Green Science 9 Final PDF (2076)

Approved by Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Curriculum
Development Centre, Sanothimi, Bhaktapur as an additional material
Green
9
Editor
Dr. Deepak Chand
M.Sc. (TU, Kirtipur, Kathmandu)
Ph.D. (University of Idaho, USA)
Author
Bishnu Prasad Bhatt
M.Sc. (TU, Kirtipur, Kathmandu)
Lalitpur, Nepal, Tel: 977-1-5529899

e-mail: greenbooksnepal@gmail.com
www.greenbooks.com.np
Publisher: Green Books 9
Copyright: Author (2074 BS)
All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means
without prior permission in writing from the
author and editor.
Edition
First : B.S. 2074 (2017 AD)
Reprint : B.S. 2075 (2018 AD)
Revised : B.S. 2076 (2019 AD)
Revised : B.S. 2077 (2020 AD)
Illustrator
Prakash Samir
Layout
The Focus Computer
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Printed in Nepal
Preface
It gives me an immense pleasure in presenting this book-
Green Science for class 9. This book is written specially to
meet the requirements of the new syllabus introduced by the
Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Curriculum
Development Centre, Sano Thimi, Bhaktapur, Nepal.
My aim and effort while writing this book has been to help
students understand, enjoy and appreciate the fascinating
subject of Science and Environment by making the process of
learning enjoyable and stimulating. I have attempted to present
the subject matter covering the entire prescribed syllabus in a
simple language and interesting style with a large number of
illustrative examples for easy understanding and application
of the fundamental principles of science. Each unit of the book
has been carefully planned to make it student-friendly and
present the subject matter in an interesting, understandable and
enjoyable manner. A Structural Programme Learning Approach
(SPLA) has been followed and exhaustive exercises are given
at the end of each unit to test knowledge, understanding and
applications of concepts taught/learnt.
The text is supplemented with weighting distribution, learning
objectives, word power, teaching instructions, sample test
papers and a large number of well-labelled accurate pictures. I
sincerely hope that this book will serve its intended purpose and
be received enthusiastically by both the students and teachers
concerned.
I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Green Books Team for
publishing this book. My hearty thank goes to Focus Computer
for excellent type setting and layout.
I also wish to acknowledge my great indebtedness to many
teachers for their valuable suggestions and advice concerning
the textbook. I am confident that as result of their suggestions
this book will be more useful than any other textbooks. However,
sympathetic criticisms and constructive suggestions for further
improvement of the book, if any, will be welcomed and with
warm regards incorporated in the subsequent editions.
Author
Kathmandu, Nepal
September 2016
Contents
Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1. Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2. Force and Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3. Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4. Energy, Work and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5. Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6. Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7. Current Electricity and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8. Classification of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9. Chemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10. Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
11. Some Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
12. Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
13. Carbon and its Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
14. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
15. Chemical Fertilizers used in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . 245
Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
16. Classification of Plants and Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
17. Adaptation of Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
18. System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
19. Sense Organs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
20. Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
21. Nature and Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Geology and Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

22. Natural Hazard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
23. Greenhouse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
24. The Earth in the Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Specification Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Model Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Physics
UNIT
Measurement
1
Weighting Distribution Theory : 3 Practical: 1
Before You Begin

Measurement is the comparison of an unknown physical quantity
with a known quantity of the same kind. We can measure the mass of
a brick by using a beam balance. We can measure the length of a book
by using a ruler. We can measure the time by using a watch. We can
measure the temperature of a hot object by using a thermometer. Mass,
length, time and temperature can be measured. These quantities are
called physical quantities. The quantities which can be measured are
called physical quantities. Mass, length, time, temperature, pressure,
force, power, density, speed, acceleration, electric current and energy
are some examples of physical quantities. In physics, we study about
so many physical quantities and their measurement. A physical
quantity is always represented by a number followed by a unit.
Learning Objectives Syllabus

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to physical
i. introduce basic (fundamental) units and derived quantities
units with examples. • Basic (fundamental) physical
ii. describe the relation between fundamental units and quantities
derived units. • Derived physical quantities
• Units and their types
• Fundamental units and
derived units
• SI system
Glossary: A dictionary of scientific/technical terms
measurement : the comparison of an unknown physical quantity with a known standard

quantity of the same kind
unit : the standard quantity which is used for the comparison with an unknown
physical quantity
fundamental : basic, forming the source or base from which everything else is made
derived : the thing obtained from something else
mass : the total quantity of matter present in a body
weight : the force with which a body is pulled towards the surface of the earth
time : the duration between any two events
moment : the product of force and perpendicular distance
GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9 5
Physical quantities
We can measure various quantities like length, mass, time, area, volume, temperature,
etc. These quantities are known as physical quantities. Thus, those quantities which can
be measured are called physical quantities. Some other examples of physical quantities
are force, speed, pressure, acceleration, energy, power, electric current, etc. We cannot
measure love, feeling, kindness, anger, beauty, desire, experience, happiness, etc. So they
are not called physical quantities.
There are two types of physical quantities. They are:
1. Fundamental physical quantities
2. Derived physical quantities
1. Fundamental physical quantities

Those physical quantities which are independent
Do You Know
of other physical quantities are called A physical quantity is represented
fundamental physical quantities. There are by a number followed by a unit.
seven fundamental quantities in SI system. They The number with unit is known as
are length, mass, time, temperature, electric the magnitude/size of the physical
current, amount of substance and luminous quantity. The number alone is
meaningless. For example, 20 is a
intensity. Fundamental physical quantities are
mathematical pure number but 20
also called basic physical quantities.
metre is a physical quantity. Therefore,
the unit must always be written while
2. Derived physical quantities writing a physical quantity.
Those physical quantities which are obtained
by multiplying or dividing one fundamental physical quantity with another are called
derived physical quantities. Area, volume, speed, velocity, acceleration, density, pressure,
work, energy, power, etc. are some examples of derived physical quantities. These physical
quantities depend on one or more fundamental physical quantities.
Unit and its Types

