical method with a neat

figure.
7. Write any three differences between natural magnets and artificial

magnets.

UNIT
Electricity
10
Before You Begin

The form of energy which is produced due to the continuous flow
of electrons or flow of charges is called electricity. It is of two types,
viz. static electricity and current electricity. The electricity which
is produced due to the continuous flow of electrons through a
conductor is called current electricity. Cell and battery are the sources
of electricity. We can convert electrical energy into heat energy, light
energy, mechanical energy, sound energy, etc. Therefore, electricity is
the most important form of energy.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to electricity
i. introduce electricity and state its types. • Static electricity and its effects
ii. introduce static electricity with demonstration. • Current electricity
iii. introduce current electricity and electric circuits. • Electric circuit and its types
iv. write the symbols used in electric circuits. • Symbols used in circuit
v. demonstrate series and parallel connection of cells diagrams
and state their importance. • Combination of cells
– Series combination
– Parallel combination
electricity : the form of electricity which is produced due to flow of charges/electrons

lightning : a bright flash of electricity produced by a thunderstorm
thunderstorm : a storm with thunder and lightning
dynamo : a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

Electricity
Static Electricity
When a plastic comb is rubbed against your
hair, the comb becomes negatively charged
due to flow of electrons from the hair to the
comb. When the comb is brought near the
pieces of paper, the positive charges in the
paper get deposited in the comb. As a result,
the comb attracts the pieces of paper. The
Fig.
electricity produced in the comb while rubbing
is static electricity. So, static electricity can be 10.1
defined as electricity produced in an insulator A girl combing her hair
which do not flow and remain bound to the
surface of that insulator. The electric charges remain at rest in static electricity.
How a Body Gets Charged

All substances are made of molecules
and molecules are made of atoms. Each
Electron
atom contains equal number of protons
and electrons having opposite charges. Neutron
So an atom becomes electrically neutral.
Proton
When one body is rubbed on the
Fig.
Shell
surface of another body, electrons get
transferred from one body to another 10.2
due to friction. As a result, one body A neutral atom
becomes negatively charged and
another body becomes negatively charged. The body which gains electrons
will be negatively charged and which loses electrons will be positively charged.
Therefore, when a comb is rubbed against the hair, electrons flow from hair
to the comb. As a result, the comb becomes negatively charged and the hair
becomes positively charged.
Various insulators like wool, plastic, rubber, polyster, acrylic, etc. develop
charges due to friction. When we wear clothes made of wool, polyster, acrylic,
etc. they become negatively charged due to friction with our body. When we
put on these, clothes charges move fast. As a result, sound like tik-tik can
be heard along with flashes while putting on these clothes in a dark room.
The electricity which is produced in insulators due to friction is called static
electricity.
Activity 1
Take a plastic comb and rub against the hair for several time.
Now, bring the comb near the pieces of paper or dust particles. What do you
observe? What can you conclude from this activity?
Effects of Static Electricity

Static electricity has many effects. The major effects of static electricity are
lightning and thunderstorm. Lightning is also the flow of electricity. This fact
was discovered by Benjamin Franklin in 1752.
The bright flash of electricity that can be seen in the sky is called lightning. It
is a massive electrostatic discharged between the clouds or between the cloud
and surface of the earth.
Clouds having
+ve charge
Fig.
Clouds having
–ve charge
10.3
Cloud is made of very small droplets of water and these droplets fall downwards
slowly and hot air and molecules move upwards.
Generally, positive charges develop in upper clouds and negative charges
develop in lower clouds. Electrons flow from negatively charged clouds to the
positively charged clouds. It produces a large amount of heat energy due to
sudden transfer of charges. This heat makes nearby air quite hot which can be
seen as a fast moving flash in the sky. A loud sound is heard immediately after
lightning due to sudden expansion and contraction of hot air.
A storm with lightning and thunder is called thunderstorm. It mainly occurs in
spring and summer during the afternoon and evening. When charged clouds
come close to the earth, charged clouds flow towards the earth through trees
or tall buildings. When negatively charged clouds come close to the earth,
trees or buildings develop positive charge and when positively charged clouds
come close to the earth, trees or buildings develop negative charge. When
unlike charges come nearby, heavy charges flow between them. As a result, a
large amount of energy is released in the form of heat, light and sound which
is called thunderstorm. It damages life
and property. It kills human beings,
domestic animals and destroys houses,
trees, towers, buildings, etc.
Now-a-days, lightning rod or conductor
is used to protect tall houses and
Fig.
buildings from thunderstorm. A
lightning rod consists of a number of
10.4
sharp and pointed rods connected to the
Thunderstorm
ground with a thick copper or iron wire.
A lightning rod protects the house or building from thunderstorm.
Current Electricity
When a cell is connected to a bulb with copper wires, the bulb glows due to
continuous flow of electrons through the wire. Such flow of electrons through a
conductor is called current electricity. So, the form of energy which is produced
due to continuous flow of electrons is called current electricity. Cell, battery,
dynamo and generator are the sources of current electricity.
Current electricity is a very useful form of energy. It can be converted into heat
energy, light energy, sound energy, magnetic energy. It is used to light bulb, to
operate heater, television, computer, radio, fan, telephone, etc.
Open Electric Circuit

The electric circuit in which a load does
not work is called open circuit. In an
open circuit, electric current does not Switch
flow continuously. So the load (bulb)
Fig.
(OFF)
does not work. A circuit may be open (i)
if the switch is turned 'OFF', (ii) wire has 10.5
broken or (iii)load (bulb) is damaged. Open circuit
Closed Electric Circuit

The electric circuit in which a load
works continuously is called closed
electric circuit. In this condition,
Fig.
Switch (ON)
current flows continuously through
the circuit. The switch is turned 10.6
'ON' in a closed circuit. Closed circuit

Symbols Used in Circuit Diagrams
While drawing circuit diagrams, electrical equipment and components of
electric circuit are represented by their symbols. The main components and
electrical equipments with their symbols and functions are as follows:
Components/
S. No. Symbols Function
Devices
1. Wire To make circuit
To make electric
2. Wires (not connected)
path
To make electric
3. Wires (connected)
path
To open and close
4. Switch
circuit
5. Electric cell Source of electricity
6. Battery Source of electricity
To convert electrical
7. Resistor/Load or energy into another
form
To convert
8. Bulb or electricity into light
To measure the
9. Ammeter A
current
To measure the
10. Voltmeter V
voltage
To break the
11. Fuse or circuit in case of
overloading
To detect electric
12. Galvanometer G
current

An electric circuit showing various components in proper order of combination
is given below:
A
Fig. V
10.7
Electric circuit
Combination of Cells
In order to increase the voltage or current, we combine a number of cells.
The process of connecting two or more cells in an electric circuit is called
combination of cells. In practice, cells are connected by two ways.
1. Series combination of cells
2. Parallel combination of cells
1. Series combination of cells

The combination of cells in which the positive terminal of cell is connected
to the negative terminal of another cell is called series combination of cells.
When we need more voltage and more current, we combine a number of cells
in series.
– + – + – + – + – + – +
Fig.
10.8 (i) (ii) (iii)

Series combination of cells
Characteristics of series combination of cells

i. The brightness of the bulb increases on increasing the number of cells.
ii. The voltage increases on increasing the number of cells. The total voltage is
equal to the sum of the voltage of the individual cell, i.e. V = V1 + V2 + V3
2. Parallel Combination of Cells

The combination of cells in which positive terminals of all cells are connected
to one point and negative terminals of all cells are connected to another point
is called parallel cell. When we need low voltage and high current, we combine
a number of cells in parallel.
+ + + + + +
– – – – – –
Fig.
10.9 (i) (ii) (iii)

Parallel combination of cells
Characteristics of parallel combination of cells

i. The brightness of bulb does not increase on increasing the number of cells.
ii. This type of circuit works for a long time.
iii. The total voltage of the circuit is equal to that of the single cell, i.e.
V = V1 = V 2 = V 3
Activity 2
Take copper wire, bulb, switch and three dry cells.
Combine these cells in series and parallel and observe the brightness.
Take a voltmeter and measure the voltage in each case.
Write down the conclusion of this activity after your observation.
Key Concepts
1. Static electricity can be defined as the electricity produced in an insulator
which do not flow and remain bound to the surface of that insulator.
2. The electricity which is produced in insulators due to friction is called static
electricity.
3. The bright flash of electricity that can be seen in the sky is called lightning.

4. A lightning rod protects the house or building from the thunderstorm.
5. The electric circuit in which a load does not work is called open circuit.
6. The electric circuit in which a load works continuously is called closed
electric circuit.
7. The combination of cells in which the positive terminal of a cell is connected
to the negative terminal of another cell is called series combination of cells.
Exercise
a. Electricity is produced due to flow of charges/electrons.
b. Thunderstorm damages life and property.
c. A load does not work in an open circuit.
d. Voltmeter is used to measure the current.
a. ……………… electricity is produced due to friction.
b. The group of cells is called ………………
c. ……………… is used to measure the voltage.
d. The brightness of bulb ……………… on increasing the number of cells

in series combination.

a. ……………… is the effect of current electricity.
lightning thunderstorm
operating computer friction

b. ……………… is used to open and close the circuit.
bulb switch wire ammeter

c. ……………… converts electrical energy into light energy.
heater CFL voltmeter fuse
d. When three cells of 1.5 v each are connected in parallel, the total voltage
will be ………………
4.5 V 1.5 V 3V 2v

a. What is electricity? What are its types?
b. Define static electricity?
c. What is lightning? Write any two effects of thunderstorm.
d. Why is lightning conductor used?
e. Define current electricity? Name any two sources of current electricity.
f. What is electric circuit? Draw a figure showing closed electric circuit.
g. Define series combination and parallel combination of cells with any
two features of each.
h. Why are cells combined in series?
5. Write any two differences between:

a. Open circuit and closed circuit
b. Series combination and parallel combination of cells
6. Draw a closed electric circuit by combining the given components:

- two dry cells - a bulb
- a swtich - a voltmeter
– + – +
7. Name the types of combination of cells shown in
the figure. Also, write its two characteristics.
8. What is done to protect tall buildings from thunderstorm?
9. Write one advantage of using symbols of electric appliances while

drawing circuit diagrams.

Chemistry
UNIT
Matter
11
Before You Begin

Matter can be defined as anything having a mass and volume. All
matter have mass and they occupy space. For example, air, soil,
water, milk, stone, brick, wood, smoke, cloud, petrol, kerosene,
iron, gold, plastic, etc. Sound, light, shadow, heat, etc. do not have
mass and volume. So they are not matter. Matter can be soluble
or insoluble, transparent or opaque and good conductor or bad
conductor of heat and electricity. Matter exist in three different
states, viz. solid, liquid and gas. Same matter can exist in three
different states. For example, water can exist in all three states,
viz, solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (vapour).

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Matter and states of matter
i. introduce matter and its general state with properties. • Solid, liquid and gas
ii. define elements and name the first twenty elements • Element and compound
with their symbols.
• Symbol
iii. define compounds and write the molecular formulae
of some common compounds. • Atom and molecule
iv. define atom and molecules and describe the method • Molecular formula
of writing molecular formula.
• Change in states of matter
v. define physical and chemical change and differentiate
• Physical change and chemical
between them.
change
matter : anything having mass and volume

solid : matter having a fixed shape and fixed volume
liquid : matter having no fixed shape but having fixed volume
gas : matter having no fixed shape and volume
symbol : the abbriviation of the full name of an element
atom : the smallest particle of an element
molecule : the smallest particle of matter that exist freely

States of Matter
A variety of matter are found in our surroundings. Stone, water, air, milk,
cloud, snow, ice, wood, plastic, etc. are examples of matter. Matter can exist in
three different states. They are i. solid ii. liquid and iii. gas.
Solids
Solids are substances having a fixed shape and a fixed volume. Examples: ice,
wood, stone, brick, plastic, soil, iron, sand, etc.
Fig.
11.1
Ice Wood Stone
Characteristics of solids Do You Know

1. Solids have a fixed shape.
Matter exist in three states, viz. solid,
2. They have a fixed volume. liquid and gas.
3. They are generally hard. Diamond is the hardest known solid
substance.
4. They do not flow from one place
to another.
5. Their molecules are closely packed.
Liquids
Liquids are substances having a fixed volume but no fixed shape. Examples:
water, milk, kerosene, diesel, alcohol, petrol, oil, blood, etc.
Fig.
11.2
Milk Petrol Water
Characteristics of liquids
1. Liquids have a fixed volume.
2. They do not have a fixed shape. They take the shape of the container in which
they are kept.
3. They flow easily because their molecules are loosely arranged.
Gases
Gases are substances which neither have a fixed
shape nor a fixed volume. Examples: air, smoke,
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, helium,
water vapour, argon, etc.
Fig.
Characteristics of gases
1. Gases do not have a fixed shape.
11.3
2. They do not have a fixed volume. Air inside a balloon
3. They flow from one place to another.
4. Their molecules are loosely arranged.
5. They can be compressed easily.
Elements
Different types of substances are found in our surroundings. Among them,
some cannot be broken down into simple substances by ordinary chemical
means. These substances are called elements. An element is a pure substance
which cannot be divided into two or more simpler substances by ordinary
chemical means. Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Sodium (Na), Copper (Cu), Silver
(Ag), Gold (Au), etc are examples of elements. Elements are pure substances
formed by only one kind of atoms.
Fig.
11.4
Gold Iron Silver Copper
Gold, iron, silver and copper are called elements because they are formed
by only one type of atoms and they cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by ordinary chemical methods. All the atoms of the same element
are identical but atoms of different elements are different.
Scientists have discovered 118 elements so far. Among them 92 are found in
nature and remaining 26 elements have been discovered by chemists in the
laboratory. At normal temperature and pressure, elements exist in all three
states, viz. solid, liquid and gas. Elements like iron, copper, gold, silver,
sodium, magnesium, aluminium, etc. are found in solid state. Elements like
mercury, bromine, caesium and gallium are found in liuqid state and elements
like hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, argon, etc. are found in gaseous
state.
Symbol
It takes time and consumes more space while writing the full names of elements.
So an element is denoted by its first letter or first letter and another significant
letter, which is called symbol. A symbol can be defined as the first letter or the
first letter and another letter of the English name or Latin name of an element.
For example, the symbol of hydrogen is H, the symbol of nitrogen is N and
the symbol of oxygen is O. Generally, the first letter of an element is written as
the symbol. However, there are some elements whose names begin with the
same letter. In such cases, one of the elements is given a one letter symbol but
all other elements are given two letter symbol. For example, carbon, chlorine,
calcium, chromium and cobalt all begin with the letter 'C'. So only carbon is
symbolized by its first letter 'C' and all other elements are symbolized by two
letters, i.e. Cl for chlorine, Ca for calcium, Cr for chromium and Co for cobalt.
The names of first twenty elements and their symbols are given below:
Electronic
Atomic Name of Number of Atomic mass
Symbol configuration Valency
number elements (p+ + n°)
p+ n° e– K L M N
1. Hydrogen H 1 0 1 1+0=1 1 × × × 1
2. Helium He 2 2 2 2+2=4 2 × × × 0
3. Lithium Li 3 4 3 3+4=7 2 1 1
4. Beryllium Be 4 5 4 4+5=9 2 2 2
5. Boron B 5 6 5 5 + 6 = 11 2 3 3
6. Carbon C 6 6 6 6 + 6 = 12 2 4 4
7. Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 + 7 = 14 2 5 3

8. Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 + 8 = 16 2 6 2
9. Fluorine F 9 10 9 9 + 10 = 19 2 7 1
10. Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 + 10 = 20 2 8 0
11. Sodium Na 11 12 11 11 + 12 = 23 2 8 1 1
12. Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 + 12 = 24 2 8 2 2
13 Aluminium Al 13 14 13 13 + 14 = 27 2 8 3 3
14. Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 + 14 = 28 2 8 4 4
15. Phosphorus P 15 16 15 15 + 16 = 31 2 8 5 3
16. Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 + 16 = 32 2 8 6 2
17. Chlorine Cl 17 18 17 17 + 18 = 35 2 8 7 1
18. Argon Ar 18 22 18 18 + 22 = 40 2 8 8 0
19. Potassium K 19 20 19 19 + 20 = 39 2 8 8 1 1
20. Calcium Ca 20 20 20 20 + 20 = 40 2 8 8 2 2
Compound
Substances like water (H2O), sodium chloride H H
(NaCl), carbon dioxide (CO2), calcium carbonate
O
(CaCO3) etc. are some examples of compounds.
Fig.
They are formed by combination of two or more

elements in a fixed proportion by weight. So, the Water (H2O)
11.5
chemical substance formed by a combination of
two or more elements in a fixed proportion by weight is called a compound. A
compound is made of two or more atoms. Two or more active elements undergo
chemical reaction which results in the formation of a compound. A compound
does not contain the properties of its constituent elements.
Water is a compound formed by combination of
two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. O C O
Fig.
Carbon dioxide is a compound formed by

combination of one atom of carbon and two 11.6 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
atoms of oxygen.
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is a compound
formed by a combination of one atom of Cl Mg Cl
Fig.
magnesium and two atoms of chlorine.

11.7 Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
Differences between Elements and Compounds
Elements Compounds
1. An element is a pure substance 1. A compound is a pure substance
formed by only one type of atoms. formed by a combination of two
or more types of atoms.
2. The smallest particle of an element 2. The smallest particle of a
is called atom. compound is called a molecule.
3. An element cannot be split into 3. A compound can be split into two
simpler substances by ordinary or more simpler substances by
chemical means. ordinary chemical means.
Atom
An atom is the smallest particle of
an element which can take part in Shell or orbit
a chemical reaction. All atoms of
Proton
an element are similar but atoms
of different elements are different.
Neutron
For example, all atoms of gold
Fig.
Nucleus
are identical but the atom of gold Electron
differs from that of copper or 11.8
silver. Scientists have discovered An atom
118 types of atoms so far. Among
them, most atoms cannot exist freely in nature but atoms of helium (He),
neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn) exist freely in
nature. Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), sodium (Na) and calcium (Ca)
are some examples of atom.
Structure of an atom Electron

An atom is made of three Shell or orbit
fundamental particles or sub- Nucleus
atomic particles. They are proton, Proton
neutron and electron. Among Neutron
them, proton and neutron are
Fig.
located in the nucleus whereas

electrons revolve around the 11.9
nucleus in elliptical orbits or shells. Oxygen atom
Protons are positively charged sub-atomic particles located in the nucleus of
an atom. The mass of one proton is equal to that of one hydrogen atom. The
mass of one hydrogen atom is considered as one amu (atomic mass unit). The
mass of one proton is 1837 times more than that of one electron. A proton is
denoted by (p+).
Neutrons are chargeless sub-atomic particles located in the nucleus of an atom.
The mass of a neutron is equal to that of a proton. A neutron is denoted by n°.
Electrons are negatively-charged sub-atomic particles that revolve around the
nucleus in elliptical orbits or shells. The mass of one electron is 1837 times
smaller than that of one proton. An electron is denoted by e–.
Molecular Formula
Molecular formula is defined as the symbolic representation of the molecule
of an element or a compound in a molecular form. It represents the number
and type of atoms present in a molecule. For example, the molecular formula
of Sodium Chloride (Common salt) is NaCl. It means that one molecule of
Sodium Chloride is formed by a combination of one atom of sodium and one
atom of chlorine. Similarly, the molecular formula of calcium carbonate is
CaCO3. It means that one molecule of Calcium Carbonate is formed by one
atom of calcium, one atom of carbon and three atoms of oxygen. We follow
criss-cross method while writing molecular formulae.
Steps for writing molecular formulae

1. First of all, the symbols of radicals are written side by side.
2. The valency of each radicals is written just below the symbol.
3. The valency of these radicals is exchanged. HCF is taken when required.
4. Radicals should be combined with exchanged valency to get the correct
molecular formula.
Examples:
1. Hydrochloric acid 2. Sodium chloride
H Cl Na Cl
1 1 1 1
H1 Cl1 Na1 Cl1

= HCl = NaCl
3. Magnesium oxide 4. Carbon dioxide
Mg O C O
2 2 4 2
Mg2 1 O 2 1 C2 1 CO4 2
= MgO = CO2
5. Ammonia 6. Magnesium chloride
N H Mg Cl
3 1 2 1
N1 H3 Mg1 Cl2
= NH3 = MgCl2
The molecular formulae of some common compounds are as follows:
Water → H2O Calcium carbonate → CaCO3
Sodium chloride → NaCl Hydrogen → H2
Ammonia → NH3 Oxygen → O2
Carbon dioxide → CO2 Nitrogen → N2
Change in states of Matter

When ice is heated, it changes into water and when water is heated, it changes
into vapour. The physical properties of water and vapour are different but their
chemical properties are the same. This type of change is called temporary change.
Heat Heat
Ice Water Vapour
When a piece of wood is burnt, it changes into ash and carbon dioxide gas.
This type of change is a permanent change. On the basis of properties of the
substances formed, change in matter occur in two ways. They are 1. Physical
change and 2. Chemical change.
1. Physical Change
The temporary change in which only physical
properties are changed is called physical
change. In a physical change, the properties
Fig.
of matter like shape, size, colour, etc. are

changed but the chemical properties of the
matter remain the same. Physical change is 11.10
temporary and reversible. In a phyiscal change, new type of substances are
not formed.
Some examples of physical change are given below:
i. Melting of ice ii. Melting of wax

iii. Conversion of water into vapour iv. Tearing a piece of paper
v. Breaking a piece of glass vi. Magnetizing of a substance
2. Chemical change
The permanent change in which new type of
substances are formed is called a chemical
change. In a chemical change, the physical
as well as chemical properties of matter are
changed. A chemical change is a permanent
and irreversible change.
Fig.
Some examples of chemical change are as
follows: 11.11
i. Burning of a paper
ii. Burning of a wood or coal
Do You Know
iii. Rusting of iron Physical change is a reversible change but
iv. Formation of curd from milk most chemical changes are irreversible.
v. Electrolysis of water, etc.
Differences between physical change and chemical change.

Physical change Chemical change
1. Only physical properties like 1. Both physical as well as chemical
shape, size, colour, etc. are properties are changed.
changed.
2. New substances are not formed. 2. New substances are formed.
3. It is a temporary change. 3. It is a permanent change.
4. It is a reversible change. 4. It is an irreversible change.
Activity 1
Take a lump of ice and keep it in a beaker. Leave the beaker in the sun for a
while. What do you observe? The ice melts slowly and changes into water.
Now, keep the beaker with water inside refrigerator for 2-3 hours. What
do you observe?
The water again changes into ice after cooling.
It shows that this change is a temporary change or physical change.
Activity 2
Take a piece of paper and burn it. The paper changes into ash and carbon
dioxide. Can we make paper by combing the ash and carbon dioxide?
We cannot make paper again once paper is burnt. So this type of change is
called permanent change or chemical change.
Activity 3
Take a small piece of iron and leave it in a moist place for a few days.
Observe the piece of iron after 2-3 days. What do you observe? What
types of change is this? Why?
Key Concepts
1. Matter can be defined as anything having mass and volume.
2. Matter can exist in three different states. They are i. solid ii. liquid, iii.
gas.
3. Liquids are substances having a fixed volume but no fixed shape.
4. Gases are substances which neither have a fixed shape nor a fixed volume.
5. An element is the pure substance which cannot be divided into two or
more simpler substances by ordinary chemical means.
6. All the atoms of the same element are identical but atoms of different
elements are different.
7. A symbol can be defined as the first letter or the first letter and another
letter of the English name or Latin name of an element.
8. The chemical substance formed by a combination of two or more elements
in a fixed proportion by weight is called a compound.
9. A compound does not contain the properties of its constituent elements.
10. An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can take part in a
chemical reaction.
11. An atom is made of three fundamental particles or sub-atomic particles.
They are proton, neutron and electron.
12. Molecular formula is defined as the symbolic representation of the
molecule of an element or a compound in a molecular form.
13. The temporary change in which only physical properties are changed is
called physical change.
14. The permanent change in which new types of substances are formed is
called a chemical change.
Exercise
a. Matter does not have mass.
b. Liquids take the shape of a container in which they are kept.
c. Gases do not flow from one place to another.
d. The symbol of calcium is C.
e. Burning of a paper is a physical change.

a. Matter exists in ........................ states.
b. Solids have a fixed ........................ and a fixed ........................
c. Scientists have discovered ........................ elements so far.
d. The smallest particle of an element is called ........................
e. The molecular formula of carbon dioxide is ........................

a. Which of the given substances is a solid?
wax water milk petrol
b. Which of the given substances is made by only one type of atoms?
gold water
sodium chloride carbon dioxide

c. Which of the following is the symbol of potassium?
P K Po Pt
d. Which of the following is the molecular formula of magnesium chloride?
MgCl MgCl2 Mg2Cl MgCl3
e. Which of the following is a chemical change?
rusting of iron melting of ice
tearing of a paper melting of wax

a. What is matter? Give any three examples.
b. Name the three states of matter.
c. What are solids? Write any three properties of solids with any three
examples.
d. What are liquids? Give any four examples.
e. Write any three properties of liquids.
f. What are gases? Give any three examples.
g. Write any three characteristics of gases.
h. What are elements? Give any five examples.
i. What is a symbol? Write down the symbol of
- helium - carbon - oxygen
- sodium - silicon - phosphorus
- argon - calcium
j. What are compounds? Give any four examples.
k. Define atom and molecule with any two examples of each.
l. What is molecular formula? Write down the molecular formula of
- water - sodium chloride
- carbon dioxide - ammonia
m. Define physical change with any three examples.
n. Define chemical change with any three examples.
5. Give reason.
a. Sodium is called an element.
b. Water is called a compound.
c. The melting of ice is called a physical change.
d. The rusting of iron is called a chemical change.
a. Solid and Gas b. Element and Compound
c. Atom and Molecule d. Physical change and Chemical change.
7. Draw a neat figure to show a:

a. Physical change. b. Chemical change.

UNIT
Mixture
12
Before You Begin

We use a variety of substances in our daily life. Among them, most
are found in the form of mixture and a few are found in pure state.
Mixture contains two or more than two substances in any proportion
by weight. The components of a mixture do not undergo chemical
change. When two or more substances are brought together in any
proportion, the resulting mass is called mixture. Tea, coffee, turbid
water, air, etc. are examples of mixture. The state of a mixture may
be solid, liquid or gas. Similarly, a mixture may be homogeneous
or heterogeneous. In this unit, we will study mixture and various
methods of separating the components of mixture.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to mixture
i. introduce mixture and state the types of mixture with • Types of mixture
examples. • Methods of separating the
ii. explain various methods of separating the components components of mixture
of mixture (evaporation, sublimation, centrifuging - evaporation - sublimation
and crystallization) and demonstrate them.
-centrifuging - crystallization
iii. state the utilities of mixtures in our daily life.
• Uses of mixture
iv. define solution and differentiate between dilute
solution and concentrated solution. • Solution, dilute solution and
concentrated solution
v. introduce unsaturated, saturated and super saturated
solution and demonstrate them. • Unsaturated, saturated and
super saturated solution
vi. explain the utilities of solution in our daily life.
• Utlities of solution in our daily
life.
mixture : the resulting mass formed when two or more substances are brought
together in any proportion by weight
evaporation : the changing of a liquid into vapour or gas
sublimation : the changing of a solid directly into gas on heating and the gas into solid
on cooling
centrifugation : the method of separating the mixture of heavy and light particles by
rotating the mixture at very high speed
crystallization : the process of getting crystals by cooling a hot concentrated solution of a
substance
Mixture
A mixture is the resulting mass formed when two or more substances are
brought together in any proportion by weight. Tea, coffee, juice, sand and salt,
sugar and water, sand and sugar etc. are some examples of mixture. Mixture
may be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Similarly, mixtures may exist in
solid, liquid or gaseous state. A mixture may contain solid, liquid or gas. The
different forms of mixture are given below:
1. Mixture of solid and solid, e.g. sugar and sand, rice and coats, wheat and
stones, salt and sugar, etc.
2. Mixture of solid and liquid, e.g. salt and water, sugar and water, salt and milk,
sugar and milk, etc.
3. Mixture of liquid and liquid, e.g. milk and water, juice and water, alcohol and
petrol, petrol and kerosene, kerosene and water, etc.
4. Mixture of liquid and gas e.g. water and oxygen, water and air, beer, coca
cola, etc.
5. Mixture of gas and gas, e.g air, smoke and air, vapour and air, etc.
The substances which are mixed in a mixture are called the components of
mixture. In a heterogeneous mixture, almost all components can be seen
through our naked eyes but all the components of mixture cannot be seen
through our naked eyes in homogeneous mixtures. For example, we can see all
the components in the mixture of salt and soil. So it is called a heterogeneous
mixture. But we cannot see all the components in the mixture of sugar and
water. So, it is called a homogeneous mixture.
Sand Sugar
Sugar solution
Fig.
12.1
Heterogeneous mixture Homogeneous mixture
We use many things in the form of mixture. But the components of a mixture
are separated by various methods. Different components of a mixture have
different physical properties like shape, size, solubility, density, etc. These
properties are utilized to separate the components of the mixture. We should

know the physical properties of the components of a mixture to select the
suitable method for separating its components. The components of a mixture
are separated to remove undesirable components, to remove harmful and
useless components, to obtain pure substances and to obtain useful substances.
Methods of Separating components of the Mixtures

Different methods are used to separate the components of the mixtures. In this
unit, we will study only four methods. They are as follows:
1. Evaporation 2. Sublimation 3. Centrifugation 4. Crystallization
1. Evaporation
Evaporation is the changing of a liquid into vapour or gas. This method is used
to separate the components from homogeneous mixture of solid and liquid
such as water and sugar, water and salt, water and copper sulphate, etc.
Porcelain basin
Mixture of
salt and water Salt
Burner
Fig.
Stand
12.2
When the mixture of salt and water is Do You Know

heated, the water evaporates. When
The principle of evaporation is based on the
this process continues, all the water
fact that liquids change easily into vapour
gets evaporated and only salt is left on heating but all solids do not change into
behind. In this way, the mixture of vapour on heating except iodine, camphor,
salt and water can be separated by ammonium chloride, etc.
evaporation.
Activity 1
Take a beaker and keep about 50 ml of water into it.
Keep about 100 gram of sugar and stir it with a glass rod till all sugar
gets dissolved in water.
Now, heat the beaker and observe evaporation of water.
Heat the beaker continuously till all water gets evaporated.
When the beaker is heated continuously, all water gets evaporated and only
sugar is left behind. This method of separation of mixture is called evaporation.