Unit is the standard quantity which is used to compare an unknown physical quantity.
Similar physical quantities are measured in terms of unit. Metre (m), kilogram (k), second
(s), newton (N), pascal (Pa), joule (J), watt (W), etc. are some examples of units.
While expressing the amount of a physical quantity, we use a unit along with a numerical
value, e.g. 5m length, 3 N force, 10 s time, 2m/s² acceleration, etc.
Units are of two types, viz. fundamental units and derived units.
1. Fundamental units
The units of fundamental physical quantities like metre (m), kilogram (kg), second (s),
kelvin (K), etc. are called fundamental or basic units. These units are independent of each
other. So the units which are independent of each other are called fundamental or basic
units. There are seven fundamental units in SI system which are as follows:
6 GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9

Fundamental units Symbol Fundamental quantities
1. metre m Length
2. kilogram kg Mass
3. second s Time
4. kelvin K Temperature
5. ampere A Electric current
6. candela Cd Luminous intensity
7. mole mol. Amount of matter
A variety of physical devices are used for measuring different fundamental quantities.
Some of them are follows:
Length is measured by using a scale or ruler, mass is measured by using a beam balance
and time is measured by using a watch. Similarly, temperature is measured by using a
thermometer and electric current is measured by using an ammeter.
thermometer watch beam balance ammeter

Fig.
1.1 ruler
Q1. Kilogram is called a fundamental unit, why?

Ans: Kilogram is the unit of a fundamental physical quantity, i.e. mass and it is an
independent unit. So, kilogram is called a fundamental unit.
Q2. Second is called a fundamental unit, why?

Ans: Second is the unit of a fundamental physical quantity, i.e. time and it is an
independent unit. So, second is called a fundamental unit.
2. Derived units
The units of derived physical quantities like square metre (m2), metre/second (m/s),
newton (N), pascal (Pa), watt (W), etc. are formed by combination of one or more physical
quantities. These units are called derived units. So, the units which are formed by
multiplying or dividing one or more fundamental units are called derived units. Derived
units can be expressed in terms of fundamental units. In SI system, there are so many
derived units. Some them are given below:
Physical Expression/ SI units Symbol Basic units

quantities Formula involved
1. Area length × breadth metre × metre m2 m×m
2. Volume length × breadth × metre × metre × m3 m×m×m
height metre
3. Speed/ distance/time metre/second m/s m/s or ms–1
velocity
4. Acceleration change in velocity/ metre/second2 m/s2 m/s2 or ms–2
time
5. Force mass × acceleration kilogram × metre kg × m/s2 kgms–2
(second)2
6. Density mass/volume kilogram/(metre)3 kg/m3 kgm–3
7. Work/Energy force × newton×metre J or Nm kg × m × m
displacement s×s
8. Power Work done watt or W or J/s kg × m × m
time joule/second (s × s × s)
9. Pressure force/area pascal or Pa or N/m2 kg
newton/metre (m × s × s)
10. Frequency 1 hertz Hz s–1
second
11. Moment force × newton × meter Nm Nm
perpendicular
distance
Q3. The unit of acceleration is called a derived unit.

Ans: The unit of acceleration is m/s2. It depends on two basic units, viz. metre (m) and
second (s). So, the unit of acceleration is called a derived unit.
Change in velocity (m/s)
∴ Acceleration (a) =
Time taken (s)
a = m/s2
Q4. The unit of density is called a derived unit.

Ans: The unit of density is kg/m3. It depends on two fundamental units, viz. kilogram
(kg) and metre (m). So, the unit of density is called a derived unit.
Q5. The unit of pressure is called a derived unit.

Ans: The unit of pressure is pascal (Pa) or N/m2. It depends on three fundamental units,
viz. kilogram (kg), metre (m) and second (s). So, the unit of pressure is called a
derived unit.
Activity 1
Make a list of various units that are used to measure different physical quantities.
Classify these units in terms of fundamental and derived units and fill in the given
table.
Fundamental units Derived units

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Differences between Fundamental (Basic) units and Derived units

Fundamental (Basic) units Derived units
1. The units which are independent of 1. The units which are formed by
one another are called fundamental or multiplying or dividing one or more
basic units. fundamental units are called derived
units.
2. They are the units of fundamental 2. They are the units of derived physical
physical quantities. quantities.
3. In SI system, there are seven 3. In SI system, there are so many derived
fundamental units. units.
SI System of Measurement
To make measurement more scientific, uniform and convenient, the French Academy of
Science in 1971 AD designed a metric system of measurement based on the decimal
system. In October 1960, the 12th General Conference of Weights and Measures adopted
an international system of units called SI units. The name SI is an abbreviation of the
“System International d’ Units” in French which means “International System of Units.”
In SI system, there are seven basic or
fundamental units. They are metre (m), Do You Know
kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A), The symbols of SI units are always written
kelvin (k), candela (Cd) and mole (mol.). in singular even if the value of the physical
The units of all other physical quantities quantity being represented is more than 1.
are derived from the seven fundamental We never put ‘s’ with the symbol of an SI
units. These days, SI system is being used unit. For example, 15 metres is written as 15
and followed throughout the world. It m and not as 15 ms. Similarly, 12 kilograms
makes buying, selling and exchanging of is written as 20 kg and not as 20 kgs.
goods easy, accurate and convenient.

SI units were made by Paris Conference. Now-a-days, these units are used by all countries
of the world maintaining uniformity in measurement system. According to SI system
of measurement, different physical quantities are well defined and their models or
prototypes are made. These prototypes are distributed to different countries of the world.
On the basis of the prototypes or models made by SI system, different physical quantities
are being measured throughout the world. So, SI system of measurement plays a
significant role to bring uniformity in measurement throughout the world.
Do You Know
One standard meter is defined as the distance between two fine parallel golden lines
engraved near the ends of a platinum-iridium rod at standard atmospheric pressure
which is kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris, France.
One standard kilogram is defined as the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder having
equal diameter and height kept at 0°C at the International Bureau of weights and
Measures, near Paris, France. The mass of this cylinder is equal to the mass of 1 litre
pure water at 4°C.
Zenith is the point in the space just above the observer’s head.
One mean solar day is the time taken by the sun to return to the zenith. It can also be
defined as the time required by the earth to complete one rotation around the sun about
its axis.
1 th
One standard second is defined as part of a mean solar day.
86400
One standard second can also be defined as the time interval of 9,192, 631, 770 periods
of specified energy change in the Caesium-133 atom.
Activity 2
Find out traditional units or local units and standard units which are used to measure
different physical quantities Also, write down with reason which of them (traditional
or standard unit) is more reliable.
S.N. Physical units Traditional units Standard units

1. Length
2. Mass
3. Time
4.
5.
Scientific Notation
It requires more space and consumes more time while writing very large and very small
numbers. So, very large and very small number are expressed in the power of ten, which
is called scientific notation or standard notation.

Rule of writing scientific names
1. While shifting the decimal to the left, the power of ten should be increased by ‘one’ in
each shift, e.g. 2654215.
= 2.654215 × 101 × 101 × 101 × 101 × 101 × 101 [The decimal point shifts to six steps left.]
= 2.654215 × 106
= 2.65 × 106
2. While shifting the decimal to the right, the power of ten should be increased by
‘minus one’ in each shift, e.g.
0.000123
= 1.23 × 10–1 × 10–1 × 10–1 × 10–1 [The decimal point shifts to four steps right.]
= 1.23 × 10–4
Solved Numerical: 1
Convert 13236.321 into scientific notation.
Solution:
13236.321 (Here, the decimal point shifts to four steps left.)
= 1.3236321 × 104
≈ 1.3 × 104
Solved Numerical: 2
i. Convert the following numbers in the scientific notation.
a. 23560000 b. 1456000000 c. 456000000
d. 0.00000456 e. 0.0000000000125
Solution:
a. 23560000 b. 1456000000 c. 456000000
= 2.356 × 107 = 1.456×109 = 4.56×108
d. 0.00000456 e. 0.0000000000125
= 4.56×10–6 = 1.25×10–11
ii. Convert the following scientific notation into general form.
a. 2.35×107 b. 1.45×109 c. 4.56×108
d. 4.56×10–6 e. 1.25×10–11
Solution:
a. 2.35×107 b. 1.45×109 c. 4.56×108
= 23500000 = 1450000000 = 456000000

d. 4.56×10–6 e. 1.25×10–11
= 0.00000456 = 0.0000000000125
Key Concepts
1. Those quantities which can be measured are called physical quantities.
2. Those physical quantities which are independent of other physical quantities are
called fundamental physical quantities. There are seven fundamental quantities in
SI system.
3. A physical quantity is represented by a number followed by a unit.
4. Those physical quantities which are obtained by multiplying or dividing one
fundamental physical quantity with another are called derived physical quantities.
5. Unit is the standard quantity which is used to compare an unknown physical
quantity with a known standard quantity of the same kind.
6. The units of fundamental physical quantities like metre (m), kilogram (kg), second
(s), etc. are called fundamental or basic units.
7. Kilogram is the unit of a fundamental physical quantity, i.e. mass and it is an
independent unit. So, kilogram is called a fundamental unit.
8. The units of derived physical quantities like square metre (m2), metre/second (m/s),
newton (N), pascal (Pa), watt (W), etc. are formed by combination of one or more
physical quantities. These units are called derived units.
9. Derived units can be expressed in terms of fundamental units. In SI system, there
are so many derived units.
10. The unit of density is kg/m3. It depends on two fundamental units, viz. kilogram
(kg) and metre (m). So, the unit of density is called a derived unit.
11. To make measurements more scientific, uniform and convenient, the French
Academy of Science in 1971 AD designed a metric system of measurement based
on the decimal system.
12. In SI system, there are seven basic or fundamental units. They are metre (m),
kilogram (kg), second (s), ampere (A), kelvin (k), candela (Cd) and mole (mol.).
13. The symbols of SI units are always written in singular even if the value of the physical
quantity being represented is more than 1.
Sequential General Exercise 1

1. Choose the best answer from the given alternatives.
a. Which of the following is not a physical quantity?
mass length time love
b. Which of the following is the SI unit of mass?
kg g mg m

c. Which of the following is a fundamental unit?
s m/s N Pa
d. Which of the following is a derived unit?
N kg m s
e. Which of the following is the SI unit of density?
m/s kg/m3 g/cm3 kg m3
2. Answer the following questions.

a. What are physical quantities?
b. Name two types of physical quantities.
c. Define basic or fundamental physical quantities.
d. Name the seven fundamental physical quantities.
e. Define derived physical quantities with any five examples.
f. What is a unit? Give any three examples.
g. Name two types of units.
h. What are fundamental units? Name seven fundamental units of SI system.
i. What are derived units? Give any five examples.
3. Give reason:
a. Mass and volume are called physical quantities.
b. Length is called a fundamental physical quantity.
c. Pressure is called a derived physical quantity.
d. Kilogram is called a basic unit.
e. Pascal is called a derived unit.
f. The unit of temperature is called fundamental unit.
4. Write down the SI units of the given physical quantities.

a. Mass f. Force
b. Length g. Pressure
c. Time h. Volume
d. Temperature i. Density
e. Electric current j. Power
5. Find out the fundamental units involved in the given derived units.
a. newton b. pascal
c. watt d. joule
e. cubic metre f. square metre
6. Write any two differences between fundamental units and derived units.
7. Find out the fundamental units involved in the units of
a. velocity b. acceleration
c. work d. pressure
e. power f. density
g. volume h. force
8. Write a short note on “SI system of measurement”.
9. The standard weights and metre scales of the shops in the market are checked in
every two years by the Department of Weights and Measures of Nepal, why?
10. Why was SI system of measurement developed? Explain with a suitable example.
Grid-based Exercise 2
Group ‘A’ (Knowledge Type Questions) (1 Mark Each)
1. What is measurement?
2. Define one metre length.
3. How is ‘one second’ time defined in SI system?
4. How is ‘one metre length’ defined in SI system ?
5. Define one solar day.
6. Define derived unit.
7. What is mass of a body?
8. How much time of a solar day is considered as one second?
9. Define 1 kilogram mass.
10. What do you mean by physical quantity?