Evaporation is utilized to separate salt from sea water. We can separate salt,
sugar, alum, copper sulphate, etc from their solution by evaporation. Similarly,
evaporation is utilized to separate salt from sea water in a large scale. The
sea water is trapped in shallow lakes and allowed to remain there. The water
present there get evaporated gradually due to the heat of the Sun leaving the
common salt as a residue.
2. Sublimation
Only a few solid substances change directly into vapour on heating and the
vapour again changes into solid on cooling. Such type of solid substances can
be separated from their mixture by sublimation. Solid substances like camphor,
iodine, ammonium chloride, etc. directly change into vapour (gas) on heating.
These substances are called sublimes. Sublimation is the changing of a solid
directly into vapours on heating and of vapours into solid on cooling.
Sublimation is used to separate
sublimes from the mixture of Do You Know
sublimes and non sublimes. The The solid substances that change directly
mixtures of camphor and sand, sand into vapours on heating are called sublimes,
eg. iodine, camphor, ammonium chloride,
and iodine, ammonium chloride etc.
and sodium chloride, etc. can be
separated by sublimation.
Experiment: 1
To demonstrate sublimation by separating the mixture of sand and camphor.
Requirements
Porcelain basin, glass funnel, cotton, tripod stand, test tube, wire gauze,
burner, sand, camphor, water
Procedure
• Make a mixture of sand and camphor in a porcelain basin.
• Keep the porcelain basin on wire gauze kept in a tripod stand.
• Invert a funnel and test tube on the porcelain basin as shown in the figure.
• Keep some moist cotton on the outer surface of the test tube.
• Now, heat the mixture for a while with the help of a bunsen burner. Observe
what happens?

Observation
On heating, the Moist cotton
camphor changes Camphor
directly into vapours Test tube
and moves up in
the funnel and the
test tube. When the Procelain basin
Inverted glass funnel
vapour of camphor
comes in contact of Mixture of sand and camphor
cold wall of test tube Wire gauze
the vapour changes Burner
Fig.
again into solid

Stand
camphor. But the
12.3
sand remains on the
porcelain basin.
Conclusion
In this way, sublimation can be demonstrated by separating the mixture of
sand and camphor.
3. Centrifugation
When the mixture of heavy particles and light particles is rotated at a high speed,
heavy and light particles get separated. This process is called centrifugation. It
is done with the help of a machine called centrifuge.
Armoured casing
Before After
Supernatant
Pellet
Fig.
12.4 Rapidly rotating rotor

Centrifugation process Mechanical centrifuge
The method of separating heavy and light particles from their mixture by
rotating the mixture at a very high speed is called centrifugation.
The mixtures of clay particles and water, sand and water, cream from milk,
blood cells and plasma, chalk powder from water, etc. can be separated by
centrifugation.

To separate the components of a
mixture by centrifugation, the mixture
is kept into test tubes of the centrifuge.
Then the test tubes are rotated at a
very high speed for some time. When
Fig.
the mixture rotates in a high speed,
the heavy particles settle at the bottom 12.5
leaving the light particles at the top. Decantation
Then the components of the mixture
can be separated by decantation.
Experiment: 2
To demonstrate centrifugation by separating the mixture of clay, sand and
water.
Requirements
Centrifuge (electric or mechanical) beaker, mixture of clay, sand and water
Procedure
• Take a beaker and make the Armoured casing
mixture of sand and water
• Take out the test tube from the Before After
centrifuge and keep the mixture

Supernatant
of sand and water in these test Pellet
tubes.
Fig.
• Place the test tubes in the holders

inside the centrifuge. Close the 12.6 Rapidly rotating rotor
mouth of the test tube.
• Now, switch on the centrifuge machine to rotate the mixture for 2-3 minutes.
• Switch off the centrifuge and observe the mixture in the test tubes.
Observation
The heavy sand particles settle at the bottom and light clay particles remain
above the sand. Similarly, clear water remains over the clay and sand.
Conclusion
In this way, the mixture of clay, sand and water can be separated by
centrifugation.

4. Crystallization
Crystallization is the method of getting solid
crystals by cooling a hot concentrated solution of
a substance. This method is used to purify some Salt
solid substances like sugar, salt, copper sulphate,
etc. Crystals are solid substances having a fixed
Fig.
geometrical shape, smooth surfaces and sharp
edges. Crystals are pure substances which do 12.7
not contain any impurities.
Fig.
12.8
Crystals of copper Crystals of NaCl Crystals of alum Crystals of sugar
sulphate (common salt)
To separate the components of a mixture by crystallization, the impure solid
substance is taken and dissolved into hot water as much as possible till we get
highly concentrated solution. Then the hot concentrated solution is filtered to
remove insoluble impurities. Then the solution is allowed to cool gradually for
a few days without disturbing it. After a few days, pure crystals are obtained
in the solution. These crystals are separated by filtration.
Experiment: 3
To prepare the crystals of copper sulphate and demonstrate crystallization.
Requirements
Porcelain basin, burner, tripod stand, beaker, glass rod, wire gauze, copper
sulphate, water, thread
Procedure
• Take a porcelain basin and boil some
water in it.
• Add some copper sulphate in the water Copper
and stir it with a glass rod. sulphate
Fig.
• Dissolve as much copper sulphate as

possible to prepare highly concentrated
solution. 12.9
• Remove the porcelain basin from the flame and leave it in a cool place for 2-3
days. You can add some small crystals or a thread to obtain big crystals.
Observation
Crystals of copper sulphate can be seen in the porcelain basin.
Conclusion
In this way, crystals of copper sulphate can be prepared by crystallization
Activity 2
Take a beaker with water and prepare a concentrated solution of common
salt.
Now, heat the beaker and add some more salt in it and stir with a glass rod
till all salt gets dissolved in it.
Keep on heating the salt solution and add some more salt to form a highly
concentrated solution.
Remove the beaker from the flame and immerse a thread in the beaker.
Leave the beaker undisturbed for 4-5 days.
You will see crystals of salt after 4-5 days.
Uses of Mixture
Mixture is very important in our daily life. We use mixture while cooking our
food, to construct house, to make tea and juice. The main utilities of mixtures
are as follows:
i. Green plants absorb salts and water in the form of mixture.
ii. The mixture of cement, sand, pebbels, and water is used for making house,
roads, bridges, etc.
iii. Mixture of different chemicals is used in medicines.
iv. Mixture of different colours is used in painting and printing.
v. We take tea, coffee, juice, food, etc in the form of mixture.
Solution
A solution is the homogeneous mixture
of two or more substances. All the
components of a solution cannot be seen
through our naked eyes. Solution of
Fig.
sugar and water, salt and water, alcohol Sugar + water

and water, coke and water, milk and 12.10
water, etc. are some examples of solution. Sugar solution
A solution consists of two components. They are solute and solvent.
Solute + Solvent = Solution

A solute is a substance which gets dissolved in a solvent. For example, sugar,
salt, copper sulphate, magnesium chloride, etc.
A solvent is a substance which dissolves a solute into it. For example, water,
alcohol, ether, etc. In the solution of salt and water, salt is a solute and water
is a solvent.
Dilute solution and concentrated solution

Dilute solution is the solution
which contains relatively less
amount of solute. Similarly,
concentrated solution is
the solution which contains
relatively more amount of solute:
Dilute solution is lighter than the
Fig.
concentrated solution.
12.11 Dilute solution Concentrated solution
Activity 3
Take two beakers and keep 100 ml of water in each. Mark the beakers A
and B.
Add 5 gram of copper sulphate in the beaker A and stir it with a glass rod.
Add 50 gram of copper sulphate in the beaker B and stir it with a glass rod.
The concentration of copper sulphate is more in the beaker B than in beaker
A. The solution in beaker A is dilute and that in beaker B is concentrated.
Activity 4
Take two glasses and put about 100 ml pure drinking water in each. Mark
one glass A and another glass B.
Dissolve 10 gram of table salt in the glass A and 50 gram of salt in glass
B.
Taste the salt solution from the beaker A. Rinse your mouth. Then taste
the same amount of slat solution from the glass B. Which solution is more
salty A or B? Which solution is dilute and which one is concentrated?
Why?
Unsaturated, Saturated and Supersaturated solution
Take a beaker and put 50 ml water in it. Put 5 gram of salt in it and stir with a glass
rod. Now, add 5 gram more salt and stir till the salt dissolves completely. This
type of solution is called unsaturated solution. The solution which can dissolve
some more solute at a certain temperature is called unsaturated solution.
Keep on adding some more salt, the salt gets dissolved and finally some more
amount of salt does not dissolve at that temperature. This type of solution
is called saturated solution. The solution in which no more solute can be
dissolved at a fixed temperature is called saturated solution. But more amount
of solute can be dissolved by raising the temperature of the solution. We can
dissolve further amount of salt by raising its temperature.
But the solution releases excess solute in the form of crystals when the solution
is cooled. This type of solution is called super saturated solution. The saturated
solution prepared at a higher temperature which throws excess solute as a solid
when cooled is called super saturated solution. The density of unsaturated
solution is minimum and that of supersaturated solution is maximum.
We can identify the type of solution by using a crystal of the solute from which the
solution is made. When a crystal of the solute dissolve in the solution at a fixed
temperature, the type of solution is unsaturated. If the crystal does not dissolve
in the solution at the given temperature, the type of solution is saturated. If the
size of the crystal increases gradually, the type of the solution is supersaturated.
Utilities of solution in Our Daily Life

Solution is very important in our daily life. The major utilities of solution are
given below:
i. We use many medicines in the form of solution.
ii. We consume many drinks in the form of solution.
iii. The food that we eat is digested and absorbed in the form of solution.
iv. Green plants absorb water and minerals in the form of solution.
v. Aquatic plants and animals take oxygen in the form of solution.
vi. We use ink, point, etc. in the form of solution.
Key Concepts
1. When two or more substances are brought together in any proportion,
the resulting mass is called mixture.
2. A mixture is the resulting mass formed when two or more substances are
brought together in any proportion by weight.
3. The substances which are mixed in a mixture are called the components
of the mixture.
4. The components of a mixture are separated to remove undesirable
components, to remove harmful and useless components, to obtain pure
substances and to obtain useful substances.
5. Evaporation is the changing of a liquid into vapour or gas.
6. Sublimation is the changing of a solid directly into vapours on heating
and of vapours into solid on cooling.
7. The method of separating heavy and light particles from their mixture
by rotating the mixture at a very high speed is called centrifugation.
8. Crystallization is the method of getting solid crystals by cooling a hot
concentrated solution of a substance.
9. Crystals are solid substances having a fixed geometrical shape, smooth
surfaces and sharp edges.
10. A solution is the homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. All
the components of a solution cannot be seen through our naked eyes.
11. A solute is a substances which gets dissolved in a solvent.
12. A solvent is a substance which dissolves a solute into it.
13. The solution which can dissolve some more solute at a certain temperature
is called unsaturated solution.
14. The solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a fixed
temperature is called saturated solution.
15. The saturated solution prepared at a higher temperature which throws
excess solute as a solid when cooled is called supersaturated solution.
Exercise
a. Mixture does not exist in gaseous state.
b. In a heterogeneous mixture, we can see all the components of a
mixture.
c. The changing of a liquid into gas is called sublimation.

d. The mixture of sand and camphor can be separated by
centrifugation.
e. A supersaturated solution throws excess solute when it is cooled.

2. Fill in the blanks using appropriate words:
a. The substance that dissolves in a solvent is called ...........................
b. The mixture of heavy and light particles can be separated by

...........................
c. ........................... is used to separate the mixture of salt and camphor .
d. In ........................... solution, the amount of solute is relatively less.
e. The saturated solution prepared at a high temperature is called

...........................

a. The resulting mass formed by a combination of two or more substances
is called ......................
mixture solution
solvent solute
b. Crystallization is used to separate the mixture of ......................
sand and water salt and water
sand and camphor cream and milk

c. Which method is used to separate the mixture of salt and iodine?
sublimation evaporation
crystallization centrifugation
d. ...................... solution is prepared at a high temperatures.

unsaturated saturated
super saturated dilute

a. What is a mixture? Give any two examples.
b. Why do we separate the components of a mixture? Give any three
reasons.
c. Name any three methods of separating the components of a mixture.
d. Define evaporation. Name any two mixtures that can be separated by
this method.
e. What is meant by sublimation? Name any two mixtures that can be
separated by this method.
f. What is centrifugation? What type of mixtures can be separated by
this method?
g. What is crystallization? Name any two mixtures that can be separated
by this method.
h. What are crystals? Write their two features.
i. Define solution, solute and solvent.
j. What type of solution is called a dilute solution?
k. Define concentrated solution.
l. What is meant by unsaturated, saturated and super saturated solution?
m. Write down the importance of mixtures in our daily life.
5. Write down the importance of solution in our daily life in any four
points.
6. Describe an activity to separate the mixture of

a. Sand and water b. Sugar and camphor
c. Cream and milk
7. Describe the method for identifying unsaturated, saturated and

supersaturated solution in brief.
a. Dilute solution and Concentrated solution
b. Unsaturated and Saturated solution
c. Solute and Solvent
9. How is pure salt obtained from the sea water? Describe in brief.
UNIT
Metal and Non-metal
13
Before You Begin

We use a number of metals, non-metals and metalloids in our daily
life. Scientists have discovered 118 elements so far. These elements
have been classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids on the
basis of their physical and chemical properties. Among 118 elements,
most elements are metals and only a few are metalloids.
Metals are hard, malleable and ductile elements which are good
conductor of heat and electricity, e.g. iron, copper, aluminiun,
gold, silver, zinc, etc. Non-metals are soft, non-malleable and non-
ductile elements which are bad conductor of heat and electricity, e.g.
nitrogen, oxygen, chlorine, sulphur, carbon, iodine, etc. Similarly,
metalloids are those elements that show properties of both metals
and non-metals, e.g. silicon, arsenic, germanium, etc.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to metals
i. introduce metals and non-metals with examples. • Properties of metals
ii. differentiate between metals and non-metals. • Introduction to non-metals
iii. introduce alloys with examples. • Properties of non-metals
iv. state the properties and uses of some alloys like brass • Introduction to alloys with
and bronze and non-metals like sulphur and iodine. composition of some alloys
• Properties and uses of some
alloys (brass and bronze) and
some non-metals (sulphur and
iodine)
alloy : a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or metals and non-metals

lustrous : having shiny nature.
malleability : the property of a substance due to which it can be beaten into a thin sheet
ductility : the property of a substance due to which it can be drawn into a wire
conductibility : the property of a substance due to which it can conduct heat and electricity

Metal and Non-metal
Metals
Metals are those substances which are hard, malleable, ductile and good
conductors of heat and electricity. For example, iron, copper, aluminium,
gold, silver, etc. They are shiny (lustrous) and produce tinkling sound when
hammered. All solids exist in solid state except mercury. We use metals like
iron, aluminium, copper, silver, gold, etc. in our daily life. Metals are used
for making cooking utensils, construction materials, vehicles, ornaments,
furniture, electric wires, weapons, etc.
Fig.
13.1
Cooking utensil made of Cooking utensils made of Cooking utensils made of
iron copper aluminium
Properties of Metals
1. Most metals are found in solid state except mercury.
2. Most metals are malleable, i.e. they can be beaten into thin sheets.
3. Most metals are ductile, i.e. a thin and long wire can be made from metals.
4. Metals are lustrous, i.e. shiny nature.
5. Metals are good conductor of heat and electricity.
6. They produce tinkling sound on hitting.
7. Most metals are hard except lithium, sodium and potassium.
Non-metals Do You Know

Non-metals are those substances Graphite is a non-metal that conducts heat
which are generally soft, non- and electricity.
malleable, non-ductile and bad
conductors of heat and electricity.
They exist in all three states, viz. solid, liquid and gas. Carbon, iodine,
sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, etc. are examples of non-metals.
We use many non-metals in our daily life. Non-metals are used in construction
works, to make containers, utensils, medicines, etc.
Fig.
13.2
Carbon Phosphorus Sulphur
Properties of Non-metals
1. Non-metals are found in all three Do You Know
states, i.e. solid, liquid and gas.
All non-metals are bad conductor of heat
2. They are non-malleable. and electricity except graphite.
3. They are non-ductile. Metals are sonorous and non-metals are
4. They are non-lustrous except non-sonorous.
iodine.
5. They are non-conductors of heat and electricity except graphite.
6. They do not produce tinkling sound on hitting.
7. Non-metals are generally soft.
Activity 1
Collect various materials found at your home like metal wires, coins,
spoon, brick, pencil, lead of pencil, plastics, iron nail, etc.
Study the characteristics of these substances like malleability, ductility,
conductivity etc.
Classify them in terms of metal and non-metals.
Differences between Metals and Non-metals

Metals Non-metals
1. Metals are good conductors of 1. Non-metals are bad conductors
heat and electricity. of heat and electricity.
2. They are malleable. 2. They are non-malleable.
3. They are ductile. 3. They are non-ductile.
4. They are lustrous. 4. They are non-lustrous.
5. Most metals are hard. 5. Most metals are soft.
6. They are sonorous. 6. They are non-sonorous.

Alloys
A homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or metals and non-metals
is called an alloy. Examples: Brass, steel, bronze, bell metal, stainless, steel
etc. Alloys show the properties of metals. However, the properties of alloys
differ from the properties of their constituent metals or non-metals. Alloys are
prepared by mixing two or more metals or metals and non-metals in molten
state and then cooling the mixture. Alloys are generally made and used to:
i. increase hardness.
ii. make the product rust free.
iii. decrease the melting point.
iv. get various colours.
v. increase strength.
Activity 2
Prepare a list of alloys that are used at your home.
Study their physical properties.
Also, write down their utilities.
Alloys contain a mixture of two or more metals or metals and non-metals.

The composition of some common alloys is given below:
1. Steel = Iron + Carbon
2. Brass = Copper + zinc
3. Bronze = Copper + Tin
4. Stainless steel = Iron + Chromium + Carbon
Some Useful Alloys and Non-metals

1. Brass
Brass is a useful alloy made of copper and
zinc. It has a bright golden appearance. It is
made by mixing the molten copper and zinc
and cooling the product. Rusting does not
Fig.
occur in brass.
13.3
Brass utensils
Uses of brass
1. Brass is used for making household utensils, ornaments, statues, etc.
2. It is used for making door knobs, locks, gears, bearings, etc.
3. It is used for making coins, statues, buckles of belts, etc.
4. It is used for making roofs of temples.
5. It is used for making decorative items due to its bright golden colour.
2. Bronze
Bronze is an alloy made of copper and tin.
It is a faint yellow coloured alloy. Rusting
does not occur in bronze. The utensils made
of bronze look attractive. Bronze has a low
melting point than other metals.
Uses of bronze Fig.

1. Bronze is used for making household 13.4
utensils like plates, pitchers, etc. Bronze utensil
2. It is used for making bells, valves, gears, coins, etc.
3. It is used for making musical instruments, medals, weapons, etc.
3. Sulphur
Sulphur is a yellow coloured non-metal. It
is being used by human beings from pre-
historic time. It does not dissolve in water.
Uses of sulphur
Fig.
1. Sulphur is used for making gun powder

matches and fire crackers.
13.5
2. It is used to cure skin diseases. Sulphur powder
3. It is used in beauty parlours for hair setting.
4. It is used for making insecticides and fungicides.
4. Iodine
Iodine is a very useful non-metal. Human beings are using iodine from pre-
historic time. Our body requires certain amount of iodine. Therefore, we use
iodized salt.
Thyroid gland swells due to lack of iodine
in diet. This condition is called goitre. New
born child may have many deformities due
to lack of iodine during pregnancy.
Uses of iodine
Fig.
1. Iodine is used for treating wounds and
minor cuts. 13.6
2. It is used in photography. Iodine
3. It is used for making tincture
idoine. Do You Know
4. It is used for making iodex. A person suffers from goitre due to lack
of iodine in diet.
5. It is used to prevent goitre by
adding it in table salt. Iodine is used to treat thyroid cancer.
6. It is used to treat thyroid cancer.

Activity 2
Name any two alloys and two non-metals that are used at your home.
Write down the major uses of these substances.
Key Concepts
1. Metals are those substances which are hard, malleable, ductile and good
conductors of heat and electricity.
2. A homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or metals and non-metals is
called an alloy.
3. Brass is a useful alloy made of copper and zinc. It has a bright golden
appearance.
4. Bronze is the alloy made of copper and tin. It is a faint yellow coloured alloy.
5. Bronze is used for making household utensils like plates, pitchers, etc.
6. Sulphur is a yellow coloured non-metal. It is being used by human beings
from pre-historic time.
7. Sulphur is used for making gun powder, matches and fire crackers.
8. Thyroid gland swells due to lack of iodine in diet. This condition is called
goitre.

Exercise
a. Metals are malleable and ductile.
b. Graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
c. Non-metals do not have lustre.
d. Brass is the mixture of copper and tin.
e. Our body does not require iodine.

a. Metals are ......................... of heat and electricity.
b. Non-metals do not have lustre except ......................... .
c. Bronze is a mixture of ......................... and ......................... .
d. ......................... is used to make fire crackers.
e. Goitre occurs due to lack of ......................... in diet.

a. Which of the given metals is found in liquid state?
copper iron mercury silver
b. Which of the given non-metals is a good conductor of electricity?
iodine sulphur oxygen graphite
c. Which of the given substances is ductile?
copper brick glass sulphur
d. Which of the given substances is used to cure thyroid cancer?
iodine sulphur brass bronze

a. Define metals with any five examples.
b. Write any four properties of metals.

c. What are non-metals? Give any five examples.
d. Write any four properties of non-metals.
e. What is meant by malleability and ductility?
f. Define alloys with any two examples.
g. Write any two properties of alloys.
h. Why are alloys made and used in our daily life?
i. Write any two properties and three uses of
i. brass ii. bronze iii. iodine iv. sulphur
j. Which non-metal is used to treat minor cuts and wounds?
k. Which non-metal is mixed with table salt?
a. Metals and Non-metals b. Metals and Alloys
c. Non-metals and Alloys
6. Write down the composition of the given alloys.

a. Steel b. Brass c. Bronze d. Stainless steel

UNIT
Some Useful
14 Chemicals
Before You Begin

Human beings use different types of chemical substances to fulfill
their needs. Soap, detergent, insecticides, chemical fertilizers,
dettol, phenol, plastics, paint, dyes, synthetic cleansers, colours,
etc. Soaps are used for bathing and washing clothes. Detergents
are used for washing clothes. Chemical fertilizers are used for
increasing the productivity of crops. Similarly, insecticides and
fungicides are used to kill insects and fungi respectively. In this
unit, we will study about detergent, dettol, phenol and chemical
fertilizers.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Detergent and its uses
i. introduce detergent, dettol, phenol and chemical • Dettol and its uses
fertilizers.
• Phenol and its uses
ii. state the uses of detergent, dettol, phenol and chemical
fertilizers. • Chemical fertilizers and their
uses
antiseptic : preventing or arresting the growth of micro-organisms

corrosive : tending to destroy something by chemical action.
detergent : a petrochemical which is used to wash clothes
fragrance : a sweet or delicate odour as of fresh flowers, pine trees or perfumes
fertilizers : the substances that increase the fertility of soil

Useful Chemicals
Detergent
Detergent is commonly known as washing
powder. It is an important petrochemical
having a cleansing nature. It is used for
washing clothes. It produces lather when
dissolved in water. It is produced from
petroleum. It is more soluble than water.
Fig.
High quality detergents contain fragrances,
brighteners, water softners, bleach, etc.
Detergents pollute water and affect aquatic 14.1
plants. Therefore, we should limit the use of detergents. Detergent is also used
for washing household utensils and dishes.
Dettol
Dettol is a very important chemical which
is used for cleaning cuts and wounds. It
kills germs that infect skin. Its colour is light
yellow. It is an antiseptic and disinfectant. It
is poisonous when ingested and inhaled. It
is used to clean the delicate skin of infants
Fig.
to prevent skin infection. Dettol is also used

in soaps to protect skin infection. It is also 14.2
used for disinfecting clothes.
Phenol
Phenol is a useful chemical of alcohol group.
It is made from petroleum products. It is
also called carbolic acid. It is slightly soluble
in water. It is corrossive to eyes, skin and
respiratory tract and hence needs careful
handling. Phenol is used as a disinfectant.
Fig.
It is used for killing bacteria and insects.

It is used for cleaning bathrooms. It is also
used for making medicines, plastics, thread, 14.3
colours, etc. It is found in bottles and in the
form of tablets.

Chemical Fertilizers
The chemical substances which are used to increase the fertility of soil are
called chemical fertilizers. They are rich in minerals that are essential for the
growth and development of plants. Generally, we use two types of fertilizers
in soil. They are (i) organic fertilizers and (ii) chemical fertilizers.
Fig.
14..4
Organic fertilizer Chemical fertilizer
Organic fertilizers are prepared by using dead and decaying parts of plants
and animals. They do not affect the quality of soil. Chemical fertilizers are
prepared by using different chemicals or minerals. Prolonged use of chemical
fertilizers affects the fertility and quality of soil. Therefore, over use of chemical
fertilizers should be avoided.
Green plants mainly require three types of chemicals, viz nitrogen (N),
phosphorous (P) and potassium (K). So chemical fertilizers are prepared by
using nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
On the basis of presence of minerals, chemical fertilizers are of three types.
They are:
i. Nitrogenous fertilizers Do You Know
ii. Phosphorus fertilizers The fertilizer containing nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium is called NPK fertilizer. It is
iii. Potassium fertilizers called a complete fertilizer.
i. Nitrogenous fertilizers
The chemical fertilizers rich in nitrogen are
called nitrogenous fertilizers. They help in
growth of plants. They help in growth and
development of flowers, fruits and seeds. Urea,
ammonium chloride, ammonium sulphate,
are examples of nitrogeneous fertilizers. Due
Fig.
to deficiency of nitrogen in soil, plants become

pale, flowers do not bloom properly, fruits
14.5
and seeds become small.
ii. Phosphorus fertilizers
The chemical fertilizers rich in phosphorus
are called phosphorus fertilizers.
Ammonium phosphate, calcium super
phosphate, bone meal, etc. are examples
of phosphorus fertilizers. These fertilizers
Fig.
help in growth of roots, leaves and buds,
ripening of fruits and development of 14.6
seeds.
iii. Potassium fertilizers

The chemical fertilizers rich in potassium
are called potassium fertilizers. Potassium
cloride, potassium sulphate, potassium
fertilizers help in photosynthesis, formation
of protein and cell division. In the absence
of potassium in soil, the immunity of plants Fig.
decreases and leaves and buds of plants
wither. 14.7
Activity 1
Name any three chemical substances that are used at your home and school.
Write down the major uses of each of them.
Key Concepts
1. Human beings use different types of chemical substances to fulfill their
needs. Soap, detergent, insecticides, chemical fertilizers, dettol, phenol,
plastics, paint, dyes, synthetic cleansers, colours, etc.
2. Detergent is commonly known as washing powder. It is an important
petrochemical having cleansing nature.
3. Dettol is a very important chemical which is used for cleaning cuts and
wounds. It kills germs that infect skin.
4. Phenol is a useful chemical of the alcohol group. It is made from
petroleum products. It is also called carbolic acid.
5. The chemical substances which are used to increase the fertility of soil
are called chemical fertilizers.
6. Organic fertilizers are prepared by using dead and decaying parts of
plants and animals.
7. Green plants mainly require three types of chemicals, viz nitrogen (N),
phosphorous (P) and potassium (K).
8. The chemical fertilizers rich in nitrogen are called nitrogenous fertilizers.
They help in growth of plants.
9. The chemical fertilizers rich in phosphorus are called phosphorus fertilizers.
10. The chemical fertilizers rich in potassium are called potassium fertilizers.
Exercise
a. Detergent is used for washing clothes and utensils.
b. The colour of dettol is green.
c. Phenol is used for cleaning bathrooms.
d. Nitrogen is essential for growth of roots.
e. Potassium sulphate is rich in phosphrus.

a. Detergents are prepared from .......................... .
b. .......................... is used to clean bathrooms.
c. .......................... is used as an antiseptic and disinfectant.
d. .......................... are used to increase the fertility of soil.
e. Nitrogenous fertilizers are essential for the .......................... of plants.

a. Which of the given chemicals is used to increase fertility of the soil?
phenol dettol detergent fertilizer
b. Which of the given chemicals is used to kill germs and insects?
dettol phenol detergent soap
c. Which element is required for the growth of roots?
nitrogen oxygen phosphorus potassium

d. Which of the given chemicals is rich in phosphorus?
ammonium chloride ammonium nitrate
ammonium phosphate potassium chloride

a. Name any four chemicals that are used at your home.
b. What is detergent? Write any two properties of detergent.
c. Write any two uses of detergents.
d. What is dettol? Write its two properties and three uses.
e. What is phenol? Write its two properties and three uses.
f. What are fertilizers? Give any two examples.
g. What are chemical fertilizers?
h. What are nitrogenous fertilizers? Why do plants need nitrogen?
i. What are phosphorus fertilizers? Write their importance for plants.
j. What are potassium ferlitizers? Write their importance for plants.
5. Write any two symptoms in plants that are seen due to lack of
a. Nitrogeneous fertilizers
b. Phosphorus fertilizers
c. Potassium fertilizers
6. We should avoid the over use of detergents, why?
7. Write any two differences between organic fertilizers and inorganic

fertilizers.