For Group ’B’ (Understanding Type Questions) (2 Marks Each)
11. Write any two differences between fundamental unit and derived unit.
12. Write any two advantages of writing very large and very small numbers in the terms
of power of ten.
13. The unit of time is called a fundamental unit but unit of velocity is called derived unit.
Why?
14. What difficulties would arise due to lack of uniformity in measurement in different
countries? Write in brief.
15. Quartz clock is more appropriate than pendulum clock to measure time, why?
16. Why was SI system developed? Write with reason.
17. The unit of mass is called a fundamental unit and that of acceleration is called derived
unit, why?
For Group ‘C’ (Application Type Questions) (3 Marks Each)

18. What is SI system? Why is SI unit developed? Describe in brief.
19. List the fundamental units included in pascal (Pa) and watt (W).
20. Describe the method of measuring the volume of an irregular solid with a neat and
labelled figure.
21. Write down the given numbers in the power of ten.
1
a. 2560000 b. 0.005346 c.
25200
22. Write any three advantages of using SI system of measurement.
For Group ‘D’ (Higher Abilities Type Questions) (4 Marks Each)

23. Write down the formula, derived units and fundamental units involved in the units
of given physical quantities.
a. Force b. Pressure
24. Write down the formula and derived units of the given physical quantities. Also, find
out the fundamental units involved in those derived quantities.
a. Force b. Power
25. Write down the formula, derived units and fundamental units involved in the units
of given physical quantities.
a. Acceleration b. Density
26. SI system plays a significant role to bring uniformity in measurement system of the
countries all over the world. Justify this statement with examples.
27. The length of a pond is 1700cm, breadth is 14m and height is 1000cm. If the pond is
half-filled, calculate the volume of water in the pond. (Ans: 1190 m3)

UNIT
Force and Motion
2
Before You Begin

Force is an external agency which changes or tries to change the
position, speed, direction of motion and shape of a body. It is a
vector quantity having magnitude and direction. The SI unit of force
is newton (N). A force can change the position, i.e. the state of rest
or uniform motion, of a moving body. Similarly, force can change
the shape and direction of motion of a body. We see many things
around us. All these things do not appear to move. The things that
do not move from one place to another are called things at rest. The
things that change their position with respect to other objects in their
surroundings are called the things in motion. A book kept on a table
is an example of a body at rest and a flying bird is an example of a
body in motion. In this unit, we will study rest and motion, speed
and velocity, acceleration and retardation, equations of motion and
numerical problems based on velocity and acceleration.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to force
i. introduce force and write its SI unit. • Rest and motion
• Speed and velocity
ii. describe and demonstrate rest and motion.
• Uniform and non-uniform
iii. introduce speed, velocity, uniform velocity, non- velocity
uniform velocity and acceleration. • Acceleration and retardation
iv. derive equations of motion. • Equations of motion
v. introduce inertia and its types with examples. • Inertia and its types
• Relationship between mass
vi. state Newton’s laws of motion and solve simple and inertia
numerical problems related to motion. • Momentum
vii. introduce balanced force and unbalanced force with • Newton’s laws of motion
examples. • Balanced and unbalanced
force
motion : if the position of a body changes with respect to other objects in its
surroundings
reference : a standard by which something can be compared
velocity : the rate of change of displacement of a moving body
acceleration : the rate of increase in the velocity of a moving body
displacement : the distance travelled by a moving body in a certain direction
retardation : the rate of decrease in velocity of a moving body

Rest and Motion
If we look around in the classroom we see
a variety of things. All these things do not
move, they are said to be at rest. A body is
said to be at rest, if it does not change its
position with respect to a fixed point taken
as reference point in its surroundings. A
Fig.
book lying on a table, walls of a house,
blackboard, desk, etc. are some examples
2.1
of body at rest.
Object at rest
Human beings, animals, birds, insects,
etc. move from one place to another. A man running on the road, a bus moving on a road,
a bird flying in the sky, etc. keep on changing their position continuously. These are some
examples of things in motion. A body is said to be in motion, if it changes its position with
respect to a fixed point taken as a reference point in its surroundings. The planets of the
solar system revolve around the sun. The moon revolves around the earth. Birds fly in
air and vehicles ply on the road. These are some examples of the body in motion. Objects
like houses, trees, etc. do not move from one place to another. These are the examples of
the body at rest.
Do You Know
A reference point is a body at rest with
respect to which the state of another body
is compared. Reference point may be a
certain point, object or place about which
Fig.
the state, i.e. rest or motion, of a body is

studied.
2.2
A bird in motion
Rest and motion are relative terms

Let us consider that we are sitting
in a moving train. We are in motion
with respect to the trees or buildings
outside the train because our position is
changing with respect to them. However,
if we compare our position with respect
to the things inside the train, i.e. other
Fig.
passengers, seats, fan of the train, walls

and roof of the train, etc.; we are at rest.
Thus, an object can be at rest in relation 2.3
to one object while it can be in motion Moving train
in relation to another object at the same
instant of time. Therefore, we can say that rest and motion are relative terms.