Biology
UNIT
Living Beings
15
Before You Begin

Different types of living beings are found on the earth. These living
beings are broadly classified into two kingdoms, viz (i) animal kingdom
and (ii) plant kingdom. All the animals present on the earth belong
to animal kingdom and all the plants present on the earth belong to
plant kingdom. To make the study of animals, scientists have divided
plant/animals into two categories, i.e. invertebrates and vertebrates.
Invertebrates are animals having no back bones or vertebral column
whereas vertebrates are the animals having backbones or vertebral
columns. Similarly, plant kingdom has been divided into two main
categories. They are cryptogams and phanerogams. Cryptogams are
plants that do not bear flowers and seeds whereas phanerogams are
plants that bear flowers and seeds.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Vertebrates
i. introduce vertebrates with examples. • Cold blooded and warm
blooded animals
ii. classify vertebrates and explain their characteristics.
• Classes of vertebrates species,
iii. describe life cycle of frog with a labelled figure. amphibia, reptilia, aves and
mammalia
iv. classify non flowering and flowering plants and state
• Life cycle of a frog
their characteristics.
• Classification of plants
v. describe the structure of a flowering plant with a • Cryptogams: Thallophyta,
labelled figure. Bryophyta and Pterodophyta
vi. explain the structure of a flower. • Phanenorogams:
Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms
• Structure of a flowering plant
• Structure of a flower
• Pollination and fertilization
symmetrical : having two halves, parts or sides that are the same in size and shape
hibernate : to spend the winter in a state like deep sleep
streamline : a smooth or pointed or boat shaped structure that can move quickly
embryo : a young animal or plant in the very early stage of development
pollination : the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a flower
fertilization : the fusion of a male gamete and a female gamete to form a zygote

Living Beings
Vertebrates
Animals like fish, frog, snake, bird, cow, etc. have
backbone or vertebral column in their bodies.
These animals are called vertebrates. So, the
animals having backbone or vertebral column
are called vertebrates. They are found in water
and on land. The vertebrates that live in water
include fish, shark, whale, dolphin, turtle, etc.
whereas vertebrates like snake, lizard, parrot,
crow, peacock, horse, rhinoceros, elephant,
Fig.
human beings, etc live on land. However, some
vertebrates like frog, toad, salamander, etc. can 15.1
live in water and on land. These vertebrates are Vertebral column of
called amphibians. human beings
The body of vertebrates is well developed having head, trunk and tail with
paired fins or limbs. They have well developed nervous system with a brain
and spinal cord. They breathe through gills or lungs.
Activity 1
Write the name of any ten animals that are found in your locality.
Study their structure and find out whether they have vertebral column or
not.
Classify these animals as invertebrates and vertebrates.
Some vertebrates can change their body temperature according to the
temperature of surroundings and others cannot. On this basis, vertebrates
have been classified into two categories. They are:
1. Cold-blooded vertebrates 2. Warm-blooded vertebrates
1. Cold-blooded vertebrates
The vertebrates whose body temperature changes according to the temperature
of the surroundings are called cold-blooded vertebrates. Fishes, amphibians
(frogs, toads, etc.) and reptiles (snake, lizard, crocodile, etc) are cold blooded
vertebrates. These animals go for hibernation as they cannot withstand
extreme cold or extreme hot temperature.

Fig.
15.2
Some cold-blooded vertebrates
2. Warm-blooded vertebrates
The vertebrates whose body temperature does not change with the temperature
of surroundings are called warm blooded vertebrates. Birds and mammals
are warm-blooded animals. These animals do not go for hibernation. Human
beings, cow, elephant, dog, crow, parrot, pigeon, dove, etc. are called warm
blooded animals as their body temperature remains constant.
Fig.
15.3
Some warm-blooded vertebrates
Classification of Vertebrates
Vertebrates are divided into Do You Know
following five classes on the basis of
The normal body temperature of human
their characteristics. beings is 37°C or 98.6°F. When we fall sick,
1. Pisces 2. Amphibia the body temperature may increase or
decrease.
3. Reptile 4. Aves
5. Mammalia
1. Class Pisces
This class consist of aquatic cold blooded vertebrates which are commonly
known as fishes. They live in water.
Fig.
15.4
Characteristics
1. Their body is boat-shaped or streamlined.
2. Their body is covered with waterproof scales.
3. They breathe through gills.
4. They move with the help of fins.
5. They have two chambered heart.
6. They lay eggs. So they are called oviparous animals.
7. Fertilization is external.
8. Their body can be divided into head, trunk and tail.
Examples: Shark, Rohu, Carp, Asla, Sea horse, Katla, etc.
2. Class Amphibia
This class includes the vertebrates that can live in water and on land. Most
amphibians lay eggs in water.

Fig.
15.5
Characteristics
1. Their body is covered with smooth or rough skin.
2. They breathe through lungs on land and through skin in water.
3. Their heart is three-chambered.
4. They move with the help of limbs.
5. They lay eggs. So they are called oviparous animals.
6. Their body can be divided into head and trunk. Neck and tail are absent.
Examples: Frog, toad, salamander, etc.
3. Class Reptilia
This class consists of cold-blooded vertebrates that crawl or creep on ground.
They are commonly known as reptiles. Most reptiles live on land. Different
types of snakes, lizards and crocodiles belong to class reptilia.
Fig.
15.6
Characteristics
1. The body of reptiles is covered Do You Know
with hard, and dry scales. Reptiles are commonly known as
crawlers or creepers.
2. They have three chambered heart. All reptiles have three chambered heart
3. They lay eggs and fertilization is but crocodiles have four chambered
heart.
internal.
4. Their body can be divided into head, neck, trunk and tail.

5. Breathing takes place with the help of lungs.
6. Two pairs of limbs are present but limbs are absent in snakes and some lizards.
Examples: snakes (cobra, python) lizards (garden lizard, house wall lizard,
monitor lizard), crocodiles, alligators, tortoirse, turtle, etc.
4. Class Aves
This class consists of warm blooded flying vertebrates which are commonly
known as bird.
Fig.
15.7
Characteristics
1. The body is boat shaped which is covered with feathers.
2. Fore limbs are modified in the form of wings.
3. They have four chambered heart.
4. Breathing takes place with the help of lungs.
5. They lay eggs and fertilization is internal.
Examples: Crow, dove, parrot, pigeon, peacock, hornbill, koel, ostrish, penguin,
etc.
5. Class Mammalia
This class includes the most Do You Know
developed warm blooded vertebrates Most mammals directly give birth to their
that suckle their young ones. Most of young ones. But two mammals. i.e duck
billed platypus and sping ant eater lay eggs.
the mammals live on land and a few
live in water.

Fig.
15.8
Characteristics
1. Mammary glands, i.e. milk producing glands are present.
2. They directly give birth to their young ones. Females suckle their babies.
3. Body is covered with hair
4. External ears, i.e. pinnae are present.
5. They have four chambered heart.
6. Breathing takes place through lungs.
8. They are viviparous and fertilization is internal.
9. They have two pairs of limbs for locomotion.
Examples: Human beings, sheep, goat, tiger, elephant, monkey, bat, dolphin,
whale, rhinoceros, red panda, leopard, rat, cat, dog, etc.
Activity 1
Name any ten vertebrates that are found in your locality.
Study their characteristics and find out their class and fill in the given
table.
S.No. Pisces Amphiba Reptilia Aves Mammalia

Life Cycle of Frog
A frog is a tailless vertebrate which can live
on land and in water. It is a carnivorous
amphibian which becomes active in
rainy season. Its body can be divided into
Fig.
head and trunk. It has a stout body with
protruding eyes, cleft tongue and folded
limbs. The body remains covered with 15.9
Rana Tigrina
moist skin. Frogs are generally found in
crop fields, rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, etc.
Reproduction
Frogs become active in the beginning
of rainy season. They reproduce Do You Know
during rainy season. Male frogs Life cycle can be defined as the series
produce croaking sound while of stages through which an organism
passes.
raining and attract females. Male Frog completes its life cycle in three
frogs are slightly smaller than female stages, viz egg, tadpole and adult.
frogs. The abdomen of the female
frog appears swollen due to presence
of eggs. Female frogs lay eggs in water. A male frog mounts the female and
grips her tightly and the female lays eggs in a long chain in water.
The male frog covers the eggs with sperms. The fusion of an egg (ovum) and a
sperm takes place outside the body of a female (external fertilization).
The life cycle of a frog completes in three distinct stages. They are as follows:
1. Egg
2. Tadpole
3. Adult Egg Mass
Adult frog Tadpole

Fig.
Young frog Tadpole with legs

15.10
Life cycle of frog

1. Egg
Female frogs lay eggs on the surface of
water in a long chain. Eggs are oval in
shape. They remain covered with a jelly
like substance which forms a cluster of
Fig.
eggs. The cluster of eggs floats on the
surface of water. The male disseminates
sperms on the cluster of eggs. The fusion 15.11
of sperm (male gamete) and a female Eggs of frog in water
gamete (egg) takes place in water. This process is called external fertilization.
After fertilization, a zygote is formed. The zygote divides and redivides and
forms an embryo. The embryo finally develops into a tadpole, i.e. larva stage.
2. Tadpole
A tadpole is the second stage of the life
cycle of a frog. It consists of a big head
and a tail. It breathes in water through
gills. The tadpole does not take any food
and it remains attatched to the leaves of
Fig.
aquatic plants.
The tadpole develops mouth and teeth 15.12
on head after few days and then it feeds Tadpoles of a frog
on algae in water. This stage lasts for one week to several days in winter.
Later, the tadpole develops hind limbs and gills modify into lungs. The tail
shortens and disappears gradually. Finally, the tadpole metamorphoses into
an adult frog.
3. Adult
An adult frog starts breathing through moist skin in water and through lungs
on land. The adult frog has two pairs of well developed limbs for jumping and
swimming. The adult frog can live in water as well as on land.
In this way, the life cycle of a frog is completed.
Activity 2
In rainy season, pay a visit to a nearby crop field, river, pond, etc.
Observe the eggs, tadpoles and adult frog.
Study the structure of eggs, tadpoles and adult frogs.
Draw a neat figure showing the life cycle of frog.

Classification of Plants
Different types of plants are found on the earth. Some may be microscopic
and some may be very large in size. Algae are small and trees are large. Some
plants produce flowers and some do not. On the basis of absence or presence
of flowers, plants are divided into two sub-kingdoms. They are as follows:
1. Sub-kingdom Cryptogams (non flowering plants)
2. Sub-kingdom Phanerogams (flowering plants)
Plant Kingdom
Sub-kingdom
Cryptogams Phanerogams
Division Division
Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms

Sub-division Sub-division
Algae Fungi Monocot Dicot
Sub-kingdom Cryptogams
This sub kingdom consists of non-flowering plants. They are less developed
than flowering plants. On the basis of structure and development, sub kingdom
cryptogams is divided into three divisions. They are as follows:
1. Division Thallophyta 2. Division Bryophyta
3. Division pleridophyta
1. Division Thallophyta
This division includes primitive cryptogams without root, stem and leaves.
The plant body without root, stem and leaves is called thallus and the plants
are called thallophytes.
Thallophytes may be green or non green and unicellular or multicellular. On
the basis of absence or presence of chlorophyll, division thallophyta is divided
into two sub-divisions. They are (i) Algae and (ii) Fungi.
i. Algae
This sub-division consists of green thallophytes. They are found in water and
moist places.
Fig.
15.13
Spirogyra Chlamydomonas Volvox
Characteristics
1. The plant body is a green thallus.
2. Chlorophyll is present. So they can prepare their own food by photosynthesis.
3. The cell wall is made of cellulose.
4. They may be unicellular (chlamydomonas) or multicellular (Spirogyra)
5. The mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
Examples: chlamydomonas, spirogyra, volvox, etc.
ii. Fungi
This sub-division consists of non green thallophytes. Most fungi are found on
dead and decaying organic matter whereas some live as parasites of plants
and animals.
Fig.
15.14
Mushroom Yeast Mucor
Characteristics
1. The plant body is a non-green thallus.
2. Chlorophyll is absent so they cannot prepare their own food.
3. The cell wall is made of fungus cellulose.
4. They may be unicellular (yeast) or multicellular (mushroom).
5. The mode of nutrition may be saprophytic or parasitic.
Examples: mushroom, yeast, mucor, etc.

Differences between Algae and Fungi
Algae Fungi
1. Chorophyll is present. 1. Chlorophyll is absent.
2. Cell wall is made of cellulose. 2. Cell wall is made of fungus
cellulose.
3. They can prepare their own food 3. They cannot prepare their own
by photosynthesis. food.
Activity 2
Observe different types of algae and fungi in your locality. Collect them and
study their characteristics one by one.
Draw a neat and labelled figure of each.
2. Division Bryophyta Do You Know

This division includes multicellular Bryophytes grow on moist and they need
non-flowering plants that grow water to reproduce. Therefore, bryophytes
are also called amphibian plants.
on moist land and need water to
reproduce.
Fig.
15.15
Marchantia Riccia Moss
Characteristics
1. The plant body is multicellular which may be thalloid (e.g. liver worts) or
leafy (moss).
2. Chlorophyll is present.
3. True root, stem and leaves are absent.
4. They are attatched to the soil with the help of rhizoids.
5. Vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are absent.
Examples: Marchantia (liverworts), Riccia, Moss, etc.

3. Division Pteridophyta
This division consists of well developed cryptogams having feather shaped
leaves. Pteridophytas are commonly found in moist, shady and cool places.
Fig.
15.16
Fern Lycopodium Horsetail
Characteristics
1. The plant body can be divided into rhizoids (root), rhizome (stem) and leaves.
2. Feather-shaped leaves are present.
3. Vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are present.
4. The mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
5. Flowers and seeds are absent.
Examples: Fern, Lycopodium, Horsetail (equisetum) etc.
Sub-kingdom phanerogams
This sub-kingdom consists of well developed plants that bear flowers and
seeds. Cycas, pine, mango, apple, sal, sunflower, rose, orange, etc are the
examples of phanerogams. They may or may not bear fruits. Sub-kingdom
phanerogams is divided into two divisions. They are as follows:
1. Division Gymnosperms 2. Division Angiosperms
1. Division Gymnosperms
This division consists of conebearing plants having naked seeds. They are
commonly found in cold and dry places.
Fig.
15.17
Cycas Pine Pine cone

Characteristics
1. Seeds are naked.
2. Cones are present instead of true flowers.
3. Needle-shaped leaves are present.
4. They do not have fruits due to absence of ovary.
5. Male cones and female cones are separate.
Example: Cycas, pine, cedar, juniper, etc.
2. Division Angiosperms
This division consists of the most developed flowering plants having fruits.
They are found on land and in water.
Fig.
15.18
Pea Maize Mango Rose
Characteristics
1. True flowers are present.
2. Seeds are enclosed inside the fruit.
3. They may be herbs, shrubs or trees.
4. Vascular tissues are well developed.
5. These plants may be small to very large in size.
Exmaples: Maize, rose, apple, mustard, sugarcane, onion, garlic, orange,
mango, sal, sissoo, simal, etc.
On the basis of number of cotyledons in a seed, division, angiosperms is
divided into two sub-divisions. They are as follows:
1. Sub-division Monocotyledons 2. Sub-division Dicotyledons
1. Monocotyledons
This sub division includes flowering plants having only one cotyledon in their
seeds.

Fig.
15.19
Maize Bamboo Sugarcane Onion
Characteristics
1. A seed contains only one cotyledon.
2. Fibrous root system is present
3. Leaves are elongated having parallel venation.
4. Nodes and internodes are distinct.
Examples: Maize, sugarcane, bamboo, onion, garlic, grass, paddy, wheat,
barley, etc.
2. Dicotyledons
This sub-division includes well developed flowering plants having two
cotyledons in their seeds.
Fig.
15.20
Beans Sunflower Mango Apple
Characteristics
1. A seed contains two cotyledons.
2. Tap root system is present.
3. Leaves are broad having reticulate venation.
4. Nodes and internodes are not distinct.
Examples: Rose, mango, apple, bean, pea, mustard, orange, lotus, sunflower,
etc.

Differences between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Gymnosperms Angiosperms
1. Cones are present. 1. Cones are absent.
2. Fruits are absent. 2. Fruits are present.
3. Seeds are naked. 3. Seeds are enclosed.
4. Leaves are pointed. 4. Leaves are flat and broad.
Differences between Monocot and Dicot

Monocot Dicot
1. A seed contains only one 1. A seed contains two cotyledons.
cotyledon.
2. Fibrous root system is present. 2. Tap root system is present.
3. Leaves are elongated having 3. Leaves are broad having reticulate
parallel venation. venation.
Activity 3
Observe different types of flowering plants in your locality.
Study their morphology and classify them in terms of gymnosperms,
angiosperms, monocot and dicot and fill in the given table.
Flowering plants Gymnosperms Angiosperms
1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
4. 4. 4.
5. 5.
6. Monocot Dicot
1. 1.
7.
2. 2.
8.
3. 3.
9.
4. 4.
10.
5. 5.

Differences between Non-flowering and Flowering plants
Non-flowering plants Flowering plants
1. They do not bear flowers and 1. They bear flowers and seeds.
seeds.
2. They may be green or non green. 2. All flowering plants are green.
3. They may be unicelular or 3. All flowering plants are
multicellular. multicellular
4. They may or may not bear roots, 4. They bear roots stem and leaves.
stem and leaves.
Activity 4
Observe any three non flowering and three flowering plants in your locality.
Study their morphology (external structure). Write any three similarities and
three differences between them and fill in the given table.
Similarities
S.N. Non-flowering plants S.N. Flowering plants
1. 1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
Differences
S.N. Non-flowering plants S.N. Flowering plants
1. 1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
Most flowers have four distinct whorls. They are calyx, corolla, androecium
and gynoecium. Such type of flower is called a complete flower or bisexual
flower. Flowers of tomato, ornage, mango, mustard, bean, etc. are examples
of bisexual or complete flowers. Flowers of same plants like cucumber, gourd,
pumpkin, etc contain either androecium or gynoecium along with calyx and
corolla. These flowers are called unisexual or incomplete flowers.

Structure of a Flowering Plant
Different types of non-flowering
and flowering plants are found Flower
in our surroundings. The plants
that bear flowers, fruits and
seeds are called flowering plants. Fruit
Sunflower, lotus, rose, marigold,
pea, bean, mustard, mango, apple,
etc. are some common examples
of flowering plants. A flowering
Leaf
plant consists of various parts like
root, stem, branches, leaves, buds,
flowers and fruits. These parts
perform specific functions.
Stem
A flowering plant can be divided
into two parts, viz. root system
and shoot system. Root system is
the part of a plant below the soil Root
Fig.
whereas shoot system is the part

of a plant above the soil. Stem,
15.21
branches, leaves, flowers and fruits
are the parts of the shoot system. A flowering plant
Flowering plants produce flowers of various colours like red, pink, purple,
orange, yellow, white, blue, etc. They have green leaves and brown or white
roots. The leaves of the plants appear green due to the presence of chlorophyll.
Activity 1
Visit a nearby garden or cropfield.
Uproot a flowering plant such as marigold, pea, mustard, soyabean, etc.
Observe the plant and identify its various parts.
Draw a neat and labelled figure of the plant on your practical file and submit
to your science teacher.
Root system
The underground part of the plant is called the root system. Flowering plants
have two types of root system, viz. (i) tap root system and (ii) fibrous root
system.

The root system having primary root, its
branches and sub-branches is called and sub-
branches is called tap root system. The
branches of primary root are called secondary
roots and the branches of secondary roots are
called tertiary roots. Tap root system is found
Fig.
in dicot plants like bean, pea, mustard, apple,
mango, rose, soyabean, orange, etc. 15.22
Tap root system
The root system having cluster of roots of the

same size and thickness is called fibrous root
system. These roots grow from the base of
the stem and spread in all directions. Fibrous
root system is found in monocot plants like
Fig.
sugarcane, onion, maize, bamboo, paddy,

15.23 wheat, garlic, etc.
Fibrous root system
Functions of roots
1. Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil.
2. They fix the plant to the soil.
Shoot system
Shoot system is the part of the plant which is found above the ground. It consists
of stem and its branches, sub-branches, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits.
Stem
The part of a flowering plant that grows upwards from the soil is called a stem.
It forms the main axis of the shoot system. Trees and bushes have hard and
strong woody stem but most of the small plants have green, soft and weak
stem. Trees and shrubs have many branches and sub-branches in their stem.
These branches and sub-branches have leaves, thorns, buds, flowers and fruits.
The stem is thick in its base and it tapers gradually towards the tip. The stem
consists of certain points from where branches and leaves sprout. These points
are called nodes. The portion of the stem between two nodes is called internode.

Functions of stem
1. Stem transports water and minerals from roots to the leaves.
2. It keeps a plant upright or erect.
3. It transports prepared food from leaves to various parts of the plant.
4. It bears and supports branches, leaves, flowers and fruits.
Leaf
The flat and green part of a plant that sprouts
from a node is called leaf. Flowering plants
have leaves of various shapes and sizes. Vein
Lamina, petiole and leaf base are the three
main parts of a leaf. Lamina or leaf blade is Lamina
the flat and wide green portion of the leaf.
Fig.
Mid rib
Green plants prepare food in the lamina as it
has chlorophyll, i.e. green pigment. 15.24 Petiole
Chlorophyll traps solar energy and helps Leaf
plants in photosynthesis.
Petiole is a narrow, short stalk of a leaf which
remains attached to the stem. Similarly, leaf
base is the portion of the stem from which a
leaf grows. The petiole extends into the
lamina in the form of mid rib. The mid rib
gives branches and sub-branches that form a
Fig.
network in the leaf. The network is formed by

veins and veinlets which distribute water, 15.25
minerals and prepared food to the lamina. Parallel venation
Flowering plants have two types of venations
in their leaves. They are parallel venation and
reticulate venation. The arrangement of veins
and veinlets in a leaf is called venation. In
parallel venation, veins are arranged parallel
to each other towards the tip of the leaf.
Fig.
This type of venation is found in leaves of

15.26 sugarcane, bamboo, rice, maize, wheat, grass,
Reticulate venation onion, garlic, etc.
In reticulate venation, the veins give rise to lateral veinlets in all directions
and form a network. This type of venation is found in leaves of rose, mustard,
apple, mango, papaya, orange, bean, sunflower, etc.
Functions of leaves
1. Leaves prepare food by using carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight.
2. They remove excess water during transpiration.
Activity 2
Observe the stems of various flowering plants in your surroundings and
study their structure.
Collect leaves of some flowering plants.
Study venation present in those leaves and differentiate between parallel
venation and reticulate venation.
Flower
We see a variety of flowers in our
surroundings. Flowers are colourful. They
have bright and attractive colours like red,
yellow, pink, purple, white, blue, orange, etc.
Flowers are the colourful and most attractive
Fig.
parts of plants. Flowers have different

shapes, sizes and colours. They help in sexual 15.27
reproduction. Flower
A flower consists of four distinct parts. They are sepals, petals, stamen and
pistil or carpel. Some flowes contain only one type of reproductive organ, i.e.
either stamen (male) or carpel (female). These flowers are called unisexual
flowers. Plants like pumpkin, maize, paddy, cucumber, etc. have unisexual
flowers.
Some flowers contain both male and female
reproductive organs. These flowers are called
bisexual or complete flowers. Plants like pea,
chinarose, orange, tomato, apple, bean, etc.
Fig.
contain bisexual flowers.

A flower is connected to the stem by a narrow 15.28
stalk called pedicel. A flower has a swollen Unisexual flower
basal portion called thalamus. A complete flower consists of four distinct
whorls or rings. They are as follows:
(i) Calyx
Anther
Stamen
(ii) Corolla Pistil
Stigma
Filament
Style
Petal
(iii) Androecium Ovary
Fig.
Ovule
(iv) Gynoecium Receptacle Sepal
15.29
i. Calyx Bisexual flower
Calyx is the outermost whorl of a flower. It is made of a number of green leaf
like structures called sepals. Calyx protects a flower in the bud stage.
ii. Corolla
Crorolla forms the second whorl of a flower. It consists of colourful petals.
Petals surround and protect the reproductive parts of a flower. Similarly, petals
attract insects and help in pollination.
iii. Androecium
Androecium forms the third inner whorl of a flower. It consists of a number
of male reproductive organs called stamens. Each stamen consists of anther,
filament and connective. Anther produces pollen grains and filament supports
the anther.
iv. Gynoecium
Gynoecium forms the fourth innermost whorl of a bisexual flower. It represents
the female reproductive part called pistil or carpel. Each carpel consists of three
parts, viz. stigma, style and ovary. Stigma receives pollen grains and ovary
consists of ovules in it. The ovary develops into a fruit and ovules develop into
seeds with maturity.
Pollination
The transfer of pollen Cross-pollination
grains from anther to
Self-pollination
the stigma of the same
flower or different
flower is called
pollination. Various
external agents like
Fig.
air, water, insects,

birds, animals etc. 15.30
help in pollination. Pollination
Pollination is of two types, viz. self-pollination and cross-pollination.
i. Self-pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same
flower. This process is common in bisexual flowers like pea, chinarose, tomato,
etc.
ii. Cross-pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a flower of one plant to the
stigma of a flower of another plant of the same species. This process is common
in unisexual flowers like pumpkin, cucumber, gourd, etc. and bisexual flowers.
In flowering plants, pollination is followed by fertilization.
Seed
Flower Germinating seed

Fig.
Adult plant Seedling

15.31
Life cycle of a flowering plant
Fertilization
The process of fusion of a male gamete and a female gamete to form a zygote
is called fertilization. After pollination, pollen grains germinate and form
pollen tubes which grow towards ovary through style and finally reaches the
ovule in the ovary. Ovule consists of female gametes. In ovule, fusion of a
male gamete and female gamete takes place and forms a zygote. This process
is called fertilization. After fertilization, the zygote divides and forms embryo.
The embryo of a seed grows into a new plant on favourable condition.
In this way, the life cycle of a flowering plant is completed.

Key Concepts
1. The animals having backbones or vertebral columns are called vertebrates.
2. The body of vertebrates is well developed having a head, trunk and tail
with paired fins or limbs.
3. The vertebrates whose body temperature changes according to the
temperature of the surroundings are called cold blooded vertebrates.
4. The vertebrates whose body temperature does not change with the
temperature of surroundings are called warm blooded vertebrates.
5. This class consist of aquatic cold blooded vertebrates which are commonly
known as fishes.
6. Different types of snakes, lizards and crocodiles belong to class reptilia.
7. This class includes the most developed warm blooded vertebrates that
suckle their young ones.
8. Frog is a tailless vertebrate which can live on land and in water. It is a
carnivorous amphibian which becomes active in rainy season.
9. Life cycle can be defined as the series of stages through which an organism
passes.
10. On the basis of structure and development, sub kingdom cryptogams is
divided into three divisions. They are as follows: a. Division Thallophyta,
b. Division Bryophyta, c. Division Pteridophyta.
11. This division includes primitive cryptogams without root, stem and leaves.
12. Most fungi are found on dead and decaying organic matter whereas some
live as parasites of plants and animals.
13. Bryophytes grow on moist and they need water to reproduce. Therefore,
bryophytes are also called amphibian plants.
14. This division consists of well developed cryptogams having feather shaped
leaves.
15. This division consists of conebearing plants having naked seeds.
16. This division consists of the most developed flowering plants having fruits.
They are found on land and in water.
17. This sub division includes flowering plants having only one cotyledon in
their seeds.
18. This sub-division includes well developed flowering plants having two
cotyledons in their seeds.

19. The plants that bear flowers, fruits and seeds are called flowering plants.
20. A flowering plant can be divided into two parts, viz. root system and shoot
system.
21. The underground part of the plant is called root system. Flowering plants
have two types of root system, viz. (i) tap root system and (ii) fibrous root
system.
22. The root system having primary root, its branches and sub-branches is
called tap root system.
23. Tap root system is found in dicot plants like bean, pea, mustard, apple,
mango, rose, soyabean, orange, etc.
24. The root system having cluster of roots of the same size and thickness is
called fibrous root system.
25. Fibrous root system is found in monocot plants like sugarcane, onion, maize,
bamboo, paddy, wheat, garlic, etc.
26. Shoot system is the part of the plant which is found above the ground.
27. The part of a flowering plant that grows upwards from the soil is called
stem.
28. The portion of the stem between two nodes is called internode.
29. The flat and green part of a plant that sprouts from a node is called leaf.
30. Chlorophyll traps solar energy and helps plants in photosynthesis.
31. The arrangement of veins and veinlets in a leaf is called venation.
32. Flowers are the colourful and most attractive parts of plants.
33. A flower consists of four distinct parts. They are sepals, petals, stamen and
pistil or carpel.
34. The transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of the same flower or
different flower is called pollination.
35. Pollination is of two types, viz. self-pollination and cross-pollination.
36. The process of fusion of a male gamete and a female gamete to form a zygote
is called fertilization.

Exercise
a. The animals having backbones are called vertebrates.
b. Cow and elephant are cold-blooded animals.
c. Crocodile belongs to class reptilia.
d. In frogs, fertilization is internal.
e. In algae, chlorophyll is present.

f. The transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma is called
fertilization.

a. In ..................... animals, body temperature changes according to the
surrounding temperature.
b. In ....................., fore limbs are modified into wings.
c. ..................... directly give birth to their young ones.
d. The plants that do not bear flowers are called .....................
e. Cones are present in .....................
f. ..................... is the second whorl of a flower.

a. The vertebrates that can live on land and in water are called ........
pisces amphibians reptiles aves
b. Mammary glands are present in ......
crow bat parrot dove

c. Chlorophyll is absent in ..........
mushroom moss fern riccia

d. Which of the given plants has tap root system?
onion maize pea bamboo

e. Which of the following is the third whorl of a flower?
calyx gynoecium androecium corolla

a. What are vertebrates? Give any five examples.
b. Define cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals with any two
examples of each.
c. Name the five classes of vertebrates.
d. Write any two salient features and two examples of
i. pisces ii. amphibia iii. aves iv. mammalia
e. What are reptiles? Give any two examples.
f. What are cryptogams? Give any three examples.
g. Name three divisions of cryptogams.
h. What are thallophytes? Give any two examples.
i. What are bryophytes? Write any two characteristics of pteridophyts.
j. What are phanerogames? Give any five examples.
k. Write any two characteristics of the plants belonging to division
angiosperms?
l. What is a flower? Name the four whorls of a flower.
m. Define pollination and fertilization.
a. Fish and Frog
b. Reptiles and Mammals
c. Cryptogams and Phanerogams
d. Algae and Fungi
e. Grymnosperms and Angiosperms

f. Monocot and Dicot
g. Calyx and Corolla
h. Self-pollination and Cross-pollination
6. Give reason:
a. Frog is called an amphibian.
b. Bat is kept in class mammalia.
c. Algae are called autotrophs.
d. Maize is called a monocot.
e. Mustard flower is called a complete flower.
7. Draw a neat and labelled figure of a flowering plant.
8. Draw a neat and labelled figure of a bisexual flower.
9. What is pollination? Draw a neat figure showing self-pollination and

cross-pollination.
10. What is meant by fertilization?
11. Write down the major functions of roots, stem and leaves.

UNIT
Cell and Tissue
16
Before You Begin

A house is made of many bricks. Similarly, the body of plants and
animals is made of many cells. A cell is the basic, structural and
functional unit of life. Cells are the building blocks of living organisms.
A cell has its own structure and cell gives shape to the body of an
organism. So a cell is called the structural unit of life. A cell performs
various functions like respiration, excretion, reproduction, etc. which
are essential for the survival of an organism. So a cell is called the
functional unit of life. A cell is capable of independent existence and
it acts as the smallest complete unit of life. So a cell is called the basic
or fundamental unit of life.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Cell – Introduction
i. introduce cell and explain the structure of a typical • Parts of a cell
plant cell and animal cell.
• Cell organelles and their
ii. introduce cell organelles and state the functions of functions
various cell organelles.
• Unicellular and multicellular
iii. describe the structure of a unicellular animal (amoeba) animals
and a multicellular animal (hydra).
• Structure of amoeba and hydra
cell : the basic, structural and functional unit of life.

cell organelles : living and membrane bound structure of a cell, e.g. nucleus
inclusions : non-living structures present in a cell, e.g. vacuole
unicellular : having only one cell
multicellular : having many cells
metabolic : related to chemical processes in living things that change food into energy
and materials for growth
permeable : allowing a liquid or gas to pass through
turgid : swollen, containing more water than usual
contractile : able to contract or become narrower

Cell and Tissue
Cell
A cell is the basic, structural and
functional unit of life. The bodies of all
plants and animals are made up of cells.
Cells are also called building blocks of
life and can be compared with the bricks
of a house. A cell can perform various
metabolic activities and the function of
Fig.
an organism as a whole is the outcome of
combined activities of the cells present 16.1
in the body. Compound microscope
A cell is the smallest unit of life made of life giving substances called cytoplasm.
A cell is capable of independent existence. Cells are very small, i.e. microscopic
and cannot be seen with naked eyes. Therefore, we use compound microscope
to see the detailed structure of a cell. The bodies of living organisms consist
of cells and cell products. All new cells are formed by division of pre-existing
cells. Basically, cells are alike in chemical composition and metabolic activities.
Cells form the bodies of living beings. They have their own structure and
perform various functions. Therefore, cell is called the basic, structural and
functional unit of life.
Discovery of cell
Cell was discovered by Robert Hook
in 1665 AD. He built a microscope and
observed a thin slice of cork. He observed
numerous compartments connected
together in a honey-comb like structure.
He named these comparts as cells.
Fig.
Types of cell
On the basis of nuclear organization, 16.2
there are two types of cells. They are as Robert Hooke
follows:
1. Prokaryotic cell
2. Eukaryotic cell

1. Prokaryotic cell
A cell having a primitive nucleus is called
prokaryotic cell. It does not contain various
membrane bound cell organelles such as
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
lysosome, etc. Bacteria, blue-green algae,
Fig.
etc. have prokaryotic cell.
16.3
2. Eukaryotic cell
A cell having well organized nucleus is
called eukaryotic cell. It consists of various
cell organelles and inclusions. Most plants
and animals contain eukaryotic cell.
Fig.
16.4
Structure of cell Cell wall

Cytoplasm
Generally, animal cells are round Cell membrane

or oval and plant cells are Vacuole
rectangular or hexagonal. Nucleus Rough ER
However, cells of different Nucleolus Smooth ER
organisms differ in shape, size
and structure. Similarly, cells of Chloroplast
Ribosomes
Fig.
the same organisms differ from Golgi body

Mitochondrion
one another. In spite of these 16.5 Chromatin
differences, all cells are basically Plant cell
similar in structure and functions.
Golgi apparatus
A cell consists of various parts, Lysosome Mitochondrion
i.e. membranes, cell organelles Golgi vesicles
and inclusions. A brief Nucleolus
Rough ER
description of different parts of
a cell is given below:
Nucleus
Smooth ER
1. Cell wall Cell membrane
Microtubules
Fig.
A cell wall is the outermost, Centrioles Cytoplasm
thick, rigid and protective layer 16.6 Ribosome
of plant cells. It is made of a non- Animal cell

living structure called cellulose.
It is freely permeable in nature. A cell wall is absent in animal cell.
Functions
1. It provides a fixed shape to a plant cell.
2. It protects cell membrane and internal parts of a cell.
3. It helps various materials to enter and leave a cell.
2. Cell membrane
Cell membrane is a living, elastic and delicate membrane that forms the
outermost covering layer of an animal cell. In plant cells, it is found just inside
the cell wall. Cell membrane or plasma membrane is made up of protein and
lipid. It contains numerous pores and is semi-permeable or selectively
permeable in nature.
Functions Do You Know

1. It provides a fixed shape to an Cell membrane or plasma membrane
animal cell. is called semi-permeable or selectively
permeable membrane because it allows only
2. It protects internal parts of a cell. selected substances to enter or leave a cell. It
3. It helps in transport of materials in allows only the required materials to enter a
cell and waste materials to leave.
and out of a cell.
3. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a living, jelly-like substance found between cell membrane and
nuclear membrane. It is made of water, protein, fats, carbohydrates, minerals,
etc. It is translucent and semi-liquid in nature. It provides space for various
cell organelles and inclusions.
Functions
1. It consists of various cell organelles and hence, provides space for various
metabolic activities.
2. It helps in exchange of materials among various cell organelles.
3. It helps in distribution of molecules, nutrients and enzymes inside tahe cell.

4. Nucleus
Nucleus is a spherical or round cell
organelle found at the centre of a cell. It
consists of nuclear membrane, nucleolus,
nucleoplasm and thread-like structures
called chromosomes. The chromosomes
contain heredity information.
Fig.
Functions 16.7
1. Nucleus controls various metabolic activities of a cell.
2. It helps in cell division.
3. It helps in reproduction.
4. It helps to transmit hereditary information from parents to their offspring.
5. Mitochondria
Mitochondria are thread-like, rod-shaped or spherical cell organelles present
in cytoplasm. They may be small or large. They are enclosed by an outer
membrane and inner membrane. They contain different types of enzymes.
Do You Know
Mitochondria produce energy during
cellular respiration and store it. So they are
called the power house of a cell.
Fig.
16.8
Functions
1. Mitochondria produce and store energy required for a cell.
2. They synthesize amino acids
6. Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membrane bound flat tubules present
in the cytoplasm. It connects cell membrane to the nuclear membrane. It fills
up the intracellular cavity and forms the endoskeleton of a cell. Endoplasmic
reticulum is of two types, i.e. smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough

endoplasmic reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum in which ribosomes are
attached is called rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Functions
1. It increases surface area for various
metabolic activities.
2. It helps in formation of cell plate during
cell division.
3. It helps in intracellular transport.
Fig.
4. It provides mechanical support to the
cytoplasm. 16.9
5. It forms the supporting framework of a cell.
7. Ribosomes
Ribosomes are small spherical structure. They are found attached to the
surface of endoplasmic reticulum and some are found freely distributed in the
cytoplasm. They consist of RNA and protein.
Function
1. Ribosomes help in protein synthesis.
8. Plastids
Plastids are oval, round or elongated
cell organelles found only in plant
cells. On the basis of pigments, there
are three types of plastids. They are
Fig.
i) Chloroplasts, ii) Chromoplasts and iii)

Leucoplasts.
16.10
i) Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are green plastids. They are found in leaves, green parts of stem,
sepal and young fruits.
Functions
1. Chloroplasts trap solar energy and help in photosynthesis.
ii) Chromoplasts
Chromoplasts are colourful plastids. They are found in petals of flowers and
pericrap of fruits.
Function
1. Chromoplasts impart various colours to flowers and attract insects for
pollination.
iii) Leucoplasts
Leucoplasts are colourless pigments found in cells of underground storage
tissues of plants.
Function
1. Leucoplasts store food in the form of carbohydrates, protein and fat.
9. Golgi bodies
Golgi bodies consist of a set of membrane
bound tubules, fluid-filled vesicles and
vacuoles. It is found in the cytoplasm near
the nucleus.
Function
Fig.
1. It helps in cell division.

16.11
2. It helps in synthesis and storage of
proteins, carbohydrates and enzymes.
3. It helps in formation of cell wall and membrane.
10. Vacuoles
Vacuoles are non-living fluid filled spaces present in the cytoplasm. In animal
cell, vacuoles are smaller but more where as in plant cell, vacuoles are larger
but less. Vacuoles remain enclosed by a membrane called toroplast. Vacuoles
remain filled with a fluid which contains water, minerals, waste products, etc.
Functions
1. Vacuoles help a cell to remain turgid.
2. They balance the amount of water in a cell.
3. They balance the amount of glucose in a cell.
4. They store waste products, water and minerals.
11. Lysosomes
Lysosomes are spherical sac-like structures found in the cytoplasm. They
contain powerful enzymes that can digest various substances. They are capable
of digesting entire dead cell or damaged cell. Therefore, lysosomes are called
suicidal bags of the cell.
Functions
1. They help in intracellular digestion.
2. They provide energy to a cell during starvation.
12. Centrosome
It is a small naked structure found only in animal cells. It is located in the
cytoplasm near the nucleus. It contains two small centrioles and astral rays.
Functions
1. It helps in cell division in animal cells.
2. It gives rise to cilia and flagella.
Activity 1
To observe onion cells under a compound microscope:
Take a bulb of onion and remove outer dry scales. Cut the bulb into small
pieces vertically.
Take a fleshy scale and bend its outer surface and pull the broken thin layer
using foreceps.
Place the thin layer in a watch glass containing water and sefranin.
Take a glass slide and put a drop of glycerine at the middle of the slide.
Place the thin layer of onion, cover it gently with a cover slip and observe it
under the compound microscope.
Draw a neat figure after your observation.
Unicellular Animals
The animals having only one cell in their bodies are called unicellular animals.
They are very less developed. They do not have tissues, organs and systems.
Examples: Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, Plasmodium, etc. In unicellular
organisms, all life processes like respiration, digestion, excretion, etc take
place in a single cell.

Fig.
16.12
Amoeba Paramecium Euglena
Multicellular Animals
The animals having many cells in their bodies are called multicellular animals.
They are more developed than unicellular animals. They have tissues, organs
and systems. Examples: Hydra, tapeworm, earthworm, butterfly, fish, frog,
snake, crow, elephant, etc. Multicellular organisms have different organs and
systems to perform various life processes.
Fig.
16.13
Amoeba
Amoeba is a unicellular animal. It is
commonly found in fresh water, ponds,
pools, slow running streams, soil, etc. It
feeds on bacteria and other microscopic
organisms.
There are different types of amoeba. They
Fig.
are microscopic. We need a compound

microscope to see the detailed structure of 16.14
an amoeba.
The shape of an amoeba is irregular. The body of an amoeba remains covered
with a thin elastic and semi-permeable plasmalemma. The cytoplasm can be
distinguished into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm. A small spherical
nucleus is found at the centre of endoplasm. The endoplasm also consists
of a large contractile vacuole, many food vacuoles, mitochondria, golgi
complex, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, water droplets, etc. The nucleus
controls various metabolic activities in amoeba and also helps in growth and
reproduction.
The plasmalemma of amoeba is semi-permeable which allows only selected
substances to enter or leave the cell. Two types of vacuoles are found in
amoeba. They are:
i. Contractile vacuoles ii. Food vacuoles
Food vacuoles store food and water. Similarly, contractile vacuole stores waste
materials and helps in excretion.
Most amoebas are harmless to human beings. But entamoeba histolytica infects
inner lining of human intestine and causes dysentery. Entamoeba coli is a non-
pathogenic species of amoeba which is found in human intestine but does not
cause any disease. It feeds on bacteria and indigested food particles.
Fig.
16.15
Entamoeba histolytica Entamoeba coli
Hydra
Hydra is a small aquatic invertebrate. It
belongs to the phylum coelenterata of
Animal Kingdom. Hydra has a hollow
body of about 10 mm length. It has a mouth
but no anus. In hydra, the mouth remains
surrounded by tentacles. Tentacles help in
movement and catching food.
Fig.
Hydra moves with the help of tentacles.

While moving, hydra bends its body 16.16
attaching itself to the substratum with the
tentacles and then releases the basal disc, which provides usual attachment.

This process is called somersaulting or looping. The hydra then bends its body
and makes a new place for attachment with the basal disc.
Fig.
16.17
Movement of hydra
Hydra is a diploblastic animal, i.e. it has two body layers. They are epidermis
(outer) and dermis (inner). A gel-like substance is found between two layers
which are called mesogloea. In hydra, digestion of food takes place in the
coelenteron.
The hydra reproduces asexually by budding. In this process, a small outgrowth,
i.e. bud grows in the body. The bud develops into a baby hydra. The bud finally
separates from a parent hydra. In this way, reproduction takes place in hydra.
Fig.
16.18
Budding in hydra
Differences between plant cell and animal cell

Plant cell Animal cell
1. Cell wall is present. 1. Cell wall is absent.
2. Centrosome is absent. 2. Centrosome is present.
3. Plastids are present. 3. Plastids are absent.
4. Vacuoles are larger. 4. Vacuoles are smaller.
5. It is hexagonal or rectangular in 5. It is round or oval in shape.
shape.

Activity 2
Observe the structure of amoeba under a compound microscope.
Draw a neat and clean labelled figure after your observation.
Key Concepts
1. A cell is the basic, structural and functional unit of life.
2. A cell performs various functions like respiration, excretion, reproduction,
etc. which are essential for the survival of an organism. So a cell is called
the functional unit of life.
3. A cell is the smallest unit of life made of life giving substances called
cytoplasm.
4. Cell was discovered by Robert Hook in 1665 AD.
5. A cell having a primitive nucleus is called prokaryotic cell.
6. A cell having a well organized nucleus is called eukaryotic cell.
7. A cell wall is the outermost, thick, rigid and protective layer of plant
cells.
8. Cell membrane is a living, elastic and delicate membrane that forms the
outermost covering layer of an animal cell.
9. Cytoplasm is a living, jelly-like substance found between cell membrane
and nuclear membrane.
10. Nucleus is a spherical or round cell organelle found at the centre of a cell.
11. Mitochondria are thread-like, rod-shaped or spherical cell organelles
present in a cytoplasm.
12. Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membrane bound flat tubules.
13. Ribosomes are small spherical structure. They are found attached to the
surface of endoplasmic reticulum.
14. Plastids are oval, round or elongated cell organelles found only in plant
cells.
15. Golgi bodies consist of a set of membrane bound tubules, fluid-filled
vesicles and vacuoles.
16. Vacuoles are non-living fluid filled spaces present in cytoplasm.
17. Lysosomes are spherical sac-like structures found in cytoplasm.
18. The animals having only one cell in their bodies are called unicellular
animals.

19. The animals having many cells in their bodies are called multicellular
animals.
20. Amoeba is a unicellular animal. It is commonly found in fresh water,
ponds, pools, slow running streams, soil, etc.
21. Most amoebas are harmless to human beings. But Entamoeba histolytica
infects inner lining of human intestine and causes dysentery.
22. Hydra is a small aquatic invertebrate. It belongs to the phylum
coelenterata of Animal Kingdom.
23. The hydra reproduces asexually by budding. In this process, a small
outgrowth, i.e. bud grows in the body. The bud develops into a baby
hydra.
Exercise
a. A cell is the basic, structural and functional unit of life.
b. Eukaryotic cell contains primitive nucleus.
c. Ribosomes help in protein synthesis.
d. Plastids are absent in plant cells.
e. Amoeba is a multicellular animal.
a. Cell was discovered by …………….
b. ………… is made of cellulose.
c. ………… controls metabolic activities of a cell.
d. Centrosome is found only in …………… cell.
e. Hydra moves with the help of ………….

a. ………………… forms the outermost covering layer of plant cell.
Nucleus Cell wall Cell membrane Ribosome
b. …………… are absent in animal cells.
Centrosome Vacuoles Plastids Ribosome
c. Which of the given cell organelles help in photosynthesis?
centrosome plastid nucleus ribosomes
d. Which of the given animals is unicellular?
hydra tapeworm amoeba crab
a. What is a cell? Why is cell called the basic unit of life?

b. Name the scientists who discovered the cell?
c. What is a prokaryotic cell?
d. What is a eukaryotic cell?
e. What is a cell membrane? Write its two functions.
f. What is a cell wall? Write its two functions.
g. What is a cytoplasm? Write its functions.
h. What is a nucleus? Write its two functions.
i. What are mitochondria? Write the major functions of mitochondria.
j. What is endoplasmic reticulum?
k. What are ribosomes? Write down their major function.
l. Name three types of plastids. Also, write their major functions.
m. What are golgi bodies ? Write their major functions.
n. What are lysosomes? Write down the function of centrosome.

A B
Cell wall Help in protein synthesis
Cell membrane Help in photosynthesis
Nucleus Release and store energy
Plastids Gives shape to animal cell
Mitochondria Gives shape to animal cell
Controls metabolic activities
6. Draw a neat and labelled figure of a
i. Plant cell ii. Animal cell
7. Given reason:
a. A cell is called the fundamental unit of life.
b. Nucleus is called the controller of a cell.
c. Mitochondria are called power house of a cell.
8. Describe the structure of amoeba with a neat and labelled figure.
9. Describe the structure of a hydra with a neat figure.

UNIT
Life Processes
17
Before You Begin

Living beings perform various activities like respiration, digestion,
excretion, etc. for survival. These activities are called life processes.
No. organism can survive without life processes. Life is the result
of various metabolic activities that occur continuously in living
organisms. Life processes are simple in primitive organisms. All life
processes occur within a single cell in unicellular organisms. But
there are different organs and systems in developed organisms to
perform various life processes. In this unit, we will study some life
processes like respiration, digestion and excretion that occur in plants
and animals.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to life processes
i. introduce life processes with examples. • Respiration
ii. introduce respiration and explain various breathing • Respiration in animals (skin,
organs of organisms (skin, gills, trachea, spiracles, trachea, gills, lungs)
lungs and stomata) • Respiration in human body
iii. explain breathing in plants and animals. • Respiration in plants
• Human digestive system
iv. introduce digestive system in human body and
explain the process of digestion. • Process of digestion
• Excretion in living beings
v. introduce excretion and explain the excretion in plants
and animals in brief. • Excretion in plants
• Excretion in animals
• Excretion in human body
respiration : the process of releasing energy by breaking down food in the presence of
oxygen
breathing : the process in which oxygen is inhaled and carbon dioxide is exhaled
diffuse : to mix slowly a substance
pulmonary : related to the lungs
excretion : the process of removing waste materials from the body.

Life Processes
Respiration
We need energy to live and to do
work. We get energy from the food
that we eat. So, we cannot do any
work for a long time without having Nose
food. Therefore, we eat food to Wind pipe
obtain energy. After digestion, the Lung
food is absorbed by our body and
the absorbed food is transported to
each and every cell of our body. The
food gets oxidized in mitochondria
of the cell in the presence of oxygen.
As a result, energy is released. This
Fig.
process is called respiration. So

the process of releasing energy by 17.1
breaking down food in the presence Respiratory system of human
of oxygen in mitochondria is called beings
respiration. Oxygen gas is essential in atmosphere while breathing in.
While breathing, living beings take oxygen in and the oxygen reacts with
glucose or carbohydrate in mitochondria releasing energy, water and carbon
dioxide gas. Living beings perform life processes from the energy obtained
during respiration.
Respiration occurs in two ways. They are external respiration and internal
respiration.
External respiration or breathing is the process of inhaling air rich in oxygen
and exhaling air rich in carbon dioxide. No energy is released in external
respiration.
Internal respiration is the process of oxidation of food in mitochondria of cells.
In this process, oxygen reacts with digested food and releases energy along
with water and carbon dioxide. The chemical reaction of internal respiration
is given below:
Enzyme
Glucose + Oxygen Energy + Water + Carbon dioxide
Enzyme
C6 H12O6 + 6O2 Energy + 6H2O + 6CO2

Internal respiration is also called cellular respiration as it occurs in cells.
Animals and plants breathe by different ways. They have a variety of organs
for breathing. Plants breathe through stomata and animals breathe through
body surface, trachea, gills, skin or lungs.
Breathing in Animals
In aquatic unicellular animals, breathing takes place through the body surface.
Similarly, simple multicellular animals like sponges, coelenterates (hydra, sea
anemone, etc.) flatworms (tapeworm, liver fluke, etc.) breathe through their
general body surface. In these organisms, exchange of gases take place through
simple diffusion. They do not have special organs for breathing.
Carbon dioxide
(out) Carbon dioxide
(out)
Oxygen Oxygen (in)

(in)
Fig.
17.2
Amoeba Sponge
Developed multicellular animals have a variety of organs for exchange of

gases. They are as follows:
1. Skin
Multicellular animals like earthworm, leech, frog, toad, etc. have moist skin.
These animals breathe through the moist skin.
Fig.
17.3
Animals that breathe through moist skin

2. Trachea
Insects like cockroach, grasshopper, butterfly, moth, etc. breathe through
trachea or air tubes. These trachea open on the outer surface of the body which
are called spiracles. Insects take oxygen and release carbon dioxide through
these spiracles.
Fig.
17.4
Animals that breathe through spiracles
3. Gills
Aquatic animals like prawn, fish, tadpoles of frog, octopus, etc. breathe
through gills
Do You Know
Tadpoles of frog breathe through gills in
water. But adult frogs breathe through skin
in water and through lungs on land.
Fig.
17.5
Fish breathes through gills
4. Lungs
Animals like frog, reptiles (snake, lizard, crocodile, tortoise, etc.), birds and
mammals breathe through lungs. These animals inhale oxygen and exhale
carbon dioxide with the help of lungs.
Fig.
17.6
Animals that breathe through lungs
Breathing in Human Beings
Human beings have well developed
system for breathing and respiration.
This system is called respiratory
system. This system consists of
various organs like nose, pharynx,
windpipe and lungs. While
breathing, air reaches lungs through
nose, pharynx and wind pipe. Lungs
contain numerous air sacs called
alveoli. The walls of alveoli contain
blood capillaries. Oxygen diffuses
from the thin walls of capillaries
Fig.
into the blood and combines with
red blood cells. Red blood cells
17.7
supply oxygen to each and every
Respiratory system in human
cell of the body. In mitochondria of
body
the cell, oxygen reacts with digested
food. As a result, energy is released along with water and carbon dioxide. At
the same time, carbon dioxide is collected back to the lungs and is exhaled
through the nose. In this way, respiration occurs in the human body.
Breathing in Plants
Unlike animals, plants do not have well developed respiratory system. Plants
breathe through stomata present on upper and lower surface of leaf, outer
stem and general surface of roots. Stomata are very small openings which
remain surrounded by guard cells. Stomata open and close due to movement
of guard cells. These stomata help in exchange of gases while breathing.
Fig.
17.8
Stomata (open) Stomata (closed)

Human Digestive System
We need to eat food to get Mouth
energy. The food that we eat Tongue
should be digested before it is Phargnx
supplied to different parts of
the body. The complex food Food pipe
is broken down into simple
absorbable form by a group
of organs. This process is
Liver
called digestion. The system
Stomach
formed by digestive tract
and digestive glands which Duodenum
is responsible for digestion Small
intestine
of food is called digestive
Large
system. intestine
Human digestive system can Rectum
Fig.
be divided into two parts, Anus

viz. alimentary canal and 17.9
Human digestive system
digestive glands.
i. Alimentary canal
Alimentary canal begins from mouth and end in anus. It consists of mouth,
food pipe, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. The diameter of
alimentary canal differs from organ to organ.
ii. Digestive gland

Various chemicals are required for digestion of food. These chemicals are
called enzymes. Different glands produce different types of enzymes. The
glands involved in digestive system are salivary glands liver (gall bladder),
pancreas and intestinal glands.
Process of Digestion
Food is taken into mouth and chewed with the help of teeth. Salivary glands
secrete saliva which softens the food in mouth. The saliva contains an enzyme

called salivary amylase. This enzyme acts on starch and converts it into
maltose. After chewing, the food is swallowed into the pharynx which finally
reaches the stomach through a food pipe (oesophagus).
The wall of stomach secretes gastric juice which contains hydrochloric acid
and two enzymes, viz. pepsin and renin. The hydrochloric acid kills microbes
present in the food. In stomach, pepsin acts on proteins and converts them into
peptones (smaller protein molecules) renin acts on milk protein (casein) and
changes into insoluble curd.
Nearly after two hours of meal, the food proceeds towards duodenum in the
form of a thick paste, i.e. chime. In duodenum, bile juice from the liver (gall
bladder) and pancreatic juice from the pancreas mix with the food. Bile juice
does not contain any enzyme but it helps to digest fat. The pancreatic juice
contains three enzymes. They are trypsin, amylase and lipase. Trypsin acts on
proteins and converts them into peptones, amylase acts on starch and changes
it into maltose and lipase acts on fats and changes them into fatty acid and
glycerol.
After digestion in duodenum, the food slowly moves to the ileum where it is
acted upon by four enzymes; viz. erepsin, maltase, lactase and sucrase, produced
by intestinal glands. Erepsin acts on peptones and peptides and converts
them into amino acids. Maltase acts on maltose and converts it into glucose.
Sucrase acts on sucrose and changes it into glucose and fructose. Lactase acts
on lactose and changes it into glucose and galactose. In this way, proteins, fats
and carbohydrates are digested in the small intestine with the help of various
enzymes. The digested food is absorbed by the thin walls of small intestine and
mixed into blood stream. This process is called absorption. After absorption,
digested food is supplied to various cells through blood circulation.
After digestion in small intestine, food proceeds towards large intestine where
absorption of water occurs. The undigested solid particles of food form faeces
which moves towards rectum and is passed away through the anus. This
process is called digestion.
In this way, digestion of food takes place in the human body.