Scalar and Vector Quantities
A physical quantity which is described
completely by its magnitude only is called a Do You Know
scalar quantity. Thus, a scalar quantity has
The sum of scalar is always positive but
only magnitude but no direction. Length,
the sum of vectors may be positive, zero
distance, time, area, temperature, speed, mass,
or negative.
energy, power, volume, etc. are some examples
of scalar quantities. Scalars are added by the rules of simple
algebra but vectors are added by the
A physical quantity which requires both rules of vector algebra.
magnitude and direction for its complete
description is called a vector quantity. Thus, Scalars are not written in a special way
a vector quantity has both magnitude and but vectors are written in a special way,
direction. Displacement, velocity, force, e.g. vector PQ is denoted by PQ .
acceleration, weight, etc. are some examples
of vectors quantities.
Differences between Scalars and Vectors

Scalars Vectors
1. Scalars have magnitude but no 1. Vectors have both magnitude and
direction. direction.
2. The sum of scalars is always positive. 2. The sum vectors may be positive, zero
or negative.
3. They are added by the rules of simple 3. They are added by the rules of vector
algebra. algebra.
Distance and Displacement C

E
A distance is the actual length of
the path covered by a moving body
4k
m
m
4k
Fig.
irrespective of its direction. In the

5k
SI system, distance is measured in 5km

A
metre (m). B D
2.4
In the given figure, the total distance
covered by a moving body from A to E is
Distance covered (s) = AB + BC + CD + DE
= 5km + 4km + 4km + 5km
= 18 km

During the calculation of distance covered, the direction in which a body is moving is not
considered. So, the distance covered by a body is a scalar quantity.
P
di
sp
la
5k cem
m en
Fig. 3km t
2.5 Q 4km R
Displacement is the shortest distance between the initial and the final position of a moving
body in a certain direction. It is a vector quantity. It can be positive, zero or negative.
Distance covered from P to R (s) = (3 + 4) km
= 7 km
Displacement (s) = 5 km
Suppose a bus moves from P to Q (3km) towards south and Q to R (4km) towards east.
Then the distance covered by the bus is PQ + QR = 3km + 4km = 7km
But the displacement of the bus PR from P to R is given by
PR = PQ + QR
2 2

= 3 + 4
2 2
= 25
= 5
\ The displacement of the bus is 5 km.
Speed and Velocity

The speed of a moving body is defined as the distance covered by it per unit time, i.e.
Distance covered
Speed =
Time taken
The SI unit of speed is metre per second (m/s) and CGS unit is centimetre per second
(cm/s). Speed is a scalar quantity. The speed of fast moving bodies like car, bus, motorcycle,
aeroplane, etc. is expressed in kilometre/hour (km/h). The speed of a moving body may
be uniform or non-uniform.

The velocity of a moving body is defined as the distance covered by the body per unit
time in a fixed direction. It is also called the rate of change of displacement.
Displacement (s)
Velocity (v) =
Time taken (t)
The SI unit of velocity is metre per second (m/s) and CGS unit is centimetre per second
(cm/s). Velocity is a vector quantity.
Differences between Speed and Velocity

Speed Velocity
1. The rate of change of distance of a 1. The rate of change of displacement of a
moving body is called speed. moving body is called velocity.
2. Its magnitude is always positive. 2. Its magnitude can be negative, zero or
positive.
3. It is a scalar quantity. 3. It is a vector quantity.
Fig.
2.6
Jet plane Leopard Running woman
Do You Know
The average speed of jet aeroplane is
1100 km/h.
Solved Numerical: 1
The average speed of leopard is 112
A truck travels 100 km in 80 minutes towards km/h.
the south. Calculate the velocity of the truck.
The average speed of falcon bird is 349
Solution: km/h.
Given, The average speed of man is 5km/h.
Displacement (s) = 100 km
= 100 × 1000 m [ 1km = 1000 m]
= 100000 m
Time taken (t) = 80 minutes
= 80 × 60 seconds [ 1 min. = 60 s]
= 4800 s
Velocity (v) = ?
We know,
Displacement (s)
Velocity (v) =
Time taken (t)
100000
=
48000
= 20.83 m/s
\ The velocity of the truck is 20 m/s.
Uniform velocity and Non-uniform velocity

A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it covers equal distance in equal
intervals of time in a fixed direction.
The velocity of a car in the given figure 2.4 is called uniform or constant because the car
covers equal distance in every one second toward the east.
West East
Fig.
2.7 0s 10m 1s 10m 2s 10m 3s 10m 4s 10m 5s
A body is said to be moving with non-uniform or variable velocity if it covers unequal

distance in equal intervals of time in a certain direction. In the given figure 2.5, the velocity
of the car is called non-uniform or variable velocity as it covers unequal distance in every
one second.
West East
Fig.
2.8 1s 20m 2s 10m 3s 16m 4s 8m 5s
Solved Numerical: 2
A car covers 100 m in 5 seconds and 225 m in 11 seconds. Calculate the average velocity
of the car.
Solution:
Given,
Total distance covered (s) = 100 m + 225 m
= 325 m
Total time taken (t) = 5 s + 10 s
= 15 s
Average velocity (v) = ?

We know,
Total distance covered (s)
Average velocity (v) =
Total time taken (t)
325
=
15
= 21.66 m/s
\ The average velocity (v) of the car is 21.66 m/s.
Average velocity
Average velocity of a moving body is defined as the arithmetic mean of the initial and the
final velocity over a given period of time.
If ‘u’ is the initial velocity and ‘v’ is the final velocity of a body moving in a certain
direction, then
u+v
Average velocity (Aav) =
2
Concept of Acceleration
Let us consider a body moving in a straight line with a non-uniform velocity. Let a school
bus starts from rest at “Stop A”. When it starts moving, its velocity increases and after a
certain time it gains a constant velocity. As the “Stop B” approaches, its velocity gradually
decreases and finally becomes zero at the “Stop B”. These changes in the velocity of a
moving body are described in terms of acceleration.
P Constant velocity Q
g
sin
Ve
er crea
Re
oc
Velocity
ta
in
ity
io
rd
ty
at
de
at
ci
io
cr
Fig.
lo
el
n
ea
Ve
cc
s
A
in
g
2.9 Stop A time (t) Stop B
The rate of change of velocity of a body with respect to time is called its acceleration, i.e.
Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time interval
We know,
Change in velocity = Final velocity (v) – Initial velocity (u)
Final velocity (v) – Initial velocity (u)
Thus, Acceleration (a) =
Time interval (t)
v–u
\a=
t