The digestion of food that occurs in different parts of alimentary canal is given
below:
Part of Food
Digestive Food acted
alimentary Secretion Enzyme changed
glands upon
canal into
Salivary Salivary
1. Mouth Saliva Starch Maltose
glands amylase
Pepsin Protein Peptones
Gastric Gastric Milk
glands juice Insoluble
Renin protein
2. Stomach curd
(casein)
No
Liver Bile juice Helps to digest fat
enzyme
Proteins
Trypsin and Peptides
peptones
3. Small Pancreatic
Pancreas Amylase Starch Maltose
intestine juice
Fatty
Lipase Fats acid and
glycerol
Amino
Erepsin Peptides
acids
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Intestinal Intestinal Glucose
glands juice Lactase Lactose and
galactose
Glucose
Sucrase Sucrose and
fructose
Excretion in living Beings

A variety of waste materials are formed in the bodies of plants and animals
while performing metabolic activities. These waste products may be toxic
or poisonous when accumulated inside the body for a line time. Therefore,
these wastes should be removed from the body. So, excretion is the process
of removing waste materials from the body. The system which excretes waste
products from the body is called excretory system. This system consists of
kidneys, lungs and skin. Carbon dioxide, salts, urea, uric acid, ammonia,
etc. are the waste products produced by animals. Different organisms have
different organs for excretion.
Excretion in plants
Plants use carbon dioxide and throw oxygen during photosynthesis. Similarly,
they use oxygen and throw carbon dioxide during respiration. Plants throw
excess water through stomata. This process is called transpiration. Plants
also produce waste products like resin, gum, latex, etc. However, these waste
products do not harm plants.
Excretion in Animal
Different animals have different organs for excretion. Unicellular animals
like amoeba, paramecium, etc. excrete through general body surface with the
help of contractile vacuole. Similarly, some multicellular animals also breathe
through the body surface. Developed animals have special organs like, skin,
nose, mouth, lungs, large intestine, liver, kidney, etc. for excretion.
Hydra excretes through its mouth. Animals like earthworm, leech, insects, etc.
excrete through anus. Fishes release carbon dioxide through gills. Frogs release
carbon dioxide through skin and lungs. Higher invertebrates and vertebrates
have digestive system and excretory system to remove waste materials from the
body. They remove waste materials through anus, urethra, skin, mouth and nose.
Excretion in Human Body

Human beings have well developed excretory system for removal of various
water materials. The major organs in human body that help in excretion are
given below:
Lungs
Lungs help in removal of carbon dioxide
gas produced during cellular oxidation
or internal respiration.
Fig.
17.10
Human lungs

Skin
Skin helps in removal of urea, uric acid,
salts and excess water in the form of
sweat.
Fig.
17.11
Human skin
Kidneys
Kidneys help in removal of urea, uric
acid, salt, excess water, etc. in the form
of urine.
Fig.
17.12
Human urinary system
Liver
Liver helps in removal of urea, ammonia,
etc. The waste materials produced by
liver reach the kidneys through blood
circulation and are excreted in the from
Fig.
of urine.
17.13
Human Liver
Large intestine
The undigested solid particles are
removed by large intestine through the
rectum and anus.
In this way, excretion takes place in
Fig.
human body by means of various organs.

17.14
Human large intestine

Key Concepts
1. Life is the result of various metabolic activities that occur continuously
in living organisms.
2. The process of releasing energy by breaking down food in the presence
of oxygen in mitochondria is called respiration.
3. Living beings perform life processes from the energy obtained during
respiration.
4. External respiration or breathing is the process of inhaling air rich in
oxygen and exhaling air rich in carbon dioxide.
5. Internal respiration is the process of oxidation of food in mitochondria
of cells. In this process, oxygen reacts with digested food and releases
energy along with water and carbon dioxide.
6. Human beings have well developed system for breathing and respiration.
This system is called respiratory system.
7. In mitochondria of the cell, oxygen reacts with digested food. As a result,
energy is released along with water and carbon dioxide.
8. Plants breathe through stomata present on upper and lower surface of
leaf, outer stem and general surface of roots.
9. The system formed by digestive tract and digestive glands which is
responsible for digestion of food is called digestive system.
10. After absorption, digested food is supplied to various cells through blood
circulation.
11. Excretion is the process of removing waste materials from the body. The
system which excretes waste products from the body is called excretory
system.
12. Plants throw excess water through stomata. This process is called
transpiration.
13. Developed animals have special organs like, skin, nose, mouth, lungs,
large intestine, liver, kidney, etc. for excretion.
14. Human beings have well developed excretory system for removal of
various water materials.
Exercise
a. Respiration, digestion, and excretion are examples of life
processes.
b. While breathing, we take carbon dioxide and release oxygen.

c. Plants breathe through stomata.
d. Salivary amylase is found in gastric juice.
e. Maltase acts on maltose and changes it into glucose.
f. Resin, gums, latex, etc. are the excretory products of plants.

a. ........................ gas is essential for respiration.
b. Most insects breathe through ........................ .
c. ........................ remain surrounded by guard cells.
d. Two enzymes found in gastric juice are ........................ and ........................
.
e. The process of removal of waste materials from the body is called
........................

a. Which of the given animals breathes through general body surface?
fish amoeba frog snake
b. The gas essential for photosynthesis is ………………
oxygen nitrogen carbon dioxide air
c. Which of the given glands are found in the wall of stomach?
salivary gastric liver intestinal
d. Which of the given enzymes is found in gastric juice?
pepsin trypsin amylase lipase
e. The excretory organs of plants are ………………
lungs stomata kidneys gills

a. What are life processes? Give any three examples.
b. What is respiration? Differentiate between external and internal
respiration.
c. How does breathing take place in primitive animals?
d. Name any two animals that breathe through gills.
e. Name any four organisms that breathe trough lungs.
f. How does breathing occur in plants?
g. What is a digestive system? Name any three parts of alimentary canal.
h. Name any three glands that help in digestion of food.
i. How does digestion of food occur in stomach and small intestine?
j. What is excretion? Name any three excretory organs of human beings.
k. How does excretion occur in primitive animals ? Write.
l. How does excretion occur in human beings?
5. Differentiate between :
a. External respiration and Internal respiration
b. Respiration and Photosynthesis
c. Respiration and Digestion
6. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing human digestive system.
7. Draw a neat figure showing urinary system of human beings.
8. Write down the role of following organs in excretion.

– Liver – Kidney – Gills
– Lungs – Skin
9. Draw a chart showing various digestive glands of human body, their

secretion, enzymes produced and functions of these enzymes.
10. Name the excretory organ of following organisms.

– fish – frog – bird – human – plants

Geology and Astronomy
UNIT
Structure of the Earth
18
Before You Begin

The earth is the common habitat for all living beings. The surface
of the earth is made of rocks, soil and water. Rocks are the solid
and hard substances found on the earth's surface. More than
three-fourth parts of the earth remain covered with water and
the rest with soil. If we dig a layer of soil to a certain depth, bed
rocks can be seen from the ancient time. Rocks are being used
by human beings for various purposes. Rocks are widely used
in construction of buildings, houses, roads, pavements, bridges,
dams, walls, canals, etc. Similarly, different types of minerals are
also obtained from the rocks.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Rocks: Introduction
i. introduce rocks and describe their physical properties. • Physical properties of rocks
ii. state different types of rocks and explain their features • Types of rocks
and uses. - Igneous rocks
iii. give a brief account of important rocks of Nepal. - Sedimentary rocks
- Metamorphic rocks
iv. state the uses of rocks.
• Some important rocks of
Nepal
• Uses of rocks
rocks : the hard and solid structures on the surface of the earth
minerals : a substance that is naturally formed under the ground
igneous : formed by solidification of magma, formed when hot, liquid rock cools
and becomes hard
magma : molten rock material within the earth from which igneous rock results by
cooling
sedimentary : formed by or from deposits of sediment

The Structure of the Earth
Rocks
Rocks are hard solid substances that
from the surface of the earth. The earth's
crust is made of rocks. They are found
everywhere in our surroundings. They
form cliffs, hills and mountains. Rocks
form the bed of the sea. Rocks are also
found below the layer of soil, on the
banks of rivers, streams, etc. Rocks
are made of fine grains of minerals.
Fig.
Different types of metals and non-
metals are found in rocks. Over a period 18.1
of time, rocks undergo weathering
which results in the formation of soil.
Physical Properties of Rocks

1. Generally, rocks are hard but some soft rocks are also found in nature.
2. They have different colours. The colour of a particular rock is due to the type of
minerals present in it. Rocks may be white, red, yellow, brown, green, gray, etc.
3. Surface of the rock may be rough or smooth. The rocks that contain big grains
of minerals appear rough and the rocks that contain small grains of minerals
appear smooth.
4. Rocks contain different types of metallic and non-metallic minerals.
5. Rocks exist in solid state.
Do You Know
6. Most rocks have high density, i.e. Rocks are hard and solid substances having
they are heavy. metallic and non-metallic minerals.
Classification of Rocks
There are three types of rocks on the
basis of method of formation and origin of rocks. They are as follows:
1. Igneous rocks 2. Sedimentary rocks 3. Metamorphic rocks
1. Igneous Rocks
The rocks formed by solidification of magma are called igneous rocks.
Examples: basalt, pumice, granite, dunite, etc. During volcanic eruption, hot

molten magma comes out through the cracks on the surface of the earth. The
magma which comes out on the surface of the earth is called lava. The lava
cools down slowly and becomes solid resulting in the formation of rocks.
Sometimes, the magma cannot come out on the surface and cools down just
below the surface of the earth, which also forms igneous rocks. On the basis
of formation, igneous rocks are of two types, viz. (i) volcanic rocks and (ii)
plutonic rocks.
The igneous rocks which are formed by solidification of magma on the surface
of the earth are called volcanic rocks. Basalt, pumice, obsidian, etc. are the
examples of volcanic rocks.
Fig.
18.2
Obsidian rock Basalt rock Pumice rock
Volcanic rocks are made of small granules. Some of them may be porous or
glassy in appearance.
The igneous rocks which are formed just below the surface of the earth by
solidification of magma are called plutonic rocks. Graphite, dunite, gabbro,
etc. are examples of plutonic rocks.
Fig.
18.3
Graphite rock Dunite rock Gabbro rock
Plutonic rocks contain big crystals. They are the hardest rocks and hence are
suitable for construction works.
Some useful Igneous rocks
Granite
Granite is a black or grey plutonic igneous rock having large garnules. It is rich
in quartz and felspar. It is a hard and strong igneous rock. It is widely used in
construction works.
Pumice
Pumice is a light and porous volcanic igneous rock. It is formed by solidification
of lava having gas. It has different colours like pale, white, black, blue-grey,
green, brown, etc. Pumice is used to make cosmetic items, toothpastes, polishes,
pencils, erasers, light concrete, etc.
Obsidian rock
Obsidian is a glass-like volcanic rock. It is a dark coloured weak rock formed
by rapidly cooling lava. Due to its glass-like appearance, obsidian is also called
volcanic glass. It is used for making gemstones, arrowheads, cutting tools,
spear points, knives, etc.
2. Sedimentary Rocks
The rocks formed by the sedimented substances under high temperature
and pressure are called sedimentary rocks. Limestone, sandstone, coal, shale,
conglomerates, etc. are examples of sedimentary rocks. During the process of
soil erosion, many organic as well as inorganic substances are carried away
by water, air, etc. and these substances get deposited in some other places.
In this way, hundreds of layers are formed over a period of time. Under high
temperature and pressure, the sedimented materials become hard resulting
in the formation of rocks which are known as sedimentary rocks. These rocks
contain many layers and are soft in nature. Since sedimentary rocks may
contain fossils and hence, help to know about evolution of organisms.
Limestone Sandstone Shale

Fig.
18.4
Conlomerates Dolostone
Some Important Sedimentary Rocks
Limestone
Limestone is a very useful sedimentary rock having fine granules. It consists
of calcium carbonate. Limestone is formed from the skeleton of marine
organisms. It may be red, green, white, blue, black, gray, etc. It is widely used
in construction works. Limestone finally changes into marble after a long time
under the earth crust.
Sand stone
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock having sand-sized granules. It consists of
minerals like quartz, felspar and organic matter. Its colour may be red, white,
black, yellow, grey, pink, etc. It is used in construction works.
Conglomerate
The sedimentary rock having round granules is called conglomerate. It is
made of silica, quartz and granules. Conglomerate is formed by combination
of sand particles with silica or quartz. The conglomerate having silica is used
in construction works.
Shale
The sedimentary rock having clay and silt is called shale. Its colour may be
grey or black. Clay is the collection of very small granules whereas silt is
the collection of granules which are smaller than sand. It is used in artwork,
pottery and in architecture.
3. Metamorphic Rocks
The rocks which are formed by the modification of igneous and sedimentary
rocks due to high temperature and pressure under the earth's surface are
called metamorphic rocks. These rocks are formed over a long period of time
due to metamorphosis of both igneous and sedimentary rocks. Marble, state,
gnesis, schist, quartzite etc. are examples of metamorphic rocks. The physical
and chemical properties of metamorphic rocks are different from that of their
original forms.
Marble Slate Gnesis

Fig.
18.5
Schist Quarzite
Following table shows some metamorphic rocks and their previous forms
before metamorphosis.
Igneous/sedimentary rocks Metamorphic rocks

1. Shale Slate
2. Shale Schist
3. Sandstone Quarzite
4. Granite Gnesis
5. Limestone Marble
Activity 1
Study the features of the rocks that are found in your locality.
Classify these rocks into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
Also, write down their characteristics and uses.
Some Important Rocks Found in Nepal

1. Marble
Marble is a very useful metamorphic rock formed
by modification of limestone. It has many layers
and different colours. A large deposit of marble
Fig.
is located in Godawari, Lalitpur. Marble is widely

used in construction and for decorative purposes.
18.6
2. Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock formed by
calcium carbonate. It is used for making cement
and lime. It is also used in construction works.
Fig.
It has different colours. Limestone is found in

different parts of Nepal like Chobar, Godawari,
Udaypur, Jogimara, Bhaise, Ghorahi, etc. 18.7
3. Slate
Slate is a metamorphic rock having fine granules
and various layers. It is formed by modification
of schist. It is used for making writing boards
Fig.
and roofing of houses, temples, etc. A large
deposit of slate is located in Bandipur.
18.8
4. Silica
Silica is formed by weathering of rocks. It is
made of silica and oxygen. It is found on the
bank of rivers. It is used in construction works.
Fig.
5. Conglomerate
18.9
It is a sedimentary rock having round granules.
It consists of silica, quartz and granules connected together. It is found on the
banks of rivers. It is used in construction works.
6. Sandstone
It is a sedimentary rock having sand-sized granules of different colours. It
consists of quartz, felspar and organic matter. It is found on the banks of rivers
in Nepal. It is also used in construction works.
Uses of Rocks
1. Rocks are widely used in construction of houses, temples, buildings, bridges,
walls, dams, road, monuments, columns, palaces, etc.
2. Rocks like marble, limestone, slate, etc. are used in decoration of walls,
temples, floors, etc.
3. Rocks are used for extraction of minerals.
4. Rocks are used for extraction of metals.
5. Rocks like slate are used for roofing of houses and temples.
6. Rocks are used for making gemstones and decorative items.
Key Concepts
1. Rocks contain different types of metallic and non-metallic minerals.
2. The rocks formed by solidification of magma are called igneous rocks.
3. The igneous rocks which are formed by solidification of magma on the
surface of the earth are called volcanic rocks.
4. The igneous rocks which are formed just below the surface of the earth by
solidification of magma are called plutonic rocks.
5. The rocks which are formed by the modification of igneous and sedimentary
rocks due to high temperature and pressure under the earth's surface are
called metamorphic rocks.
6. Rocks are widely used in construction of houses, temples, buildings, bridges,
walls, dams, road, monuments, columns, palaces, etc.
Exercise
a. Rocks are hard and solid substances found on the earth.
b. Igneous rocks contain fossils.
c. Granite is an example of sedimentary rocks.
d. Marble is formed by modification of limestone.
e. Sandstone contains quartz and felspar.

a. The rocks that contain big granules appear ..........................
b. .......................... rocks are formed by solidification of magma.
c. Granite and dunite are the examples of .......................... rocks.
d. Quartzite is formed by modification of ..........................
e. A large deposit of .......................... is located in Godawari, Lalitpur.

a. What are rocks? What are they made of?
b. Where are rocks found?
c. Name three types of rocks.
d. What are igneous rocks? Give any three examples.
e. What are volcanic and plutonic rocks? Give any two examples of each.

f. What are sedimentary rocks? How are they formed?
g. Give any three examples of sedimentaty rocks.
h. What are metamorphic rocks? Give any three examples.
i. Where is marble found in Nepal?
4. Give reason.
a. Fossils are found in sedimentary rocks.
b. Igneous rocks are widely used in construction works.
c. Marble is called a metamorphic rock.
a. Sedimentary rocks and Igneous rocks
b. Volcanic rocks and Plutonic rocks
c. Limestone and Marble
6. Give a brief account of the rocks found in Nepal.
7. Identify the rocks given below.

a. b. c.
8. Write down the major uses of rocks.

UNIT
Weather and Climate
19
Before You Begin

Most days are sunny, some are cloudy and other may be rainy or
foggy. Similarly, some days are hot and other days are cold. It may be
sunny in the morning, cloudy in the noon and rainy in the evening.
Weather and climate both refer to the condition of the atmosphere in
a certain place. The condition of the atmosphere at a particular place
and time is called weather. Sunny, cloudy, foggy, rainy, hot, cold, etc.
are some states of weather. The weather of a place keeps on changing
from time to time. Similarly, the weather varies from place to place.
Climate is the average atmospheric condition over a long peroid of
time. The totality of existing temperature, atmospheric pressure,
humidity, rainfall, etc. is called climate.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to weather and
i. introduce weather and climate. climate.
ii. describe in brief about cloud, rain, snow and dew. • Cloud, rain, snow and dew
iii. introduce various layers of air with their features. • Atmosphere and its layers
iv. describe the cause of movement of air. • Wind and movement of air
v. Introduce the equipment of measuring the factors • Equipment for measuring the
affecting weather. factors affecting weather
vi. state the ways of weather forecasting and explain its • Weather forecasting
importance.
weather : the condition of the atmosphere at a particular time and place

climate : the average atmospheric condition of place over a long period of time
dew : the water in the form of droplets that appears on leaves in the morning
atmosphere : the thick layer of air that surrounds the earth's crust
forecast : to predict something such as weather

Weather and Climate
Weather can be defined as the specific atmospheric condition of a particular
place at a particular time. Weather varies from place to place and time to time.
The weather may be sunny, windy, cloudy, rainy, etc. On the same day, the
weather in the morning, at noon and in the evening may be different.
Fig.
19.1
Sunny weather Cloudy weather Rainy weather
Climate can be defined as the average atmospheric condition of a place over a
long period of time. It is the average weather pattern of a place throughout the
year. The climate of some places may be hot and wet and in other places it may
not be hot and dry. Similarly, it may be cold and humid in some other places.
The earth has been divided into three main climate regions. They are (i) tropical,
(ii) sub-tropical and (iii) cold or tundra. These climate regions are further
divided into many sub-regions. These sub-regions are called climate belts. The
natural vegetation, animals and mode of human life and their activities are
determined by the climate of their habitat.
Clouds
When the sky is not clear, we can see different
types of clouds. Clouds that we see in the
sky have different shape, size, colour and
appearance. Clouds give us idea about the
changing weather. Have you seen clouds in
Fig.
the sky? What are clouds made of? Have you

ever wondered? Water exists in three different 19.2
forms in nature, viz. solid, liquid and gas. In
solid state, water is found in the Himalayas and in liquid state, it is found in
river, lake, ponds, oceans, etc. Similarly, in gaseous state, water is found in the
form of vapour in the atmosphere. When the water vapour changes back into
water droplets, cloud is formed. So, cloud can be defined as a grey or white
mass of very small drops of water that float in the sky.
Formation of Cloud
Do You Know
The water present in the rivers, lakes,
ponds, oceans, etc. gets converted The droplets of water in clouds are so small
that millions of them combine to form a
into vapour due to the heat of the single drop of rain.
Sun. The water vapour rises up in
the atmosphere and gets mixed with
dust particles. Then the mixture of
water vapour and dust particles undergoes condensation on cooling. As a
result, cloud is formed. Cloud is very light, so it floats in the atmosphere.
Rain
The water present in ocean, river, pond, lake,
etc. gets converted into vapour due to the heat
of the Sun. Then the water vapour rises up in
the sky. When the water vapour reaches high
up in the sky, it cools down and changes into
clouds. The clouds further cool down in the
Fig.
sky. As a result, rainfall occurs on the earth.
High hills and forest play a great role in the 19.3
formation of rain. In Nepal, heavy rainfall
occurs in the months of Asar and Shrawan.
Snow
Snow is a soft, white and fluffy crystalline
water. It falls from clouds. It is a granular
material and found in the form of flakes.
The Himalayas remain covered with snow
Fig.
throughout the year. In Nepal, snowfall

occurs in most of the tall peaks during winter.
19.4
Dew
During winter season, the water vapour
present in atmosphere undergoes condesation
and changes into water droplets which is
called dew. So, dew is the water in the form
of droplets that can be seen on leaves. We can
Fig.
observe dew on leaves and other objects in

the morning during winter season. 19.5

Air
The mixture of various gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon,
etc. is called air. The air is made of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon
dioxide by volume. The surface of the earth is surrounded by thick layer of air.
Atmosphere
Atmosphere is the thick layer of air
that surrounds the surface of the Exosphere
earth. Various gases like nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, water
Thermosphere
vapour, etc. and dust particles are
found in the atmosphere. On the basis
of height and features, atmosphere is
Mesosphere
divided into five layers.
1. Troposphere Stratosphere
2. Stratosphere Troposphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
Fig.
5. Exosphere
19.6
1. Troposphere
Troposphere is the lowermost layer of atmosphere which extends upto 16
km from the surface of the earth. Different heavy gases like nitrogen, oxygen,
carbon dioxide, etc. are found in this layer. The temperature of this layer
decreases as the height increases. Weather-related activities like rainfall,
snowfall, lightning, thunder, hailstones, etc. occur in this layer. Therefore,
troposphere is very important for meteorologists to study weather.
2. Stratosphere
Stratosphere is the layer of atmosphere which is located between troposphere
and mesosphere. It extends between 16 km to 50 km from the surface of the
earth. This layer is very important for living beings because upper part of this
layer contains ozone which shields the harmful UV-radiations and protects
the living beings on the earth. The temperature of stratosphere increases as it
increases in height.

3. Mesosphere
Mesosphere is the layer of atmosphere which is located between troposphere
and thermosphere. It extends between 50 km to 80 km from the surface of
the earth. In mesosphere, strong wind blows. The temperature of this layer
decreases when the height increases.
4. Thermosphere
Thermosphere is a very hot layer of atmosphere which is located between
mesosphere and exosphere. It extends between 80 – 720 km from the surface
of the earth. In this layer, temperature increases with the increasing height.
This layer has less amount of air.
5. Exosphere
It is the uppermost layer of atmosphere located above 720 km from the surface
of the earth. This layer consists of very less air. It is also called fringe region.
Wind
In the months of Fagun, Chaitra, Baisakh and Jestha, strong wind blows in
Nepal. It carries dust particles, waste papers, plastics, dried leaves and many
other light objects in its way. Some times, it blows away roofs made of tins and
uproot trees which may destroy life and property. Similarly, wind breaks the
branches of trees and it damages crops and fruits.
Fig.
19.7
Windy day Tree broken due to wind
The fast blowing air is called wind. Air is a mixture of different gases in which
molecules are loosely bound together. Due to the heat of the Sun, the air
becomes light and rises up as hot air is light. Now, cold air rushes down to
occupy the empty space. When hot masses of air move up and cold masses of
air move down rapidly, wind blows. Such types of movement of air is called
convection.
Movement of Air (Land breeze and Sea breeze)
During day time, land gets heated faster than water. So the air above land
surface gets heated faster than the air above the sea. So the air above the
land surface that gets heated due to heat of the Sun during day time rises up.
Then the cold air from the sea moves towards the land to occupy the empty
space. As a result, cold air blows towards the land from the sea. Such type of
movement of air is called sea breeze.
Do You Know
The movement of cold air towards land from
the sea during the day is called sea breeze.
Fig.
19.8
Sea breeze
The surface of land cools down faster at night than the water in the sea. Due
to this, the air above the land surface cools down faster than the water in the
sea. So the air above sea rises up as it remains hot. As a result, cold air moves
towards the sea from the land at night. Such type of movement of air is called
land breeze.
Do You Know
The movement of cold air towards the sea
from the land at night is called land breeze.
Fig.
19.9
Land breeze
Information Regarding the Weather

Today's era is the era of science and technology. Scientists have developed
many equipment to gather information regarding weather. Various means
of information and communication like radio, television, newspaper, smart
phones, etc. disseminate information regarding weather and change in weather.
Meteorologists forecast weather by studying the factors that affect weather
such as humidity, direction of air, temperature, types of clouds, movement of
clouds, rain, etc. Now-a-days, various equipment like rain-guaze, barometer,
anemometer, hygrometer, maximum-minimum thermometer, etc. are used by
meteorologists to study weather and factors affecting weather.
Equipment for Measuring Used for Weather Forecasting

1. Rain-guaze
The equipment which is used to measure the amount of rainfall in a certain
place and time is called rain-guaze. The amount of rainfall is measured in mm
(millimetre). In Nepal, maximum rainfall occurs in Pokhara.
Do You Know
The amount of rainfall in Biratnager is 60
mm means that if all rain remains in the
same place where it falls, it would be 60 mm
high from the ground.
Fig.
19.10
Rain-guaze
2. Barometer
The equipment which is used for measuring atmospheric pressure is called
barometer. Generally, two types of barometers are used to measure atmospheric
pressure. They are mercury barometer and aneroid barometer.
Do You Know
Atmospheric pressure determines the
weather of a place. When atmospheric
pressure increases, weather remains clear
but day becomes windy and cloudy when
atmospheric pressure decreases.
Fig.
19.11
Barometer

3. Anemometer
The speed of direction of air keep changing from time to time. So, meteorologists
have developed an equipment to measure the speed and direction of air. This
equipment is called anemometer. So, the equipment which is used to measure
the speed and direction of air is called anemometer.
Do You Know
In mountains of Nepal, strong wind blows in
the evening. Similarly, the speed of air is less
Fig.
in the morning and more in the noon.
19.12
Anemometer
4. Hygrometer
Hygrometer is the equipment which is used for measuring humidity. When
the temperature of air increases, humidity decreases and vice-versa.
Do You Know
Relative humidity is the amount of vapour
in air. When the relative humidity increases,
the possibility of rainfall increases.
Fig.
19.13
Hygrometer
5. Maximum-minimum Thermometer
The equipment which is used to measure the maximum
and minimum temperature of a day in a certain place
is called maximum-minimum thermometer.
Fig.
Weather forecasting 19.14

Before booking a flight ticket, we check the forecast Maximum-minimum
of weather for that day. Similarly, farmers listen Thermometer

to the weather forecasting in the radio before harvesting crops. It is done to
be aware of forthcoming weather. The process of predicting the forthcoming
weather of a particular region is called weather forecasting.
Fig.
19.15
Weather forecasting is done by collecting data about current atmospheric

condition. In this process, scientific understanding of atmospheric condition
is used. It helps to forecast how the atmospheric condition will change in
the near future. Now-a-days, weather forecasting is done by observing the
situation and the speed of cloud in the sky and studying the pictures received
from artificial satellites. Such forecasting is reliable to a large extent.
Fig.
Fig.
19.16 19.17
Artificial satellite for weather Satellite picture of weather
forecasting forecasting
A scientist who helps in weather forecasting after studying the data received
from artificial satellites is called a meteorologist. Metorologists try to give
complete and accurate picture of weather conditions before hand. It helps
people to be aware of forthcoming weather and take necessary precautions. In
Nepal, there are meteorological laboratories in different parts of the country to
study weather and the factors responsible for change in weather.

Some common ways of weather forecasting
1. Heavy rainfall may occur if the sky is suddenly covered with dark clouds.
2. If the day is partially cloudy from the morning, it may not rain throughout
the day.
3. The possibility of rain increases with a sudden hot sunshine.
4. In the rainy season, if the day begins with very hot sunshine, it may rain in the
afternoon.
5. In context of Nepal, if the clouds move towards the end of the rainy season,
rain stops after some days.
Key Concepts
1. Weather can be defined as the specific atmospheric condition of a particular
place at a particular time.
2. Climate can be defined as the average atmospheric condition of a place over
a long period of time.
3. The earth has been divided into three main climate regions. They are (i)
tropical, (ii) sub-tropical and (iii) cold or tundra.
4. Clouds can be defined as a grey or white mass of very small drops of water
that float in the sky.
5. High hills and forest play a great role in the formation of rain. In Nepal,
heavy rainfall occurs in the months of Asar and Shrawan.
6. The mixture of various gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon,
etc. is called air.
7. Atmosphere is the thick layer of air that surrounds the surface of the earth.
8. Troposphere is the lowermost layer of atmosphere which extends upto 16
km from the surface of the earth.
9. Weather-related activities like rainfall, snowfall, lightning, thunder,
hailstones, etc. occur in this layer. Therefore, troposphere is very important
for meteorologists to study weather.
10. Mesosphere is the layer of atmosphere which is located between troposphere
and thermosphere.
11. Thermosphere is a very hot layer of atmosphere which is located between
mesosphere and exosphere.
12. The movement of cold air towards land from the sea during the day is called
sea breeze.
13. The movement of cold air towards sea from the land at night is called land
breeze.

14. Meteorologists forecast weather by studying the factors that affect the
weather such as humidity, direction of air, temperature, types of clouds,
movement of clouds, rain, etc.
15. The equipment which is used to measure the amount of rainfall in a certain
place and time is called rain-guaze.
16. The equipment which is used for measuring atmospheric pressure is called
barometer.
17. The equipment which is used to measure the speed and direction of air is
called anemometer.
18. Hygrometer is the equipment which is used for measuring humidity.
19. The process of predicting the forthcoming weather of a particular region is
called weather forecasting.
20. A scientist who helps in weather forecasting after studying the data received
from artificial satellites is called a meteorologist.
Exercise
a. The weather of a place always remains unchanged.
b. Clouds have different shape, size and colour.
c. About 21% of nitrogen is found in the atmosphere.
d. Ozone layer is present in mesosphere.
e. Hygrometer is used for measuring humidity.
a. ...................... is the average condition of atmosphere over a long time.
b. ...................... is a soft white and fluffy crystalline water.
c. Troposhere extends upto ......................km from the surface of the earth.
d. The movement of cold air towards land from the sea is called
......................
e. ...................... is used to measure the speed and direction of air.

a. ...................... is the mixture of various gases.
cloud air snow rain
b. ...................... is the uppermost layer of atmosphere.
atmosphere mesosphere
exosphere stratosphere
c. Ozone layer is found in ......................
mesosphere thermosphere
troposhere stratosphere
d. ...................... is used for measuring atmospheric pressure.
hygometer barometer
anemometer rain guaze

a. What is a weather?
b. What is meant by climate?
c. What is cloud? Describe in brief the method of formation of cloud.
d. Define rain, snow and dew.
e. What is air? Write down the percentage of oxygen gas in air.
f. Define atmosphere. Draw a neat figure showing various layers of
atmosphere.
g. What is stratosphere? Write down the importance of this layer for
living beings.
h. Write any three features of each troposhere, mesosphere and
thermosphere.
i. What is meant by land breeze and sea breeze?

j. What is rain-guaze? Write down the use of anemometer.
k. Name any four equipment that are used in weather forecasting.
l. What is weather forecasting? Write down its importance.
5. Write any two differences between snow and cloud.
6. Write any two differences between troposphere and exosphere.
7. Name the equipment shown in the given figures. Also, write down the
use of each.
a. b. c.
8. Mention any three ways of weather forecasting.

UNIT
The Earth and Space
20
Before You Begin

The earth is our home planet. All planets and animals live on the
earth. The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
The earth is a member of solar system. The family of the Sun that
includes the Sun, eight planets, natural satellites, comets, astroids,
meteors, meteorites, etc. is called the solar system. Similarly,
planets are heavenly bodies that revolve around the Sun. In
this unit, we will study about solar system, planets, stars and
constellations in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to solar system,
i. introduce solar system and planets. the Sun and planets.
ii. explain the features of eight planets of the solar • Description of eight planets of
system. the solar system.
iii. introduce stars and differentiate between planets and • Stars- Introduction and
stars. features
iv. introduce constellations with examples. • Differences between planets
and stars
• Constellations and methods of
identification of constellations
solar : related to or of the sun

planets : the heavenly bodies that revolve around the Sun
satellites : the heavenly bodies that revolve around the planets
stars : the bright twinkling objects having their own source of light
constellations : a small group of brilliant stars which seems to form the pattern or shape
of some objects

The Earth and Space
The Sun
The Sun is the brightest heavenly object. It is a medium sized star close to
the earth. The Sun is extremely hot. It is a huge ball of burning gas. So it is
extremely hot. It releases a large amount of heat and light energy. All the
plants, animals and human beings use the solar energy. Life would not exist
on the earth in the absence of the Sun.
Solar system
Solar system is the family
of the Sun which consists
of eight planets and their
satellites, comets, asteroids,
meteors, meteorites, etc. The
Fig.
Sun occupies the central

position of the solar system.
All the planets and other 20.1
members of the solar system Solar System
revolve around the Sun in fixed paths called orbits.
Project work
Do You Know
Take a chart paper and draw a
The Sun is the brightest heavenly body
neat and labelled figure of the
that we see from the earth.
solar system.
Animals and plants cannot survive on the
Put suitable colour on the picture earth in the absence of the Sun.
and demonstrate in your classroom
Planets
We know that the earth revolves around the Sun in its own orbit. So, it is called
a planet. Planets are heavenly bodies that revolve around the Sun in elliptical
paths called orbits. Planets do not have their own source of light for shining.
So they are called non-luminous bodies. However, planets appear bright in
the sky as they reflect the light coming from the Sun. The Sun holds all planets
together with its strong force of attraction which is called gravitation.
There are eight planets in the solar system. The eight planets of the solar system
in the order of their increasing distance from the Sun are given below:
(i) Mercury (ii) Venus
(iii) Earth (iv) Mars
(v) Jupiter (vi) Saturn
(vii) Uranus (viii) Neptune
A brief description of all the planets of the solar system is given below:
1. Mercury
Out of the eight planets, mercury is the closest
planet to the sun. It is the smallest planet
of the solar system. Life cannot exist on the
mercury as it has no atmosphere. The part of
Fig.
the mercury that faces the sun is extremely hot
and the other part is extremely cold. Mercury
has no satellites. 20.2
Mercury
Activity 1
Mercury can be seen just before the Do You Know
sunrise in September and October. Mercury is the smallest planet of the solar
It can also be seen just after the system.
sunset in March and April. Venus is the hottest and brightest planet of
the solar system.
Observe the mercury in the sky
and write its three features after
your observation
2. Venus
Venus is the nearest planet to the earth. It is
the brightest and hottest planet of the solar
Fig.
system. Life cannot exist on the venus. The

atmosphere of the venus consists of carbon
dioxide. This planet also has no statellites. 20.3
Venus
Activity 2
Venus can be seen just before the Do You Know
sunrise and just after the sunset. Mars is called a red planet.
Observe the venus and write its Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar
three salient features. system.

3. Earth
The earth is our home planet. It is the third
nearest planet from the Sun. The earth has
plenty of water, suitable temperature and life
supporting gases. Therefore, life can exist on
the earth. The earth is the only planet having
all the requirements for the existence of life.
Fig.
The earth takes 24 hours to complete one
rotation in its own axis. Similarly, the earth
20.4
takes 365.25 days to complete one revolution
around the earth. The revolution of the earth The earth
around the Sun causes the change in seasons and the rotation of the earth
causes day and night. The earth has only one satellite, i.e. the moon.
4. Mars
Mars is commonly known as a red planet. It
is the fourth distant planet from the Sun. It is
nearly half the size of the earth. The mars can
be seen with our naked eyes and it looks like a
Fig.
bright orange red star. The atmosphere of the

mars mainly consists of nitrogen gas. It has
two satellites. 20.5
Mars
5. Jupiter
Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system.
It looks like a bright star with our naked eyes.
Jupiter is the third brightest object in the night
sky after the moon and the venus. The jupiter
Fig.
consists of bands of clouds and a big red spot.

This planet has 63 known satellites.
20.6
6. Saturn Jupiter
Saturn is the second largest planet of the solar
system. It is the third farthest planet from
the sun. The saturn is surrounded by rings
of dust and rocks. This planet has 60 known
Fig.
satellites. Titan is the largtest satellite of the

saturn.
20.7
Saturn
7. Uranus
Uranus is the second farthest planet from
the Sun. It is a very cold planet. It has rings
around it like the saturn. This planet has 27
known satellites.
Fig.
20.8
Uranus
8. Neptune
Neptune is the coldest planet of the solar
system. It cannot be seen with our naked eyes.
This is the farthest planet of the solar system.
Neptune has 13 known satellites.
Fig.
20.9
Neptune
Stars
Stars are extremely large burning balls of
gases. We can observe millions of stars when
we see at a dark and clear night sky. Stars
twinkle at night. The extremely large and hot
balls of gases that twinkle at night are called
stars. Stars have their own source of light for
Fig.
shining. So they are called luminous bodies.

20.10
Stars are the extremely large masses of gases.
But they appear very small from the earth Stars
since they are very far from the earth. The sun is a medium-sized yellow star.
Some of the stars are thousands times larger than the Sun whereas some stars
are smaller than the Sun. The Sun is the star nearest to the earth. So it appears
very large and bright in comparison to other stars. Stars are extremely large in
size as compared to the size of the planets of the solar system.
Activity 3
Look at a dark and clear night sky.
Observe numerous stars, planets, moon, etc.

Motion of stars
Stars keep on changing their relative position in space. It means that one star
is in a state of motion with respect to another.
Brilliance of Stars
Stars have different levels of brilliance which varies according to size, distance
from the earth, surface temperature, etc. The nearby small stars may appear
brighter than the distant large stars.
Structure of stars
Stars are very large heavenly bodies made of hydrogen and helium gases. The
heat and light energy of stars is due to nuclear fusion reaction that takes place
in the stars.
Distance of Stars
Stars are situated very far away from the earth. For example, the Sun is located
about 15 crore kilometers far away from the earth. Such extremely large
distance in space is measured in some other units like light year, astronomical
unit, per sec, etc.
The total distance covered by light in one year is called a light year. One light
year is equal to 9.5 × 1015m.
One light year = One year × Speed of light
= 365 days × 3 × 105 km/s
= 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s × 3 × 105 km/s
= 9.5 × 1012 km
= 9.5 × 1012 × 103 m
= 9.5 × 1015 m
\ One light year = 9.5 × 1015 m
Similarly, the distance between the Sun and the earth, i.e. 15 crore kilometers
is called 1 Astronomical Unit (AU).
Colours of Stars
Different stars have different colours. The colour of a star depends on its
temperature. The colour of a star may be blue, white, yellow, orange, red,
etc. The stars having relatively high temperature appear blue whereas those
having relatively low temperature appear red.
Temperature 25000° C 11000° C 6000° C 4000° C 3000° C
Colours of stars Blue White Yellow Orange Red
Differences Between Planets and Stars

Planets Stars
1. Planets are non-luminous objects. 1. Stars are luminous objects.
2. They are relatively small. 2. They are relatively large.
3. Their surface temperature is 3. Their surface temperature is
relatively low. relatively high.
4. They revolve around the Sun. 4. They do not revolve around the
Sun.
Constellations
A constellation is a small group of brilliant stars that seems to form a shape or
pattern of some objects. Virgo, Sagittarius, Ursa major, Ursa minor, Big dipper,
etc. are some examples of constellations. The total number of constellations is
88. Among them, 12 constellations are called zodiac.
Fig.
20.11
Methods of Identification of Constellations

In a clear night sky, we can see different groups of stars. Since Nepal lies in
the northern hemisphere, we can observe the constellations of the northern
hemisphere only. To identify constellations, first of all we should observe the
position of two famous constellations of the north pole, viz. Ursa major and
Ursa minor which can easily be identified. Ursa major has seven bright stars
arranged in the form of a ladle. Other constellations are identified by using sky
map. The earth revolves around the sun. Therefore, the constellations seen in
one season are not seen in another.

Some famous constellations
1. Ursa major
Ursa major is a very famous
constellation which can be seen in
the summer season in the northern
sky. It can be easily recognized. It
consists of a group of seven bright
stars arranged in the form of a ladle
Fig.
or question mark. This group of
stars is called saptarishi or the great
20.12
bear.
2. Ursa minor
Ursa minor is another ladle-shaped
constellation. It is also a group of
seven stars but the stars are less
brighter and nearer than that in
Ursa major. It is also called little
Fig.
bears. Ursa minor is seen in the

northern hemisphere. 20.13
3. Orion
Orion is a constellation having
many stars arranged in the shape
of a hunter. It can be seen in the
northern hemisphere in winter
season.
Fig.
4. Cassiopeia
20.14
Cassiopeia is a constellation having
five stars arranged in the shape of 'W'. It can be seen in the northern hemisphere
in no moon night. This constellation got its name after a mythological Ethiopian
queen Cassiopeia.
Activity 4
Take a chart paper and draw the picture of the solar system.
Observe the bright stars in the clear night sky and try to identify pole
star, ursa major, ursa minor, etc.

Key Concepts
1. The sun is the brightest heavenly object. It is a medium sized star closed to
the earth.
2. All the plants, animals and human beings use the solar energy. Life would
not exist on the earth in the absence of the Sun.
3. Solar system is the family of the Sun which consists of eight planets and
their satellites, comets, asteroids, meteors, meteorites, etc.
4. Planets do not have their own source of light for shining. So they are called
non-luminous bodies.
5. The earth is the only planet having all the requirements for the existence of
life.
6. The revolution of the earth around the Sun causes the change in seasons and
the rotation of the earth causes day and night.
7. Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system. It looks like a bright star
with our naked eyes.
8. The extremely large and hot balls of gases that twinkle at night are called
stars.
9. Stars are extremely large in size as compared to the size of the planets of the
solar system.
10. The Sun is located about 15 crore kilometers far away from the earth.
11. The total distance covered by light in one year is called a light year. One
light year is equal to 9.5 × 1015m.
12. The stars having relatively high temperature appear blue whereas those
having relatively low temperature appear red.
13. A constellation is a small group of brilliant stars that seems to form a shape
or pattern of some objects.
14. Cassiopeia is a constellation having five stars arranged in the shape of 'W'.
Exercise
a. There are eight planets in the solar system.
b. The distance between the Sun and the earth is about 15 crore
meters.
c. Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system.

d. Stars are luminous bodies.
e. We can see the constellations of the southern hemisphere from
Nepal.

a. ...................... occupies the central portion of the solar system.
b. The nearest planet from the Sun is ......................
c. ...................... is the coldest planet of the solar system.
d. ...................... are the luminous objects that twinkle at night.
e. Ursa major consists of ...................... bright stars arranged in the shape
of a ladle.

a. Solar system does not include the .......................
Sun stars planets comets
b. The smallest planet of the solar system is the .......................
earth mercury jupiter urnus
c. The colour of the coldest star is ......................
orange red yellow blue
d. The constellation that appears like a hunter is .......................
Ursa major Orion Ursa minor Cassiopiea

a. What is the solar system? Write any three features of the Sun.
b. What are planets? Name the eight planets of the solar system.
c. Write any two features of each mercury, earth, mars, jupiter and saturn.
d. Name the largest and smallest planet of the solar system.
e. Name the coldest and hottest planet of the solar system.
f. Name the nearest and farthest planet of the solar system.
g. Define stars and write any three features of stars.

h. The colours of stars guide their temperature, why?
i. Write in brief about brilliance and motion of stars.
j. What are constellations? Give any three examples.
5. Write any three differences between planets and stars.
6. Write any two differences between planets and satellites.
7. Write in brief about Ursa major, Orion and Cassiopeia.
8. Draw a neat figure showing solar system and Cassiopeia constellation.
9. Identify the given heavenly bodies.

a. b. c.
10. Write down the method of identifying the constellations.

Environment Science
UNIT
Environment and Its
21 Balance
Before You Begin

The natural world around us is environment. It includes booth living beings
and non-living things. Different types of plants and animals are found in the
environment. Similarly, soil, water, air, sunlight, temperature, rainfall, etc.
are the non-living things of the environment. In this sense, the totality of all
living beings and non-living things is called environment. There is a close
relationship between living beings and non-living things in the environment.
The proper interaction between living beings and non-living things of the
environment is called balance in environment. But various human activities
are responsible to create imbalance in the natural environment.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Natural Resources and
i. introduce environment and balance in environment. Kinds of natural Resources
(Perpetual, Renewable and
ii. define natural resources and classify natural resources non-renewable)
with their introduction. • Importance of natural
iii. tell the importance of natural resources with examples. resources
iv. explain the ways of conserving natural resources. • Natural Resource
v. introduce water resources with its importance and Conservation
necessity. • Water resource, its importance
vi. tell the ways of conserving water resources. and necessity
vii. define watershed and explain its importance. • Conservation of water
viii. introduce wetlands, explain its importance and tell resources
the ways of conserving wetlands. • Water shed, its importance
ix. name the various elements of environment with their and conservation
brief introduction. • Wetlands, its importance and
conservation
x. explain the role of human beings in environment • Elements of environment (Air,
balance. water, land, plants, animals,
xi. describe the role of human beings on environment living, community, producer,
conservation. consumer and decomposer
• Role of human beings in
environment balance (Man
and environment, impact
of manmade environment
degradation on human beings
• Role of human beings on
environment conservation
environment : the natural world around us where plants and animals live
perpetual : everlasting or continuing forever
conservation : the protection of animals, plants and natural resources

Environment and Its Balance
Natural Resources
Natural resources refer to the resources that are available in natural
environment. These resources are water, air, land, forest, minerals, animals,
plants, sunlight, etc. These resources are naturally created in the environment.
Both living beings and non-living things are natural resources. Living beings
include all types of plants and animals, whereas air, water, soil, minerals,
etc. are non-living things. Natural resources provide suitable environment
for all living beings for their life in the environment. All living beings in the
environment get food and habitat from natural resources. Thus, natural
resources are very important for living beings.
Kinds of Natural Resources

Natural resources are classified into perpetual, renewable and non-renewable
on the basis of their properties and utility. The brief description of each type of
natural resource is provided below:
a. Perpetual Resources
The natural resources like solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, etc. have
never-ending supply. These are perpetual natural resources. In this case, the
natural resources which do not get exhausted after large exploitation are
called perpetual resources of energy. They have never ending supply of energy
and do not get depleted due to their continuous use. Perpetual resources are
unlimited in nature.
Fig.
21.1
Sun Tides of sea
b. Renewable Resources
The natural resources like water, air, forests, soil, etc. can be used again and
again by producing them are renewable resources. They never get exhausted
from the environment and can be maintained repeatedly for our use. The
natural resources that can be used repeatedly by creating them again and again
and do not deplete from the environment are called renewable resources.
c. Non-renewable resources
Some natural resources like
petroleum products, minerals,
natural gas, etc. are limited in
nature and get exhausted after
their use. They cannot be obtained
and produced again and again in a
short period of time. Such types of
Fig.
natural resource are non-renewable
resources. Non-renewable natural
resources refer to the resources that 21.2
cannot be used again and again and Burning coal
get exhausted after their use. Some examples of non-renewable resources are
petrol, diesel, coal, kerosene, minerals, etc. They are found in specific places of
the earth and their store gets finished after their use.
Activity 1
Make a list of any 15 natural resources available in your locality. Classify them
under the headings perpetual, renewable and non-renewable by making a
table.
Importance of Natural Resources

There is a close relationship between living beings and non-living things in
nature. The life of organisms is not possible in the absence of non-living things.
Various natural resources available in nature have their own importance. For
example, living beings cannot survive in the absence of food, water, air, etc.
The importance of natural resources can be explained in the following points.
a. Sources of Food
Various natural resources found in nature are the sources of food for living
beings. Green plants prepare their food by using water and carbon dioxide
in the presence of sunlight. Human beings grow various crops in soil to get
their food. Herbivores feed on plants and carnivores feed on various creatures.
Thus, living beings or non-living things found in the form of natural resources
are the sources of food for living beings.

b. Habitat
Land, water, forest, etc. are the habitats of various kinds of living beings.
For example, human beings build houses on land by using various natural
resources like soil, water, wood, etc. Aquatic animals live in water and wild
animals live in forest. Various types of plants grow in water and on land. Thus,
natural resources are habitat of both plants and animals.
c. Fresh Air and Water

Air and water are vital components essential for survival of living beings. Both
animals and plants need air and water for their survival and these natural
resources are available in nature.
d. Beauty
Natural resources are the sources of beauty of the place where they are
available. For example, forest, wildlife, water bodies, mountains, falls, valleys,
etc. have their own beauty in nature.
Fig.
21.3
Rara lake Falls
e. Tourism
Human beings are attracted towards
natural beauty. Natural beauty is
the result of natural resources and
it is the major source of attraction of
tourists. The flow of tourists results
in flourishing of tourism. Thus,
Fig.
natural resources are important for

tourism.
21.4

f. Economic Development
Various natural resources are used for operating various developmental
activities. For example, soil, stone, etc. are used to construct roads, buildings,
etc. Similarly, various natural resources are used as raw materials to produce
various goods in the factories or industries. Water resources are used to produce
hydroelectricity. All these activities conducted for physical development are
the sources of economic development also. Thus, natural resources have a
great importance for economic development of a country.
Conservation of Natural Resources

Human beings use various natural resources for their livelihood. In the
absence of natural resources, the lives of human beings and other living
beings are not possible. The rational use of natural resources is essential.
Misuse or abuse of natural resources invites environmental degradation
resulting in environmental imbalance. Thus, it is necessary to conserve various
types of natural resources available in nature to maintain balance in natural
environment. In this connection, brief description of some natural resources
with their importance and ways of conservation is presented.
Water Resources
There are various water resources
on the earth. They are surface water,
underground water, rain water, etc.
The sources of water found on the
earth are called water resources.
Water is a very essential natural
resource for all living beings for
Fig.
their survival. Similarly, water is

useful for various purposes like 21.5
irrigating, washing, cleaning, etc.
besides drinking. Living beings ranging from microorganisms to large animals
along with all types of plants cannot survive without water. Thus, water is a
very important natural resource for all living beings.
Various types of water bodies like lake, pond, river, etc. are available on the
earth surface. The water found in such bodies is called surface water. It is
collected on the earth by rain. Surface water evaporates due to the heat of the
sun. The sources of water found under the earth surface are called sources
of underground water. Underground water is pulled on the earth surface for
various purposes. The water obtained from precipitation (rain) is called rain
water. Rain water is very essential for both animals and plants. Our country is
rich in water resources. Various types of water resources like rivers, streams,
ponds, lakes, wetlands, watersheds, fountains, etc. are abundant in Nepal.
Importance of Water Resources

Various types of water resources are the main sources of water on the earth.
These water sources are essential for all living beings for their survival.
Similarly, water is equally important for various activities like washing,
cleaning, irrigating, industrial work, transportation, recreation, etc. The
importance of water is given in the following points.
1. Water is an essential component for all living beings for their survival.
Animals drink water and green plants need water to prepare their food
during photosynthesis. Thus, water resources are important for the survival
of all living beings.
2. Water resource are important for household works like cleaning, washing,
cooking, bathing, etc.
3. Water resources are essential for irrigating agricultural farms.
4. Water resources are important for tourism industry. Boating, rafting,
swimming, rowing, etc. are water related sports of tourism industry.
5. The major source of renewable energy, hydroelectricity is generated from
water resources.
6. Various means of transportation like boat, ship, motor boat, etc. are operated
on water.
7. Water resources are essential to conserve wildlife and vegetation.
8. Hydroelectricity generated from water resources is used to operate various
means of transportation like cable car, trolly bus, train, electric car, etc.
9. Water is used in industries, factories, construction areas, etc. for various
purposes. For example, water is used to construct buildings, bridges, etc.
Similarly, water is essential for producing thermoelectric power, refining oil,
extracting natural gas, etc. in the factories and industries.
10. Water resources are very much helpful for maintaining environment
balance by helping the survival of both animals and plants in their natural
environment.
11. Water resources are the habitats of various aquatic animals and plants.

Conservation of Water Resources
Water resource is one of the important natural resources that provide water
to all living beings and non-living things. It is necessary to conserve various
water resources for the existence of both plants and animals in the earth. Water
resources should be conserved to meet the need of increasing population at
present. Similarly, it is necessary to protect habitats of both aquatic animals
and plants to maintain environment balance. The overuse and unmanaged use
of water should be avoided. Likewise, water resources should not be polluted.
Conservation of forests is essential to conserve water resources.
Activity 2
Make a visit to a nearby water resource area in your locality to study about the
water resource. Make a short note on importance and ways of conservation
of that water resource on the basis of your study.
Watershed
A watershed refers to the entire
region draining into a river, river
system or other water bodies. It is an
area of land that contains a common
set of streams and rivers that all
drain into a larger body of water.
In such area surface water from
Fig.
rain or melting snow converges

to a single point. Thus, the area
around various water resources is a 21.6
watershed. In Kathmandu valley, the water collected in Shivapuri-Nagarjun
area is an example of watershed. This watershed is source of water of Bagmati
and Bishnumati rivers in Kathmandu. Similarly, the area around Phewatal in
Pokhara is Phewatal watersed. In Kulekhani, human made lake is formed for
collecting water from Kulekhani watershed. Likewise, Gandaki, Koshi and
Karnali are big watershed of our country. There are many small watersheds
in Nepal.
Importance of Watershed
Watersheds are sources of water required for various purposes. The importance
of watershed is pointed out below.
1. Watersheds fulfill the requirement of water for animals and plants of the
watershed located areas.

2. Watersheds conserve forests and vegetation of the watershed area.
3. Watersheds protect agricultural lands and help increase agricultural
productivity.
4. Watersheds maintain the system of environmental balance and also conserve
environmental balance.
5. Watersheds provide habitats to various animals and plants.
Conservation of Watersheds
Watersheds are good sources of water required for various purposes. It is
necessary to conserve watershed to conserve source of water essential for both
animals and plants. But, watersheds are in crisis due to the massive exploitation
of land and forest resources to fulfill the needs of increasing population.
Conserving watersheds is essential to conserve natural environment.
Afforestation, planting grass, management in farming, etc. can be done to
conserve watersheds. Similarly, awareness programmes related to importance
and conservation of water should be conducted for awareness to conserve
watersheds.
Wetland
A land area which is saturated with
water permanently or seasonally,
is called wet land. It is the link
between land and water. Swamp,
marsh, blog, etc. are some of the
common names of different types of
wetlands. According to the nature
Fig.
and type of wetland, it may be filled

mostly with moss, grasses, herbs, 21.7
shrubs, trees, etc. Marshes and
ponds, the edge of a lake or ocean, low-lying areas that frequently flood are
examples of wetlands. Generally, wetlands are common in the Terai region.
The water bodies having a water level less than 6 m are defined as wetlands.
According to the study of IUCN, there are 163 wetlands in the Terai region of
Nepal. Similarly, 164 wetlands are in the Hilly region and 78 wetlands are in
the Mountain region. The Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve is the first wetland
enlisted as the Ramsar site in 1987 AD. There are many ponds, lakes, swamps,
glaciers, marshes, etc. in our country. Both natural and artificial wetlands are
found in Nepal. Thus, Nepal is rich in wetlands.

Importance of wetlands
Wetlands are the sources of water essential for both animals and plants. The
importance of wetlands is pointed out below.
1. Wetlands are suitable habitats for birds.
2. Wetlands provide water for agricultural activities.
3. Wetlands help in maintaining environmental balance.
4. Wetlands provide habitats to different kinds of creatures.
5. Wetlands are good water resources for human beings.
6. Wetlands are used for fish farming.
7. Wetlands help in water-tourism.
8. Wetlands are important for conservation of biodiversity.
9. Wetlands help in controlling soil erosion and flood.
Conservation of Wetlands
Various activities of human beings adversely affect wetlands. Such activities
are expanding residential areas, extending farming lands by drying water of
wetlands, excessive use of water from the wetlands, polluting wetlands by
throwing garbages and agricultural byproducts, etc. Thus, it is essential to
conserve wetlands in order to conserve natural source of water.
Various efforts have been made at the national and international level to
conserve wetlands. An international conference was held in the city of Ramsar
of Iran in 1971 AD. It rectified an accord regarding conserving wetlands.
Many wetlands of Nepal have been enlisted as the wetlands of international
importance. Such wetlands are the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Bis Hajari
Lake of Chitwan, Ghodaghodi Lake of Kailali, etc. It is necessary to conserve
wetlands to maintain natural ecosystem, to conserve biodiversity and for
community development. It is necessary to stop misuse and overuse of water
of wetlands. Wetlands can be conserved by stopping expansion of farming
land and residential areas by drying wetlands. Similarly, we should not pollute
wetlands by throwing garbages, industrial byproducts, etc. in wetlands.
Likewise, various programmes regarding the importance of wetlands should
be conducted to generate awareness among people in order to conserve
wetlands.