SI unit of acceleration
We know,
Change in velocity
Acceleration =
Time interval
In SI system, the unit of velocity is ‘m/s’ and that of time is ‘s’.
m/s
\ The SI unit of acceleration is or m/s2 or ms–2.
s
So, in SI system, the unit of acceleration is metre per second square (m/s2 or ms–2).
Positive acceleration and Negative acceleration

If the final velocity of a moving body is
greater than the initial velocity, i.e. v > u, Do You Know
then,
When a ball is thrown vertically
v–u downwards, its velocity increases with
Acceleration (a) = = Positive quantity
t time. So the acceleration of a ball thrown
In other words, when the velocity of a vertically downwards is always positive.
body increases with time, its acceleration
is positive. In common practice, positive
acceleration is simply called acceleration.
If the final velocity of a moving body is less than the initial velocity, i.e. v < u then,
v–u
Acceleration (a) = = Negative quantity
t
In other words, when the velocity of a
body decreases with time, its acceleration is Do You Know
negative. Negative acceleration is also called When a ball is thrown vertically upwards,
retardation. its velocity decreases with time. So, the
If a body has an acceleration of – 5 m/s , acceleration of a ball thrown vertically
2
then the retardation of the body is + 5 m/s2. upwards is negative (a case of retardation).
The SI unit of retardation is m/s2 or ms–2. In
fact, retardation is the acceleration with a negative sign.
Solved Numerical: 3
A motorcycle starts to move from rest and gains a velocity of 90 km/h after 15 seconds.
Calculate the acceleration of the motorcycle.
Solution:
Given,
Initial velocity (u) = 0 [ The motorcycle starts to move from rest]
Final velocity (v) = 90 km/h
90 × 1000
= = 25 m/s
60 × 60

Time taken (t) = 15 s
Acceleration (a) = ?
We know,
v–u
a =
t
25 – 0
=
15
= 1.66 m/s2
\ Acceleration of the car = 1.66 m/s2.
Velocity-time Graph
The graph drawn by plotting the velocity of a moving body along the Y-axis and
corresponding time along the X-axis is called velocity -time graph. It is the geometrical
relationship between the velocity of a moving body and time taken. The velocity-time
graph for a straight-line motion can be of following three types.
i. Zero acceleration
When the velocity of a moving body remains constant, a straight line parallel to time-axis
is obtained. In this condition, the acceleration of the moving body is zero.
Y
16 constant velocity (zero

acceleration)
14
12
10
velocity (v)
8
straight line parallel to
(m/s)
6 time axis
2
Fig.
0 X
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.10 time (t) (s)
Zero acceleration
ii. Uniform acceleration
When the velocity of a moving body changes equally in equal interval of time, a
straight line making an angle with the time-axis is obtained. In this condition, the
acceleration is uniform.

Y
16
14
12
10
n
velocity (v) 8
tio
ra
(m/s)
le
6
ce
ac
4
rm
fo
ni
2
U
Fig.
0 X
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.11 time (t) (s)
Uniform acceleration
iii. Non-uniform acceleration

When the velocity of a moving body changes unequally in equal interval of time, a
curve moving upwards is obtained. In this condition, the acceleration of the moving
body is non-uniform.
Y
16
14
12
10
velocity (v)
8
(m/s)
2
Fig.
0 X
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2.12 time (t) (s)
Non-uniform acceleration

Solved Numerical: 4
Study the given velocity-time graph of a car and answer the following questions.
Y
70
60
50
40
B C
velocity (m/s)
30
20 A
10
Fig.
D
0 X
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2.13 time (s)
a. What is the velocity of car at B, C and D?

Ans. The velocity of cat at B and C is 40 m/s and that at D is 0 m/s.
b. What is the acceleration of the car while moving from A to B?

Ans. Initial velocity (u) = 20 m/s
Final velocity (v) = 40 m/s
We know,
v–u
a =
t
40 – 20
=
20
= 1 m/s2
c. What is the retardation of the car?
Ans. Initial velocity (u) = 40 m/s.
Final velocity (v) = 0
Time taken (t) = (60 – 40) s
= 20 s
Acceleration (–a) = ?
We know,
v–u
a =
t
0 – 40
=
20
= –2 m/s2
–a = 2 m/s2
d. What is the acceleration of the car while moving from B to C? Why?
Ans. The acceleration of the car while moving from B to C is zero. Because the velocity of
the car remains constant while moving from B to C.
Equations of Motion
When a body travels in a straight line with a uniform acceleration, the relationship among
the initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), distance covered (s), acceleration (a) and the time
taken (t) are called the equations of motion. There are three equations of motion which
are as follows:
i. v = u + at ii. s = ut + 1 at2 iii. v2 = u2 + 2as

2
i. Derivation of equation v = u + at
Let us consider a body having initial velocity ‘u’ is moving with a uniform acceleration
‘a’. If after time ‘t’, its velocity is ‘v’, then from the definition of acceleration ‘a’, we get,
Final velocity (v) – Initial velocity (u)
Acceleration (a) =
Time taken (t)
v–u
or, a =
t
at =v–u
or, v = u + at ............................. (1)
This equation helps us to find the velocity gained by a moving body in time ‘t’.
1 2
ii. Derivation of equation s = ut + at
2
Let us consider a body having initial velocity ‘u’ is moving with a uniform acceleration
‘a’. If after time ‘t’, its velocity is ‘v’. For a body moving in a straight line under uniform
acceleration, the distance covered (s) in time (t) is given by,
Distance covered (s) = Average velocity × time taken
q Average velocity = r
u+v u+v
or, s = × t
2 2
u + (u + at)
or, s = × t [ v = u + at]
2

2u + at
or, s = ×t
2
2ut at2
or, s = +
2 2
1 2
or, s = ut + at ............................. (2)
2
iii. Derivation of equation v2 = u2 + 2as