Activity 3
Make a visit to a nearby wetland in your locality and prepare a short
description by addressing the following questions.
1. What is the importance of the wetland of your study area?
2. What are the problems of the area that may harm wetlands?
3. What may be the ways of conserving the wetland of the study area?
Fundamental Components of Environment

We can see various types of living beings and non-living things around
us. The totality of these, all kinds of living beings and non-living things, is
environment. Living beings include all types of animals and plants. Soil, water,
air, land, sunlight, humidity, etc. are non-living things. Thus, environment is
the physical and biological world where living beings exist and non-living
things remain with continuous interaction. The components of environment
are broadly categorised into biotic components and abiotic components. All
animals and plants are biotic components of environment. Similarly, water,
air, soil, rainfall, sunlight, etc. are abiotic components of environment. In this
connection, the fundamental components of environment are described below
briefly.
Fig.
21.8
Abiotic Components of Environment

The non-living components like soil, air, water, rainfall, sunlight, etc. are the
abiotic components of environment. The fundamental abiotic components of
environment are water, air and soil. A brief description of these components is
presented below.
Water
Water is one of the fundamental abiotic components of environment. It is
essential for the survival of all living beings. It is a compound formed by
combination of hydrogen and oxygen. A water molecule contains two atoms
of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Water can be found on the earth surface
and under the earth surface. Various types of water bodies like river, streams,
ponds, lakes, wetlands, watersheds, etc. are the sources of water. Two thirds
parts of the earth is occupied by water bodies.
Sources of water are broadly classified into surface water, under ground water
and rain water. There should be proper balance among these three sources of
water. Surface water evaporates due to the heat of the Sun. It takes the form of
cloud in the sky and falls in the earth in the form of rain. This rain is the form
of rain fall. It is the source of surface water and underground water.
We use surface water and underground water for various purposes like
drinking, washing, cleaning, irrigating, transportation, industrial activities,
etc. Underground water can be taken on the earth surface by digging well,
through water pump, etc. Rain water is suitable for agricultural activities.
Excessive use of water resources adversely affects environmental balance.
Polluted water due to mixing of various types of industrial byproducts and
other substances is harmful for both animals and plants. Thus, water resources
should be conserved in order to maintain environmental balance.
Fig.
21.9
Air
Air is one of the fundamental abiotic components of environment. It is a
mixture of various gases. It consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other
gases. The other gases include carbon dioxide, helium, neon, etc. The earth is
surrounded by a layer of air. This layer is called atmosphere. Besides, humidity
and dust particles are also found in air.
Air is a basic life component for both animals and plants. Both plants and
animals take oxygen in and throw carbon dioxide out during respiration. Green
plants need carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. Oxygen is the byproduct
of photosynthesis. In this way, there is a regular flow of carbon dioxide and
oxygen in the environment. It is necessary to maintain the balance of carbon
dioxide and oxygen in the environment for the survival of both animals and

plants. There might be shortage of oxygen in the environment on decreasing
green plants. Absence of oxygen results in difficulty in survival of animals.
The imbalance in the amount of gases in environment results in air pollution.
Air pollution is harmful for both animals and plants.
The increment in carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitric oxide, etc. causes
air pollution. Similarly, the gas emitted from foul and decayed materials also
pollutes air. Thus, it is necessary to reduce consumption of petroleum products
in industries and vehicles to conserve air. Similarly, afforestation should be
done to maintain proper balance among various gases. We can conserve
natural environment by conserving air of atmosphere.
Land
Among various fundamental
abiotic components of environment,
land is one of them. Land is the
combination of soil and rocks. Land
is very essential for both animals
and plants. Almost all living beings
get food and habitat from the land.
Fig.
Terrestrial plants grow on land,

animals get their food from land
and all land animals including 21.10
human beings live on land. Thus, land is very important for all living beings.
It is essential to conserve land to maintain environmental balance. Various
activities of human beings adversely affect natural condition of land. Excessive
use of insecticides and pesticides pollute soil. Polluted soil is harmful for both
animals and plants. Polluted soil is not suitable for agricultural activities.
Similarly, polluted soil pollutes water bodies. Ultimately, it creates problems
in natural environment necessarily for maintaining the ecosystem. Therefore,
it is necessary to conserve land in order to conserve natural environment and
maintain environmental balance.
Biotic Components of Environment

Various living beings (microorganisms, animals and plants) are biotic
components of environment. The living beings of an environment are called
biotic components of environment. The biotic components of an environment
are broadly classified into producers, consumers and decomposers. These are
the fundamental biotic elements of environment. The brief description of these
components is presented below.
Producers
Green plants of the environment
can prepare their own food by using
solar energy, carbon dioxide and
water. These are called producers
since they can produce their
food. The process by which green
plants prepare their food is called
Fig.
photosynthesis. Thus, green plants
are producers. Producers are also
called autotrophs since they have 21.11
the ability to prepare their food.
Consumers
A large section of living beings in environment depends upon plants directly or
indirectly for their food. These living beings are consumers. The living beings
which depend on producers for their food are called consumers. Consumers
have not the ability to prepare their food on their own. Human beings, animals
like goat, cow, sheep, dog, tiger, etc. are all consumers. Consumers are broadly
categorized into primary consumers, secondary consumers and teritiary
consumers.
1. Primary Consumers
The consumers that feed on green
plants only are called primary
consumers. In other words, primary
consumers directly depend on
green plants for their food. For
example, cow, goat, deer, sheep, etc.
Fig.
Primary consumers are also called

herbivores since they feed on plants
21.12
only.
2. Secondary Consumers
The consumers that feed on primary consumers are called secondary
consumers. Secondary consumers directly depends on animals, but indirectly
depend on plants. For example, dog, cat, fox, etc.

3. Tertiary Consumers
The consumers that feed on
primary consumers and secondary
consumers are called tertiary
consumers. For example, tiger, lion,
leopard, kingfisher, hawk, etc. The
animals which feed on flesh only
are called carnivores. Likewise, the
Fig.
animals that feed on both animals
and plants are called omnivores.
Tiger, lion, etc. are carnivores and 21.13
man, dog, bear, etc, are omnivores.
Decomposers
The biotic components of
environment that break down
the remains of dead animals and
plants are called decomposers.
For example, bacteria, fungi,
etc. They decompose dead and
deacying bodies into simple
Fig.
substances by acting upon them.

Decomposers produce nutrients 21.14
from biodegradable materials that
are essential for the growth of green plants in environment.
Activity 4
Make a list of any 12 biotic components found around you and classify them
under producers, consumers and decomposers. Also, classify consumers
under primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
Role of Human Beings in Environmental Balance

Human beings are rational animals of environment. They have great role in
conserving environment and maintaining environment balance. The activities
of human beings that adversely affect natural environment are the major
causes of environmental imbalance. Thus, human beings have a great role
in maintaining environmental balance. Human beings use various natural
resources like water, land, plants, minerals, etc. for various purposes. Hazard
and excessive use of such natural resources is the major cause of degradation

in environment. The planned and rational use of natural resources help in
maintaining natural environment. Similarly, various activities of human
beings pollute natural environment. Excessive use of petroleum products in
industries, factories, vehicles, etc. pollutes air around us. Polluted air is harmful
for both plants and animals. Therefore, human beings should play a great
role to conserve the atmosphere by reducing excessive use of petrol, diesel,
coal, etc. that are responsible for polluting natural environment resulting
in environmental imbalance. Similarly, the modification in landforms for
agricultural activities may be the cause of soil erosion, flood, landslides, etc.
Thus, human beings should play a great role to conserve natural landforms
by rational use of soil and land. The natural environment including all biotic
and abiotic components can be preserved by plantation, stopping pollution in
different levels and using natural resources in well planned manner rationally.
Impact of Human Activities on Environment

Human beings use various natural resources from environment to meet their
needs. Thus, they modify natural environment. The modification in physical
and biological environment is the great cause of environmental degradation.
The major impacts of human activities on environment are pointed out below.
i. Various human activities pollute air, water, soil, etc. of natural environment.
It is the major cause of environment degradation.
ii. Excessive use of natural resources creates environmental imbalance and
degradation in natural environment.
iii. Deforestation for expanding residential area and cultivating land is the cause
of environmental imbalance and degradation by inviting natural disasters.
iv. The use of insecticides and pesticides for agricultural activities pollutes various
components of environment. It creates imbalance in natural environment and
degrades natural environment.
v. Destruction of water resources like watersheds, wetlands, ponds, etc. causes
environmental imbalance since it destructs natural habitats of various plants
and animals.
Effects of Environment Degradation on Human Beings

Environmental degradation has adverse effect on the overall natural
environmental condition including the abiotic and biotic components. The
adverse effects of environmental degradation on human beings are pointed
out below.
i. Degradation in suitable climatic condition for human beings.
ii. Possibility of various natural disasters like flood, soil erosion, landslide, etc.
iii. Outbreaking of various fatal diseases like cholera, malaria, etc.
iv. Scarcity of fresh air and water required for survival of human beings.
v. Problems in human health due to air pollution, water pollution, noise
pollution and soil pollution.
vi. Degradation in agricultural productivity.
vii. Destruction of water resources and decline in wildlife.
viii. Degradation in natural ecosystem and natural environment essential for
human beings.
Role of Human Beings in Conserving Environment

Among all components of environment, human beings are wise and rational
animals. They can conserve environment by various ways. Some of the ways
that can be adopted to conserve environment are given below:
i. Wise and rational use of natural resources.
ii. Reduction in harmful gases released from vehicles, factories, industries, etc.
iii. Proper disposal of waste materials to stop air pollution, water pollution, soil
pollution, etc.
iv. Rational and wise use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, etc. for
agricultural activities.
v. Conservation of various water resources like lakes, rivers, ponds, watershed,
wetlands, etc.
vi. Construction of various infrastructures like roads, bridges, buildings, etc.
rationally and scientifically.
vii. Stopping poaching of wild animals for various purposes.
viii. Discouraging deforestation and encouraging afforestation.
ix. Conducting awareness programmes regarding the conservation of natural
environment to maintain environment balance.
Activity 5
Conduct an awareness programme regarding the conservation of environment
around your school.

Key Concepts
1. Natural resources refer to the resources that are available in natural
environment.
2. Natural resources provide suitable environment for all living beings for
their life in the environment.
3. The natural resources like solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, etc. have
never-ending supply. These are perpetual natural resources.
4. The natural resources that can be used repeatedly by creating them again
and again and do not deplete from the environment are called renewable
resources.
5. Non-renewable natural resources refer to the resources that cannot be used
again and again and get exhausted after their use.
6. Various natural resources found in nature are the sources of food for living
beings.
7. Misuse or abuse of natural resources invites environmental degradation
resulting in environmental imbalance.
8. The sources of water found on the earth are called water resources.
9. Various types of water resources like rivers, streams, ponds, lakes, wetlands,
watersheds, fountains, etc. are abundant in Nepal.
10. Water is equally important for various activities like washing, cleaning,
irrigating, industrial work, transportation, recreation, etc.
11. Water resource is one of the important natural resources that provide water
to all living beings and non-living things. It is necessary to conserve various
water resources for the existence of both plants and animals on the earth.
12. A watershed refers to the entire region draining into a river, river system or
other water bodies.
13. Watersheds fulfill the requirement of water for animals and plants of the
watersheds located areas.
14. Watersheds are good sources of water required for various purposes. It is
necessary to conserve watershed to conserve source of water essential for
both animals and plants.
15. A land area which is saturated with water permanently or seasonally is
called wet land.
16. The water bodies having a water level of less than 6 m are defined as
wetlands.

17. Environment is the physical and biological world where living beings exist
and non-living things remain with continuous interaction.
18. The non-living components like soil, air, water, rainfall, sunlight, etc. are the
abiotic components of environment.
19. Air is a basic life component for both animals and plants. Both plants and
animals take oxygen in and throw carbon dioxide out during respiration.
20. Afforestation should be done to maintain proper balance among various
gases. We can conserve natural environment by conserving air of atmosphere.
21. The living beings of an environment are called biotic components of
environment.
22. The process by which green plants prepare their food is called photosynthesis.
23. The living beings which depend on producers for their food are called
consumers.
24. The consumers that feed on green plants only are called primary consumers.
25. The consumers that feed on primary consumers and secondary consumers
are called tertiary consumers.
26. The biotic components of environment that break down the remains of dead
animals and plants are called decomposers.
27. The activities of human beings that adversely affect natural environment
are the major causes of environmental imbalance.
28. The modification in physical and biological environment is the great cause
of environmental degradation.
29. The use of insecticides and pesticides for agricultural activities pollutes
various components of environment. It creates imbalance in natural
environment and degrades natural environment.
Exercise
a. Perpetual resources are limited in nature.
b. Forest is the habitat of wild animals
c. Watersheds and wetlands are resources of water.

d. Soil, water, air, etc. are abiotic components.
e. Tertiary consumers directly depend on plants for their food.

a. Both living beings and ...................... are natural resources.
b. Non-renewable resources are ......................in nature.
c. ...................... resource is essential for aquatic-tourism.
d. A land area saturated with water is called ......................
e. Components of environment are broadly categorized into ......................
and abiotic components.

a. What is environment? What does balance in environment mean?
b. Define natural resources with any three examples.
c. What are perpetual resources? Give any four examples.
d. What does habitat of animals and plants mean?
e. Define water resources with examples.
f. Why is it necessary to conserve water resources?
g. What are watersheds? Why are they important?
h. Name any three fundamental abiotic components of environment.
i. What is meant by biotic components of environment? Give any two
examples.
j. Define producers with examples.
k. What are decomposers? Why are they important?
a. Renewable resources and Non-renewable resources
b. Watersheds and Wetlands
c. Biotic components and Abiotic components
d. Primary consumers and Secondary consumers

5. Write short notes on:
a. Water resources
b. Consumers
c. Importance of air
d. Environment degradation
6. Explain the importance of natural resources in a brief paragraph.
7. Mention any five importance of water resources.
8. How can we conserve water resources? Explain in detail.
9. Why are watersheds and wetlands important? How can we conserve

them?
10. Describe the importance of soil and air for living beings.
11. Prepare a flow chart to show fundamental components of environment.

Give any two examples for each category.
12. Describe the role of human beings to maintain environmental balance.
13. List any five impacts of human activities on environment.
14. What are the effects of environmental degradation on human beings?

Mention any five major ones.
15. How can human beings conserve natural environment? Enumerate any
five major ways.

Environmental
UNIT
Degradation and Its
22 Conservation
Before You Begin

Environment is the totality of physical and biological world around us. The
major aspects of environment are natural, biological, social and cultural. The
disturbance in any aspect of the environment is the cause of environmental
degradation. Environmental degradation refers to the deterioration in any aspect
of the environment due to human activities that have adverse effects on natural
environmental degradation. Destruction of natural resources, pollution of various
components of environment, destruction of natural habitats of animals and plants,
excessive use of natural resources, depletion in cultural heritages, etc. are the major
causes of environmental degradation. Environmental degradation invites various
natural disasters like flood, landslides, earthquake, volcano, etc. It is necessary to
maintain natural environment by conserving various components of environment.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be • Introduction to environmental
able to: degradation and its causes
i. introduce environmental degradation and tell • Deforestation, its causes and effects
the causes of environmental degradation. • Urbanization and Industrialization
• Effects of destruction of natural
ii. mention the causes of deforestation. resources on vegetation, animals, birds,
iii. tell the effects of deforestation. water resources, fuel, air, land and
minerals.
iv. describe urbanization and industrialization.
• Introduction to natural disasters
v. explain the effects of destruction of natural (earthquake and volcano), their causes,
resources on vegetation, animals and birds. effects and preventive measures
vi. describe water resources, fuel, air, land, • Environmental sanitation
minerals. • Efforts on environmental conservation
(awareness, integrated conservation
vii. introduce natural disasters (earthquake, effort, public participation, afforestation)
volcano). conservation of wildlife and vegetation,
viii. define environmental sanitation and tell the environmental sanitation, conservation
ways of environmental sanitation. and promotion of cultural heritages)
• Government Agencies involved in
ix. explain the efforts that can be made for Environmental Conservation (Ministry
environmental conservation. of Science and Technology and
x. describe various governmental agencies Environment) and Ministry of Forests
involved in environmental conservation. and Soil Conservation)
degradation : the damage or disturbance in any aspect of something

conservation : a careful preservation and protection of something, planned management
of natural resources to prevent exploitation, destruction, etc.
monument : a building, column, statue, etc.
canopy : a layer that spreads over an area like a roof
pathogenic : related to things that cause diseases

Environmental Degradation and Its Conservation
Causes of Environmental Degradation
There are various causes of environmental degradation. Basically, various
human activities like deforestation, urbanization, industrialization, etc. are
the major causes of environmental degradation. A brief description of these
human activities with their causes and their effects in natural environment is
presented below.
Deforestation
Forest is a very important natural
resource. It provides food and
habitat to animals including human
beings. Human beings obtain
various materials from forest that
are used for various purposes like
construction, making furniture,
etc. Forest is the home for wild
Fig.
animals. Both wild animals and

domesticated animals get fed from 22.1
forest. Different human activities
are responsible for destruction of forest. The act of clearing forest for various
purposes like excessive use of forest timber for construction work, expansion
of agricultural land and residential area, etc. is called deforestation. The major
causes of deforestation are given below.
Causes of Deforestation
i. Expansion of cultivating land and residential area by clearing forest
hapazardly.
ii. Unplanned and unmanaged grazing and extension of pastureland.
iii. Forest fire and wild fire.
iv. Expansion of unmanaged industrialization.
v. Migration of people in unplanned manner
vi. Rapid growth in construction works leading to overuse of timber
vii. Using firewood as major source of fuel
viii. Natural disasters like soil erosion, landslides, flood, etc.

Effects of Deforestation
The major effects of deforestation is environmental imbalance. Forest plays a
prominent role to create natural environment. It maintains balance between
carbon dioxide and oxygen. It results in environmental balance required
for both animals and plants. Also, forest maintains proper water cycle.
Deforestation has various adverse effects on natural environment which are
mentioned below.
i. Imbalance between carbon dioxide and oxygen by reducing the amount of
oxygen and increasing amount of carbon dioxide in environment.
ii. Climate change and global warning.
iii. Disturbance in natural water cycle.
iv. Destruction of habitats of wildlife
v. Loss in medicinal herbs and timber
vi. Extinction of various rare plants and animals
vii. Reduction in fertility of soil
viii. Possibility of various natural disasters like soil erosion, landsides, floods, etc.
ix. Adverse effect in agricultural system due to climate change, acid rain, draught,
scarcity of water, natural disasters, etc.
Thus, it is necessary to conserve forest resources by afforestation, conducting
awareness programmes, conserving forest plants, grass land and pasture
land, utilizing forest resources wisely, stopping forest fire and prohibiting
haphazard clearing of forests.
Urbanization
Urbanization is the process of
expanding residential areas or
establishing cities or towns by
construction of large buildings
in search of modern facilities. At
present, people migrate to city areas
in search of various facilities like
employment, education, health, etc.
Fig.
It causes over population which is

the cause of over pressure and over 22.2
use of natural resources like water,
air, etc. Ultimately, excessive use of natural resources results in environmental

degradation. Similarly, various types of pollutions like air pollution, water
pollution, land pollution, etc. are responsible for environmental degradation
in urban areas. Unmanaged and unplanned urbanization is the major cause
of environment degradation in recent days. People have established cities
and markets in farming lands in the process of urbanization. Deforestation
is the major cause of air pollution, water pollution, etc. It also invites natural
disasters like soil erosion, landslides, floods, etc. Increasing use of vehicles
and rapid growth of industrialization in human residential areas also pollute
natural environment essential for animals and plants. Ultimately, it degrades
the whole natural environment and disturbs environmental balance. Thus, it
is necessary to control unmanaged and unplanned urbanization in order to
conserve environment.
Industrialization
Industrialization is one of the
major causes of environmental
degradation. The rapid growth
in industries, factories, etc.
is industrialization. With the
advancement in science and
technologies, many industries and
Fig.
factories are in operation to meet

the various demands of people. 22.3
Industries and factories are essential for economic development of the nation.
But, unplanned and unmanaged rapid growth in industrialization causes
environmental degradation. More natural resources as raw materials are
needed to operate industries. It creates over pressure on natural resources.
Over pressure on natural resources result in degradation of natural
environment. Similarly, the byproducts, sewage, wastage, gases, etc. emitted
from industries pollute environmental components like air, water, soil, etc.
Sound produced from industries or factories is the cause of sound pollution.
Inorganic components like plastics produced from industries pollute land.
Thus, unmanaged industrialization degrades natural environment and hence,
it is necessary to control rapid growth of unplanned industrialization in order
to conserve environment.
Activity 1
Make a visit to an industry or a factory in your locality and study its adverse
effects on environment of the surrounding area. Prepare a short note on the
basis of your study.
Effects of Degradation of Natural Resources
Various living beings and non-living things are natural resources. These
resources are wildlife, vegetation, air, water, soil, minerals, fossil fuel. All living
beings depend on natural resources for their survival and to fulfill their various
needs. Air and water are life components of all kinds of animals and plants
since they cannot survive in the absence of these components. But, excessive
and unmanaged use of natural resources is the major cause of degradation and
depletion of natural resources. At present, increasing population, rapid growth
in urbamzation and industrialization, excessive use of natural resources are
the major causes of creating over pressure on natural resources. Thus, natural
resources are being degraded and destroyed day by day. The degradation and
destruction of natural resources results in environmental degradation and
imbalance among various components of environment. Both biotic and abiotic
components of environment get affected adversely due to the environmental
degradation created by degradation of natural resources. Vegetation, animals
and birds, water resources, air, land, minerals, etc. are adversely affected by
unmanaged human activities.
Vegetation
The totality of all kinds of plants
like trees in the forest, fruit plants,
vegetables, crops, grasses, etc. is
called vegetation. Vegetation is one
of the important natural resources
that provides food and shelter to
all animals. It also provides various
materials to human beings to
Fig.
conduct various construction works

and to produce various goods from
industries. The excessive use of 22.4
vegetation resource without caring
for its role in environmental balance creates various problems in natural
environment. The major effects of destruction or depletion of vegetation are
given below.
i. Reduction in amount of oxygen and increase of carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
ii. Destruction of rare and expensive plants and medicinal herbs.
iii. Extinction of rare wildlife due to destruction of their habitats.

iv. Disturbance in natural water cycle, drought, acid rain, scanty rain, etc.
v. Occurrence of various natural disasters like soil erosion, landslides, flood, etc.
vi. Adverse effects in agricultural system
vii. Desertification due to disturbance in water cycle.
Thus, it is essential to conserve vegetation to maintain environmental balance
by conserving various components of vegetation.
Animals and Birds

Animals and birds are important
biotic components of environment.
They have great role in maintaing
environmental balance and
ecosystem in nature. Human beings
Fig.
depend on animals and birds for

various purposes. Human beings
obtain food from animals and birds. 22.5
They tame various animals and
birds like cow, goat, buffalo, poultry, etc. for their benefit. Wild animals and
birds play vital role in maintaining environmental balance. Environmental
degradation results in destruction of various animals and birds due to the
destruction of their habitats. Imbalance in environment creates unfavourable
environment for animals and birds. As a result, there is reduction in the number
of wild animals and birds and it results in imbalance in natural ecosystem.
Imbalance in natural ecosystem is the major cause of disturbance in the food
chain of animals.
Destruction of vegetation results in reduction of herbivores. The number of
carnivores decreases due to the crisis of food in absence of herbivores. In this
way, environmental degradation is the major cause of extinction of various
species of animals and birds due to destruction of their food and habitat.
Activity 2
Make a study of vegetation and various animals and birds in your locality.
Compare the condition of these aspects in the past and present by taking
information from your elders. Prepare a brief report on the basis of your
study by taking the support of your subject teacher.

Water Resource
Water resource is one of the vital
component of environment. Water
bodies like rivers, lakes, ponds,
streams, etc. are major sources of
water required for various purposes
Fig.
such as drinking, irrigating, cleaning
and washing, industrialization, etc.
Water is essential for agricultural 22.6
activities like livestock farming, fishery, etc. Similarly, we use water resources to
produce hydroelectricity and operate various industries. The excessive use of
water resource without management is the major cause of degradation of water
resources. Various activities of human beings are responsible for destructing
and polluting water resources. Deforestation, excessive use of insecticides and
pesticides for agricultural activities, throwing waste materials, in the water
sources, etc. cause water pollution.
Generally, water resources of city and urban areas are adversely affected by
human activities. Pollution of water resources results in degradation in natural
property of water, destruction of aquatic animals due to pollution in their
habitat, depletion of vegetation due to polluted water, etc. Ultimately, it creates
crisis in fresh and suitable water needed for the survival of animals and plants.
Polluted water is the major cause of outbreaking of various diseases of animals
and plants. Thus, it is essential to conserve water resources in order to maintain
natural condition of water resources for the conservation of environment.
Air
Air is a life component for all living beings as they need air to breathe. Living
beings take in oxygen and throw out carbon dioxide during respiration.
Animals and plants need fresh oxygen for respiration. But, various human
activities are responsible for polluting air. Thus particles and smoke emitted
from various industries and vehicles pollute air of the atmosphere. Polluted
air adversely affects all living beings. Polluted air is also responsible for
outbreaking of various diseases. Pollution in air is also results in degradation
of cultural heritages like statues, inscriptions, monuments, etc. The harmful
gases like sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide, etc. released from industries and
factories are responsible for acid rain. Acid rain degrades agricultural crops
and other vegetation. Moreover, pollution in air degrades overall natural
quality of environment. Therefore, it is essential to conserve natural condition
of air in order to conserve our environment.
Fuel
Fuel is very essential for human beings. It is used to operate various industries,
factories, vehicles, etc. More than that fuel is essential to cook food. Human,
beings use fossil fuel like petrol, diesel, kerosene, coal, etc. But, the sources
of fossil fuels are limited in nature. In this situation, alternative sources of
energy are essential to use in place of fossil fuel. Sunlight is the perpetual
source of energy. Green plants use solar energy to prepare their food. Human
beings use various forest products to fulfil their domestic and industrial needs.
People use firewood as the major source of fuel to cook food. Over pressure on
forests results in environmental degradation. At the same time, degradation in
environment is responsible for destruction of vegetation. It ultimately invites
energy crises. Moreover, destruction of forests is the major cause of various
natural disasters like landslides, soil erosion, flood, etc. It is necessary to use
fossil fuel wisely and economically to conserve environment.
Land
All living beings and non-living things exist on land. Land is the common
home for all animals and plants. Moreover it provides food to all living
beings. The natural condition of soil is very essential for its beneficial use.
But, various human activities like industrialization, use of insecticides and
pesticides, unmanaged agriculture, etc. are responsible for degradation of soil.
Soil pollution ultimately leads to environmental degradation. Water pollution,
air pollution, unmanaged industrialization, deforestation, etc. are the major
causes of land pollution. Thus, environmental degradation is responsible for
degrading the natural quality of land.
Minerals
Minerals are non-renewable natural resources that have great importance for
human beings. The metals, non-metals and their compounds found under the
earth surface are all minerals. Human beings use minerals for various purposes
like extracting gases, metals, fuels, etc. needed for industrialization. Over and
unwise use of minerals results in crisis of these resources. Therefore, it is essential
to use minerals wisely and economically to preserve them for future generations.
Natural Disasters
The extreme and sudden events caused by environmental factors that
affects living beings and damage property are called natural disasters. Some
examples of natural disasters are landslides, flood, earthquake, volcanic
eruption, hurricanes, tornadoes,
tsunamis, etc. They occur in nature
and human beings cannot stop
the occurrance of these disasters.
But, they can be minimized by
maintaining environmental balance
and conservation of environment.
In this connection, introduction
Fig.
to earthquake and volcano is
presented with their causes, effects 22.7
and preventive measures.
Earthquake
Earthquake is one of the dangerous
natural disasters that may claim
lives of livings beings and cause
destruction of property. The shaking
of the earth surface resulting from
the sudden release of energy in the
earth's crust is called earthquake.
Fig.
It is also called quake or tremor or

temblor. Earthquake occurs due to
the vibration of the earth's surface 22.8
that may be left and right or up and down. Nepal is the most sensitive zone
for earthquake. There is the history of many devastating earthquakes in Nepal.
The most devastating earthquakes that occured in Nepal are earthquakes
of 1990 BS (8.3 Richter scale), earthquake of 2045 BS (6.6 Richter scale) and
earthquake of 2072 BS (7.6 Richter scale). These earthquakes claimed many
lives and property.
Causes of earthquake
The major causes of earthquakes are given below:
a. The movement of tectonic plates situated beneath the earth's surface is the
cause of earthquake.
b. Earthquake occurs due to volcanic eruption.
c. Contraction and relaxation of rocks beneath the earth crust results in
earthquake.
d. Explosions during the extraction of minerals under the earth crust is the cause
of earthquake.
Effects of earthquake
a. Earthquake destroys lives and properties.
b. It causes natural disasters like soil erosion, landslide, volcanic eruption, flood,
tsunami, etc.
c. It changes natural structure of land.
d. It degrades environment by polluting land, water and air.
e. It may cause fire by short-circuiting and breaking gas pipelines.
f. It destroys habitats of animals and plants.
g. It destroys water resources.
Preventive measures of earthquake