Let us consider a body having initial velocity Do You Know
‘u’ is moving with a uniform acceleration ‘a’.
If a body starts from rest, its initial
If after time ‘t’, its velocity is ‘v’. For a body velocity (u) is zero.
moving in a straight line under uniform
acceleration, the distance covered (s) in time If a body comes to rest, its final velocity
(t) is given by, (v) is zero.
Distance covered (s) = Average velocity × time If a body moves with a uniform velocity,
taken its acceleration (a) is zero.
u+v
or, s = ×t
2
q a= r
v+u v–u v–u v–u
or, s = × ,t=
2 a t a
v 2 – u2
or, s =
2a
or, 2as = v2 – u2
or, v2 = u2 + 2as
....................... (3)
Fig.
Solved Numerical: 5
2.14
A car starts to move from rest and
gains an acceleration of 2 m/s2. Inertia of rest
Calculate the final velocity of the car after 10 seconds. Also, calculate the distance covered
by the car within that time.
Solution:
Given,
Initial velocity (u) = 0 [ The car starts from rest.]
Acceleration (a) = 3 m/s 2
Time (t) = 10 s
Final velocity (v) = ?
Distance covered (s) = ?

We know,
v = u + at
= 0 + 3 × 10
= 30 m/s
\ The final velocity of the car is 30 m/s.
Again,
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
= 0 × 10 + × 3 × 102
2
1
= × 3 × 100
2
= 150 m
\ The distance covered by the car = 150 m.
Solved Numerical: 6
A car starts from rest and covers a distance of 100 m after 10 seconds. If the acceleration is
2 m/s2, calculate the final velocity of the car.
Given,
Initial velocity (u) = 0 [ The car starts from rest.]
Distance covered (s) = 100 m
Acceleration (a) = 2 m/s2
Final velocity (v) = ?
We know,
v2 = u2 + 2as
or, v2 = 0 + 2 × 2 × 100
or, v 2
= 400
or, v = 400
\ v = 20 m/s
\ The final velocity of the car (v) = 20 m/s.
Inertia
We observe in our daily life that an object lying anywhere keeps on lying there only unless
someone moves it from there. For example, a table, a chair, a book etc. cannot change their
position on their own. Similarly, a body in uniform motion cannot stop on its own. This
property of a body is called inertia. So, inertia can be defined as the inability of a body
to change its position by itself. It is the inherent property of a body by virtue of which it
resists any change in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line on its own.
Inertia is of two types, viz.
i. Inertia of rest and ii. Inertia of motion
i. Inertia of rest
Inertia of rest can be defined as the property of a body due to which it resists a change in
its state of rest. A body at rest remains at rest and cannot start moving on its own due to
the inertia of rest.
We observe/experience a number of phenomena based on inertia of rest. Some of them
are described below:
a. The passengers in a bus tend to fall backward when the bus starts to move
suddenly.
Explanation
When passengers are standing or sitting in a bus at
rest, both the bus and passengers are at rest. When
the bus starts to move suddenly, the lower part of
the passengers’ body starts moving forward with
the bus. But the upper part of the body tends to
Fig.
remain at rest due to inertia of rest. As a result,
passengers fall backwards.
2.15
b. On shaking to the branch of a tree, the fruits fall down.
Explanation
Initially both the tree and fruits hanging on its branch
are in the state of rest. When the branch is shaken, it is
Fig.
set into motion while the fruits remain in the state of

rest due to inertia of rest. Thus, the fruits get detached
from the branch and fall down due to effect of gravity. 2.16
Apple falling from
c. A bullet fired against a glass window-pane makes a a tree
hole in it but the glasspane is not cracked.
Explanation
Initially, the entire glass window pane is in
the state of rest. When a bullet strikes a glass
Fig.
pane, the part of the glass pane which comes

in contact with the bullet immediately shares
the large velocity of the bullet and flies away 2.17
making a hole. The remaining part of the
Bullet fired against a glass
glass remains at rest due to inertia of rest and
is not cracked. window panel

d. Dust particles can be removed from a hanging carpet by shaking it or beating
it with a stick.
Explanation
Initially both the carpet and dust particles therein are at
rest. When the carpet is shaken or beaten with a stick,
the carpet is set into motion while the dust particles
remain at rest. As a result, dust particles fall down due
Fig.
to effect of gravity.
2.18
Dust falling down
e. If a piece of paper placed under a pile of books is suddenly pulled, it does not
disturb the pile of books.
Explanation
Initially both the piece of paper and pile of
books are in the state of rest. When the piece
of paper placed under the pile of books is
suddenly pulled, it is set into motion, while
Fig.
the pile of books remains in the state of rest

due to inertia of rest. As a result, the pile of
2.19
books does not fall.
Pile of books
ii. Inertia of Motion
Inertia of motion can be defined as the property of a body due to which it resists a change
in its state of uniform motion. A body in uniform motion can neither get accelerated nor
get retarded on its own. It also cannot come to rest on its own.
We observe/experience a number of phenomena based on inertia of motion. Some of them
are given below:
a. Passengers in a moving bus tend to fall forward when the bus stops suddenly.
Explanation
Initially both the bus and passengers are in the
state of uniform motion. When the bus stops
suddenly, the lower part of the passengers’ body
comes to rest along with the bus. But the upper
part of the passengers’ body tends the remain in
the state of motion due to inertia of motion. As a
result, passengers lean forward.
Fig.
2.20
b. A person jumping out of a speeding bus may fall forward.
Explanation
Initially both the person and moving bus are in
the state of motion. When the passenger jumps out
of a speeding bus, the lower part of the persons
body comes to rest on touching the ground but the
Fig.
upper part of his body tends to remain in the state
of motion due to inertia of motion. As a result, the
person jumping out of the speeding bus may fall 2.2
forward and get seriously injured.
c. A cyclist does not come to rest immediately after he stops paddling.
Explanation
A cyclist riding along a road does not come to rest
immediately after he stops paddling. The bicycle
continues to move forward due to the inertia of
Fig.
motion. But the bicycle comes to rest due to friction
after some time.
2.22
d. An athlete runs a certain distance before taking Cycling
a long jump.
Explanation
When an athlete runs continuously, he acquires
the inertia of motion. The velocity acquired by
Fig.
running is added to the velocity of the athlete at

the time of jump. Hence, the athlete can jump over
a longer distance due to the increased inertia of 2.23
motion. Long jump
Activity 1
Take a glass tumbler and place a thick post card on the mouth of the glass. Then place a
coin on the middle of the post
card.
Now, flick the card hard with
fingers. What do you observe?
On flicking, the post card moves
Fig.
away but the coin drops into the

glass tumbler due to inertia of
rest. 2.24

Do You Know
A running soldier cannot stop immediately while getting command to stop due to inertia
of motion.
The blades of a fan keep on moving for a while even after the switch has turned “off” due
to inertia of motion.
Relation between Mass and Inertia