Earthquake cannot be controlled, but harmful effects of earthquake can be
minimized by the following ways:
a. By constructing strong physical infrastructures like houses, buildings, bridges,
etc.
b. By protecting ourselves in safe and open places during earthquake.
c. By staying away from weak walls, electric poles, tall trees, etc. during
earthquake.
d. By protecting our head under strong support like door frame, table, etc.
e. By switching off electricity to prevent from catching fire during earthquake.
f. By generating awareness programmes regarding in preventive safety
measures of earthquake.
Volcano
A volcano is a rupture in earth's
crust where molten lava, hot ash and
gases from below the earth's crust
escape into the air. The majority of
volcanoes are formed when two of
the earth's plates meet and collide.
Generally, volcanoes occur on the
Fig.
ocean floor. High temperature of

magma and high pressure on it is
the major cause of volcano. The 22.9
mantle of the earth contains very hot magma (2500°C) and magma always
tries to flow upward due to very high pressure. When hot molten magma gets
cracks or weak earth crust, it escapes from it resulting in volcanic eruption.
Volcano is also one of the dangerous natural disasters which may cause great
devastation of lives and properties of the surrounding area.
Causes of Volcano
The major causes of volcano are given below:
a. Shifting of tectonic plates creates cracks on the earth crust and over pressurized
hot molten magma gets outlet through these cracks causing volcanic eruption.
b. The water entering the mantle through the cracks on the earth crust evaporates
and creates pressure. The molten magma flows upwards due to over pressure
and escapes through cracks causing eruption.
Effect of Volcano
The effects of a volcanic eruption are given below.
a. It brings changes in topography (land structure).
b. It claims lives and properties.
c. It damages vegetation and agricultural lands.
d. It causes air pollution, land pollution and water pollution due to the emission
of various materials like ash, gases, etc.
e. It causes tsunami if volcanic eruption occurs near the sea.
f. If causes climate change by adding dust and smoke in the atmosphere.
Activity 3
Make a study of the natural disaster that occurred in your locality and note
down the causes and effects of that disaster. Also, share it with your friends
in your classroom.
Environmental Sanitation
The process of creating clean, healthy and balanced environment around
us is called environmental sanitation. Environmental sanitation is essential
to maintain congenial environment for both animals and plants. Also, it
is necessary to minimize various natural disasters and conserve different
components (air, water, soil, etc.) of the environment. The major way of
environmental sanitation is to control pollutants of environment. Proper
management and disposal of waste materials is essential to control pollution
in environment. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes should
be managed properly in order to keep environment clean and healthy.
The most effective technique of maintaining environmental sanitation is
reducing, reusing and recycling of waste materials.
Reduce
Reduction in use of various materials results in production of less waste. Less
waste can be managed easily to maintain environmental sanitation.
Reuse
Reuse of waste materials is one of the effective methods of environmental
sanitation. In this method, biodegradable wastes can be decomposed to
prepare organic manure. Organic manure can be used for organic farming.
Similarly, non-biodegradable wastes can be reused by modifying them into
various items required in our daily life.
Recycle
There are various materials which can be recycled to use them again. Such
materials are papers, plastics, metals, glasses, etc. These materials can be
recycled in factories to prepare various items that can be used again and
again. Recycling of waste materials helps maintain environmental sanitation
by controlling pollution in environment.
Activity 4
Make a list of biodegradable and non-biodegrable materials available in your
surroundings. Discuss the methods of reusing and recycling these materials
among your friends in your classroom.
Efforts on Environmental Conservation

Environment can be conserved by conserving and promoting its various
components. Human being are responsible for conserving environment since
various activities of human beings result in environmental degradation. Also,
human is a wise animal with rationality. Various efforts can be made to save
natural environment with its various biotic and abiotic components. It is our
responsibility to conserve environment for us and our future generations.
Some of the ways that can be adopted for environmental conservation are
generating public awareness, afforestation and protecting forest, wise use
of natural resources environmental sanitation, protection and promotion of
cultural heritages, etc. The brief description of these efforts is presented below.

a. Generating Public Awareness
Public awareness is one of the most effective methods of conserving
environment. All people should have knowledge about the importance
of environment for the existence of all living beings and non-living things.
Conserving environment is possible by the effort of all human beings who use
components of environment for various purposes. It is necessary to generate
various awareness programmes in different level to make people aware
about conserving environment. Generally, it is essential to conduct various
awareness programmes related to conservation of environment in local levels.
Environmental education is necessary to make people aware about protecting
and conserving environment.
b. Public Participation
It is not possible to conserve environment by individual effort or effort of few
people. More and more people should be involved in conserving environment.
Thus, it is essential to increase public participation so that it becomes
responsibility of all people to conserve our environment.
c. Integrated Conservation Programmes

The concept of integrated development is one of the effective efforts for
conserving environment. Various developmental works like road construction,
water supply, electrification, etc. can be conducted together by conserving
environmental components. It is helpful to reduce pollution in environment.
d. Conservation of Vegetation and Afforestation

Vegetation is one of the important components of environment responsible
for maintaining environmental balance. It is necessary to conserve vegetation
by conserving forest. Similarly, it is necessary to increase the area of forest by
planting trees in barren and unused land. Green forest helps in maintaining
environmental balance by maintaining water cycle and balance between
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Environmental Sanitation
There is more pressure on natural resources due to the growth in population.
People use various components of environment and create more waste
materials in environment. Overuse of natural resources and creation of
waste materials results in environmental degradation. Thus, it is necessary to
maintain environmental sanitation to conserve environment. The following
efforts can be made in the local level for environmental sanitation.
i. Keeping home and surrounding clean and healthy
ii. Proper management and disposal of waste materials
iii. Conservation of natural resources like water, land, air, vegetation, wildlife,
etc.
iv. Reducing fossil fuels and increasing alternative sources of energy like solar
energy, bio gas, etc.
v. Conducting sanitation and awareness programmes
Protection and Promotion of Cultural Heritages

Cultural heritages are important components of environment. Nepal is rich in
cultural heritage. But, pollution in different levels is responsible for degradation
of cultural heritages. Depletion of cultural heritages results in environmental
degradation. Thus, it is essential to make various efforts in the local level to
conserve and promote various cultural heritages to conserve environment.
Activity 5
Make a list of efforts that have been made in your locality to conserve various
components of environment. Also, discuss it in your classroom.
Government Agencies Involved in Environmental Conservation

Various government agencies are involving in conservation of environment.
Such agencies are ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Ministry
of Forests and Soil Conservation, Ministry of Education, various departments
related to forest, soil, water, wildlife, etc. They have been conducting various
programmes to control population, reduce pollution, maintain environmental
sanitation, generate public awareness, etc. In this context, a description of the
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, and Ministry of Forest and
Soil Conservation is provided.
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment

The Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment is responsible for
making necessary efforts to conserve environment by managing environmental
problems. It has set certain goals regarding conserving and promoting
environment and acts accordingly. The goals and functions of Ministry of
Science, Technology and Environment are given below:

Main Goals
i. To preserve and promote various traditional indigenous technologies of our
country.
ii. To conserve various natural resources like air, water, soil, etc.
iii. To conserve and promote natural and cultural environment for maintaining
environmental balance.
iv. To conduct various research and awareness programmes related to science,
technology and environmental conservation.
v. To encourage people for working in the field of environmental conservation.
Major Function
i. The Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment prepares and
implements various policies, strategies, plans, etc. related to environmental
conservation.
ii. It encourages and develops manpower required to work in the field of
environmental conservation.
iii. It frames and implements pollution control directives.
iv. It conducts various research programmes related to conserving environment.
v. It monitors local, national and international agencies working in the field of
science, technology and environment.
vi. It generates awareness related to environmental conservation and conducts
conferences, seminars, meetings, etc.
vii. It disseminates various information related to environmental conservation
through different electronic media like radio, television, websites and non-
electronic media like newspapers, leaflets, pamphlets, posters, etc.
Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation

The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation has responsibility for conserving
and promoting various resources like land, forest, water, wildlife, vegetation,
etc. The goals and functions of the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation
are given below.
Main Goals
i. To prepare and implement polices and strategies for conserving and managing
forests
ii. To conserve vegetation and wildlife
iii. To prepare and implement polices for land conservation
iv. To conserve water resources like rivers, watersheds, wetlands, etc.
v. To make polices for wise use of forest products.
vi. To make directives for using valuable medicinal plants and herbs.
Major Functions
i. The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation frames various polices, directives,
acts, laws, etc. related to conservation of forest and soil and implement them.
ii. It monitors and evaluates various activities related to forests and soil
conservation.
iii. It conducts research programmes regarding conservation of land, forest
vegetation, etc.
iv. It coordinates with various agencies of different levels working in the field of
forest and soil conservation.
v. It conserves and promotes natural ecosystem.
vi. It prepares and implements national policy regarding soil and forest
conservation.
vii. It conducts various awareness programmes related to conserving natural
resources through electronic and non-electronic media.
Project Work
Make an internet search for finding main goals and major function of the
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment in the field of environmental
conservation . Prepare a short report on the basis of your research and present
in your classroom.
Key Concepts
1. The disturbance in any aspect of the environment is the cause of environmental
degradation. Environmental degradation refers to the deterioration in any
aspect of environment due to human activities that have adverse effects on
natural environmental degradation.
2. Human beings obtain various materials from forest that are used for various
purposes like construction, making furniture, etc.
3. The act of clearing forest for various purposes like excessive use of forest
timber for construction work, expansion of agricultural land and residential
area, etc. is called deforestation.

4. It is necessary to conserve forest resources by afforestation, conducting
awareness programmes, conserving forest plants, grass land and pasture
land, utilizing forest resources wisely, stopping forest fire and prohibiting
haphazard clearing of forest.
5. Urbanization is the process of expanding residential areas or establishing

cities or towns by construction of large buildings in search of modern
facilities.
6. Unmanaged and unplanned urbanization is the major cause of environment
degradation in recent days.
7. The rapid growth in industries, factories, etc. is industrialization.
8. Unmanaged industrialization degrades natural environment and hence, it
is necessary to control rapid growth of unplanned industrialization in order
to conserve environment.
9. All living beings depend on natural resources for their survival and to fulfill
their various needs.
10. The degradation and destruction of natural resources results in
environmental degradation and imbalance among various components of
environment.
11. The totality of all kinds of plants like trees in the forest, fruit plants,
vegetables, crops, grasses, etc. is called vegetation.
12. Environmental degradation is the major cause of extinction of various
species of animals and birds due to destruction of their food and habitat.
13. Deforestation, excessive use of insecticides and pesticides for agricultural
activities, throwing waste materials, in the water sources, etc. causes water
pollution.
14. Water pollution, air pollution, unmanaged industrialization, deforestation,
etc. are the major causes of land pollution.
15. The extreme and sudden events caused by environmental factors that affects
living beings and damage property are called natural disasters.
16. The shaking of the earth surface resulting from the sudden release of energy
in the earth's crust is called earthquake.
17. A volcano is a rupture in earth's crust where molten lava, hot ash and gases
from below the earth's crust escape into the air.
18. High temperature of magma and high pressure on it is the major cause of
volcano.
19. The process of creating clean, healthy and balanced environment around us
is called environmental sanitation.
20. The most effective technique of maintaining environmental sanitation is
reducing, reusing and recycling of waste materials.
21. Some of the ways that can be adopted for environmental conservation are
generating public awareness, afforestation and protecting forest, wise use
of natural resources, environmental sanitation, protection and promotion of
cultural heritages, etc.
Exercise
a. The physical world around us is the only environment.
b. Migration of people in unplanned manner causes deforestation.

c. Extinction of various rare plants and animals is the effect of
afforestation.
d. Human activities are responsible for natural disasters.

e. Recycling of waste materials is one of the effective techniques of
environment sanitation.

a. The major effect of deforestation is environment ......................
b. Rapid urbanization causes ...................... pressure on natural resources.
c. Emission of harmful gases from industries is the major cause of
...................... pollution.
d. The ...................... of the earth surface is called earthquake.
e. The Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment is a ......................
agency involved in environment conservation.

a. What do you mean by environmental degradation?
b. What is deforestation?

c. What is urbanization?
d. Define natural disasters with three examples.
e. What is a tremor? How does it occur?
f. What do you mean by volcanic eruption? What is its major cause?
g. Define environmental sanitation.
h. Differentiate between 'reduce' and 'reuse' of materials.
i. What is public participation? Why is it necessary for environmental
conservation?
j. Name any two government agencies working in the field of
environmental conservation.
4. Write short notes on:

a. Industrialization b. Vegetation
c. Animals and Birds d. Fuel
e. Volcano f. Recycle
5. Mention any five causes of deforestation.

6. How are water resources and air adversely affected by environmental
degradation?
7. Mention any four causes of earthquake. How can we adopt safety
measures during earthquake? Explain briefly.
8. "Natural disasters cannot be controlled totally but we can minimize
their effects." Justify this statement with suitable examples.
9. "Reduce, Reuse and Recycle are the effective techniques of maintaining
environmental sanitation." Explain this statement with appropriate
examples.
10. Mention any five local efforts that have been made to conserve
environment. Explain any one of them briefly.
11. Mention the main goal of the Ministry of Science, Technology and
Environment in the field of conserving environment in the context of
our country.
12. What are the major functions of the Ministry of Forests and Soil
Conservation in Nepal?

Environment
UNIT
and Sustainable
23 Development
Before You Begin

The totality of biotic and abiotic components around us is environment.
Environment is the natural world around us where plants and animals
live. Environment consists of physical world as well as biological world.
The earth is the common habitat for all plants and animals. Living
beings get air, water, food, habitat, etc. from the earth. Environment is
made of abiotic and biotic components. The abiotic components of the
environment include sunlight, air, water, soil, temperature, pressure,
rainfall, etc. Similarly, the biotic components of an environment include
differnet types of plants and animals.
Sustainable development refers to the development that lasts long
and does not degrade the environment. Sustainable development is
the development that meets the need of present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Sustainable development is nature friendly development because it does
not harm the components of natural environment and conserves natural
resources for the use of future generations.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Concepts of Development
i. define environment and explain the concept of • Development and Environment
development. • Concept of Sustainable
ii. explain the relationship between development and Development
environment. • Nature friendly development
iii. describe the concept of sustainable development. • Ways for carrying out nature
iv. introduce nature friendly development. friendly developmental
v. tell the ways of adopting nature friendly development. activities
vi. mention the efforts of sustainable development that • Efforts for sustainable
can be made in the context of Nepal. development in the context of
Nepal
sustainable : capable of being sustained, able to be used without being completely used
up or destroyed
biodiversity : the existence of large number of plants and animals
species : the group of closely related organisms which can interbreed freely to
produce fertile offspring
genetic : heritable, relating to or determined by the origin
ecosystem : the structural, functional and self-sustaining unit made of living beings
and non-living things
mutual : shared between two or more people or groups

Environment and Sustainable Development
Concept of Development
Development refers to improvement
in economic and social conditions
of a particular area in order to
create wealth and improve people's
lives. In other words, development
is proper management of natural
and human resources for the benefit
of the people. In this sense, the
Fig.
positive change that take place in a
particular area with the mobilization 23.1
of human resources and natural
resources is development. Development fulfills the needs and requirements
of people, society and the nation. Various development works that are carried
out in our society are constructing buildings, roads, bridges, canals, producing
hydroelectricity, establishing industries and factories, etc. Mobilization of
various natural resources like water, soil, forest products, minerals, etc.
are essential for development. On the one hand, development works are
necessary for people on the other hand, various development works degrade
environment. The use of various natural resources for development destructs
natural resources and pollutes natural environment. Thus, it is necessary to
conduct nature friendly development work for sustainable development.
Development and Environment

Human beings exploit various
natural resources available in the
environment for their benefit.
Various developmental works are
conducted in nature by mobilizing
different resources of the
environment. Thus, environment or
Fig.
nature is essential for development.

It is necessary to use natural
resources wisely to conduct various 23.2
developmental works in nature.
Unwise and overuse of natural resources degrade environment by inviting
pollutions in various levels. People construct roads for transportation facility.

It pollutes air, water, etc. and causes erosion, landslides, etc. Therefore, it is
necessary to carry out developmental works by conserving various aspects
of environment for sustainable development. The development works carried
out without caring for various aspects of environment cause environmental
degradation. Also, environmental degradation adversely affects developmental
works. For example, vehicles plying on the road pollute air and landslides,
flood, etc. damage roads, buildings, etc. Thus, it is necessary to mobilize
various resources for development by conserving environment.
Concept of Sustainable Development

The wise and economic use of natural resources for development is essential
to carry out nature friendly development. Nature friendly development lasts
long without harming environment to a large extent. In this sense, "sustainable
development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs." In
this sense, sustainable development does not harm environmental components
so that the present condition of environment can be conserved for the future
generations in the same condition.
Sustainable development is a process for meeting human development goals in
a sustainable manner. It is the organizing principle for sustaining finite resources
necessary to provide for the needs of future generations of life on the earth.
Sustainable development does not undermine the integrity, stability and beauty
of various components of natural environment. The principle of sustainable
development suggests us that we can utilize natural resources for various
developmental works, but the natural resources should be conserved in the same
condition for the utilization of future generations as they are now. It means that
sustainable development does not degrade or destruct natural environment.
Sustainable development is based on the following facts:
i. consumption of natural resources with their limits.
ii. realization of interconnections among various components of environment.
iii. equitable distribution of natural resources.
Benefits of Sustainable Development

i. It can be maintained for a long time without harming natural environment.
ii. It does not degrade or pollute environment.
iii. It helps conserve natural resources for future generation.
iv. It does not affect life cycle of living beings in environment.
v. It helps maintain environment in the need of time to conserve environment
in this age of urbanization and industrialization. It is essential to adopt the
principles of sustainable development to conserve environment that is being
polluted due to excessive use of natural resources without thinking for future.
Activity 1
Make a study of any one of the developmental activities (road, building,
bridge, etc.) carried out in your locality to find out the use of natural resources
used in this activity and affects of this activity on environment. Prepare a
short report on the basis of your study and share it in your classroom.
Nature-friendly Development
The development which does
not affect nature adversely is
nature-friendly development.
Sustainable development is nature
friendly development as it uses
various components of nature
without harming it. The principle
Fig.
of sustainable development is to
conserve the environment for our 23.3
future generations in the same
condition as we have it today. For example, people at present can utilize
forest products for their use by maintaining the same condition of forest by
afforestation and conservation so that environmental pollution and destruction
of forest resource can be stopped. Nature-friendly development does not
destroy habitat and source of food required for all living beings. Sustainable
development is the only nature-friendly or eco-friendly development because it
protects nature, uses natural resources to their bearing capacity, conserve natural
resources for the future use, etc. The necessity of sustainable development is
increasing day by day in the face of growing environmental degradation due
to modernization and industrialization. It is necessary to satisfy human needs
by conserving natural components. Nature-friendly development lasts long
for human benefit and does not affect natural components of environment.
Thus, nature friendly environment is the need of the time.
Ways For Carrying Out Nature-Friendly Development Activities

Nature friendly development activities can be carried out by the following
ways.

a. Reducing pollution
Generally, air pollution is the major problem of modern world due to rapid
growth in industrialization. The smoke emitted from factories, industries,
vehicles, etc. pollute atmosphere resulting in environmental degradation.
It is necessary to reduce air pollution with the proper management of
industrialization and transportation for nature friendly development.
Similarly, other types of pollutions like water pollution, land pollution, etc.
should be reduced for nature-friendly development.
b. Conserving water resources and their origins

Water is a life component for all living beings. It is also a basic need for
various developmental works. For example, hydroelectricity is vital element
for various types of developmental works. Water resource is necessary to
generate hydroelectricity, irrigate agricultural land, operate industries, etc. In
the absence of water resources, developemtnal works are not possible. It is
necessary to conserve water resources like river, streams, ponds, watersheds,
wetlands, etc. for nature-friendly environment. We can utilize resources of
water without creating adverse effect on these resources.
c. Conserving land
Land is the common habitat of all living beings. It has great importance for the
development of people, because all developmental activities are conducted on
land. It is necessary to conserve land for sustainable development. We can use
resources from land without creating adverse effect on it. For example, soil of land
can be used for various purposes without creating negative impact or water, air,
forest, etc. Thus, nature friendly development can be carried out by conserving
land and land conservation helps maintain nature friendly development.
Efforts for Sustainable Development in the Context of Nepal

Various activities of human beings are helpful for sustainable development.
For example, saving and promoting various water resources like pond,
well and streams, planting trees and grasses in bare land, etc. The concept
of sustainable development was there in the past, but it has been developed
with scientific principles at present with the alarming danger of environment
degradation due to rapid growth in industrialization. People at present are
more conscious for conserving environment. Different efforts have been made
in different levels for sustainable development. Such efforts that have been
taken for sustainable development in the context of Nepal are given below.
i. Discouraging deforestation and encouraging afforestation.
ii. Reduction in consumption of natural resources with their conservation.
iii. Establishment of national parks, wildlife reserves, conservation areas,
community forests, etc.
iv. Local participation in developmental works.
v. Initiation of eco-tourism to conserve various components of nature.
vi. Establishment of various organizations and agencies to work in the field of
conservation of environment.
vii. Conduction of various awareness programmes related to sustainable
development in various levels.
viii. Inclusion of environment science in school, college and university curricula.
Project Work
Make a research of worldwide efforts that have been made in the sector of
sustainable development. You can take help of the internet for your study. Prepare
a short report on the basis of your study and submit it to your subject teacher.
Key Concepts
1. The totality of biotic and abiotic components around us is environment.
Environment is the natural world around us where plants and animals live.
Environment consists of physical world as well as biological world.
2. Sustainable development is the development that meets the need of present
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.
3. Development refers to improvement in economic and social conditions of a
particular area in order to create wealth and improve people's lives.
4. The development works carried out without caring for various aspects of
environment cause environmental degradation.
5. The wise and economic use of natural resources for development is essential
to carry out nature friendly development.
6. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs
7. The principle of sustainable development suggests that we can utilize natural
resources for various developmental works, but the natural resources should
be conserved in the same condition for the utilization of future generations
as they are now.
8. Sustainable development is the only nature-friendly or eco-friendly
development because it protects nature, uses natural resources to their
bearing capacity, conserve natural resources for future use, etc.
Exercise
1. Fill in the blanks with correct word(s).
a. Mobilization of ....................... resources is essential for development.
b. ....................... distribution of natural resources is necessary for
sustainable development.
c. Sustainable development is ....................... friendly development.
d. Nature friendly development does not affect ....................... environment.
e. Various ....................... have been made in Nepal for sustainable
development.
2. Match column A with column B.

Column A Column B
Sustainable development Conserving of environment
Air pollution Conserving of forest
Afforestation Lasts long
Rationality in using natural resources Environmental degradation

a. Define development with one example.
b. How are development and environment related to each other? Explain
briefly.
c. What is sustainable development? Why is it necessary?
d. Why is it necessary to reduce pollution for nature friendly development?
e. How does local participation of people work for nature friendly
development?
4. Mention any five benefits of sustainable development.

5. Explain any three ways of carrying out nature friendly development.
6. Make a list of any six development works carried out in your locality
and mention their effects on environment.
7. Mention any eight efforts for sustainable development that have been
made in the context of Nepal.

Specification Grid
Science and Environment
Theory
Grade: 7 F.M.: 75
Time: 2 hour 15 minutes P.M.: 30
No. of No. of Sub Full (K) (U) (A) (HA)
Subject Areas Units Remarks
questions questions marks 30% 40% 20% 10%
Measurement,
Force and Motion
Simple Machine
Pressure
Physics 5 10 25 7.5 10 5 2.5
Energy, Work and
Power
Heat, Light, Sound
Magnet, Electricity
Matter
Mixture
Chemistry Metal and Non- 3 6 15 4.5 6 3 1.5
Metal
Some Useful
Chemicals
Living Beings
Biology Cell and Tissue 3 6 15 4.5 6 3 1.5
Life Processes
The Structure of the
Earth
Geology and Weather and
1 2 5 1.5 2 0 1.5
Astronomy Climate
The Earth and
Space
Environment and
its Balance
Environmental
Environment Degradation and its
3 6 15 4.5 6 3 1.5
Science Conservation
Environment
and Sustainable
Development
Total 15 30 75 22.5 30 14 8.5
Note:
There are a total to 15 questions and each question has two sub-questions. The
weighting of the main question is 5 marks and that of each sub-question may be
2 or 3 marks.
All units should be included while making question paper.
Question paper should include the questions to test the Knowledge (K),
Understanding (U), Application (A) and Higher abilities (HA) levels of students.

Practical
Grade: 7 F.M.: 25
Time: 1 hour 30 minutes P.M.: 10
Drawing/ Construction of Field
Practical
labelling/ materials and visit/mini Viva voce
Subject Areas Units work,
explanation experimentation project (4)
etc. (5)
(5) (5) work (6)
Measurement,
Force and Motion
Simple Machine
Pressure
Physics Energy, Work and
Power
Heat, Light,
Sound
Magnet,
Electricity
Matter
Mixture
Chemistry Metal and Non-
Metal
Some Useful
Chemicals
Living Beings
Biology Cell and Tissue
Life Processes
The Structure of
the Earth
Geology and Weather and
Astronomy Climate
The Earth and
Space
Environment and
its Balance
Environmental
Environment Degradation and
Science its Conservation
Environment
and Sustainable
Development
Note: The pass marks of theoretical exam will be 30 and that of practical exam is 10.

Model Question
Science and Environment
Grade: 7 F.M.: 75
Time: 2 hours 15 minutes P.M.: 30
Group A: Physics
1. a. What is measurement? How is the volume of an irregular solid measured? (1+2)
b. A car covers a distance of 1200 m in 50 seconds. Calculate the speed of the car. (2)
2. a. State the principle of lever. Write any two uses of simple machines. (1+1)
b. Why are studs made on football players' boot? Give reason. A force of 600 N acts on
the area of 3m2. Calculate the pressure exerted. (1+2)
3. a. Write any two differences between potential energy and kinetic energy. A person
completes 2000 J of work in 15 seconds. Calculate his power. (2+1)
b. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing the structure of laboratory thermometer. (2)
4. a. What is meant by irregular reflection of light? Study the given figure and answer
the following questions. (1+1)
i. Name the phenomenon shown in the given figure.
ii. What is the magnitude of ∠NOR?
P N R
50° ?
X Y
O
b. Describe an experiment to demonstrate that sound can propagate through a liquid. (3)
5. a. Describe the method of making magnet by single touch method with a neat figure. (3)
b. Write any two differences between series combination and parallel combination of
cells. (2)
Group B: Chemistry
6. a. Draw a neat figure showing the structure of an atom. Write any two differences
between physical change and chemical change. (1+2)
b. Write down the molecular formula of the given compounds. (2)
i. Water ii. Sodium chloride
iii. Carbon dioxide iv. Calcium oxide
7. a. What is a mixture? Write any two uses of mixture. (1+1)
b. Describe an experiment to separate the mixture of sand and camphor by sublimation
process. (3)
8. a. Write any two properties of metals and non-metals each. (1+1)
b. What are chemical fertilizers? Write any two uses of each phenol and dettol. (1+1+1)

Group C: Biology
9. a. What are warm-blooded animals? Draw a neat and labelled figure showing the life
cycle of frog. (1+2)
b. Write any two differences between monocot and dicot plants. (2)
10. a. Why is cell called the basic unit of life? Write one function of each nucleus and
vacuole. (1+1)
b. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing the structure of a plant cell. (3)
11. a. What are life processes? Write any two differences between external respiration and
internal respiration. (1+2)
b. How does digestion of food occur in stomach? Write in brief. (2)
Group D: Geology and Astronomy

12. a. What are metamorphic rocks? Write any two importance of weather forecasting.
(1+2)
b. What is solar system? Why is the earth called a planet? Give reason. (1+1)
Group E: Environment Science

13. a. What are national parks? Why should we conserve water resources? Write in any two
points. (1+1)
b. Describe the role of human beings in environmental balance. (3)
14. a. What is environmental degradation? Write any two effects of earthquake. (1+1)
b. Define environmental sanitation. Write any two goals of Ministry of Science,
Technology and Environment. (1+2)
15. a. What is sustainable development? Write any two benefits of sustainable
development. (1+2)
b. Write any two efforts for sustainable development in context of Nepal. (2)

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Approved by Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Curriculum

Development Centre, Sanothimi, Bhaktapur as an additional material

Health and Physical Education

Lalitpur, Nepal, Tel: 977-1-5529899

Geology and Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Environment Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Before You Begin

Learning Objectives Syllabus

Glossary: A dictionary of scientific/technical terms

GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 5

We measure different physical quantities like length, weight, mass, volume,

6 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

Length and its Measurement

time, temperature, electric current, luminous

GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 7

Ways to take the correct and exact reading of length

8 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 11

Worked out Example: 1

ii. Volume of a cube (V) = (length )3

GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 13

Measurement of the volume of a liquid

or cubic centimetre (CC) and litre (l). Water 20 ml

Measurement of the volume of irregular solid objects

GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 15

16 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

b. In SI system, mass is measured in metre.

c. The duration between any two events is called time.

d. The volume of a solid object is measured by a measuring cylinder.

2. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words

3. Tick (√) the best answer from the given alternatives.

4. Answer the following questions.

18 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

Area of each square

c. The length, breadth and height of a box is 8m, 6m and 3m respectively.

GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 19

Before You Begin

Learning Objectives Syllabus

Glossary: A dictionary of scientific/technical terms

20 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 21

ii. Pushing Force

lemon, etc. are acts of pushing. We use

iii. Centripetal force and Centrifugal force

When a cyclist turns a bicycle in

22 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

iv. Gravitational force

Magnetic force is used in our daily life

24 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

vii. Frictional force

Advantages of frictional force

Disadvantages of frictional force

GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 25

viii. Muscular force

pushing, lifting, pressing, running,

Scalar and Vector Quantities

26 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

Speed and Velocity

Difference between Speed and Velocity

GREEN Science and Environment Book-7 27

Worked out Example: 2

28 GREEN Science and Environment Book-7

Distance is a scalar quantity as it has magnitude but no direction.

Displacement is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude and direction.