We feel easier to move a small stone than a large one. Thus, a large stone shows a greater
resistance to change in its state of rest or uniform motion than a small one. It shows that
a heavier body has more inertia than a lighter body. Therefore, we can say that more the
mass, more is the inertia and lesser the mass, lesser is the inertia of a body. In fact, the
inertia of a body is measured by the mass of the body. Heavier the body, greater is the
force required to change its state and greater is the inertia. The reverse is also true.
Activity 2
Take a bottle of 1 litre capacity and fill it completely with water.
Take another bottle of 2.25 litre capacity and fill it completely with water.
Tie both bottles with rope of equal length and hang them as shown in the figure.
water
water
Fig.
1l
2.25 l
2.25
Now, push both of the bottles upto a certain distance. Which bottle requires more force
to push?
The bottle of 2.25 l capacity requires more force than the bottle of 1 l capacity to be pushed.
Now, pull both bottles upto equal distance and release. Let them oscillate and
observe,which bottle oscillates for a longer time?
The larger bottle oscillates for a larger time than the small bottle. The larger bottle has
more mass than the small bottle. So, the larger bottle requires more force while pushing
and also oscillates for a long time due to more inertia.
From this activity, it can be concluded that the body having more mass has more inertia
and vice-versa.

Momentum
The product of mass and velocity of a body is called momentum. In short,
Momentum (P) = mass (m) × velocity (v)
∴ P = m × v
The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg) and that of velocity is metre per second (m/s). So the
SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second (kgms–1).
The quantity of motion in a body depends on the mass and velocity of the body.
Momentum is a vector quantity. In fact, momentum is considered to be a measure of
quantity of motion of a body.
Solved Numerical: 7
Calculate the momentum produced when a body of mass 25 kg moves with a uniform
velocity of 25m/s.
Solution
Mass (m) = 25 kg
Velocity (v) = 25 m/s
Momentum (P) = ?
We know
Momentum (P) = mass (m) × velocity (v)
= 25 × 25
= 625 kg.m/s
∴ Momentum (P) = 625 kg. m/s.
Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton has propounded three laws to describe the
motion of different bodies. These laws are known
as Newton’s laws of motion. The Newton’s laws of
motion give a precise definition of force and establish
a relationship between the force applied on a body and
the state of motion acquired by it.
Newton’s First Law of Motion

Fig.
Some objects around us remain at rest and others

remain in motion. Newton’s first law describes the 2.26
behaviour of such bodies which are in a state of rest or Sir Issac Newton
uniform motion in a straight line.

According to Newton’s first law of motion, a body at rest will remain at rest and a body
in motion will continue in motion in a straight line with a uniform speed unless it is
compelled by an external force. This law recognizes that every body has some inertia. So,
Newton’s first law of motion is also called law of inertia. Newton’s first law of motion can
be made clear by the given example.
Suppose a book is lying on a table. It is at rest. This book will not move by itself, that
is, it cannot change its position of rest by itself. It can change its state of rest only when
compelled by the force of our hands, that is, when we lift or push the book from the table.
Similarly, a moving vehicle keeps on moving in a straight line unless it is stopped by
applying force on brakes.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s second law of motion gives the magnitude of the force which produces
acceleration in a body. It has been found experimentally that the magnitude of the
force acting on a body is directly proportional to the mass of the body and acceleration
produced in the body.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, the force acting on a body is directly
proportional to the product of the mass of the body and the acceleration produced in the
body by the action of force and it acts in the direction of the acceleration.
Suppose a force ‘F’ acts on a body of mass ‘m’ and produces an acceleration ‘a’ in the body.
Then, according to Newton’s second law of motion,
Force (F) ∝ mass (m) × acceleration (a)
or F ∝ m × a
or F = k ma
Where ‘k’ is a constant. The value of ‘k’ in SI unit is 1, so the above equation becomes.
F = m × a
∴ Force (F) = mass (m) × acceleration (a)

Thus, Newton’s second law of motion gives us a method of measuring the force in terms
of mass and acceleration. In other words, the force acting on a body can be calculated by
using the formula F = m × a.
We can also write the equation

F = m × a as
a= mF
It is obvious from the above relation: The acceleration produced in a body is directly
proportional to the force acting on it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
This is another way of stating Newton’s second law of motion.

Do You Know
Since the acceleration produced is inversely proportional to the mass of a body, therefore,
if the mass of a body is doubled, its acceleration will be halved. And if the mass is halved
then acceleration will get doubled provided the force remains the same. Moreover, since the
acceleration produced is inversely proportional to the mass of the body, it means that it will
be easier to move light bodies than heavy bodies.
Prove that F = ma
Suppose a body of mass ‘m’ is moving by application of a force ‘F’ which produces an
acceleration ‘a’. According to Newton’s second law of motion.
The acceleration (a) produced on a body is directly proportional to the force applied (F),
i.e.
a ∝ F .................... (i)
The acceleration (a) produced on a body is inversely proportional to the mass (m) of the
body, i.e.
a= m1 .................... (ii)
Combining equation (i) and (ii), we get

a= mF .................... (iii)
or F ∝ ma
or F = k ma .................... (iv)
Where, ‘k’ is a constant.
If m = 1 kg, a = 1 m/s2 and F = 1N.
Then k = 1.
or F = 1 ma
∴ F = ma
Proved.
From the above relation, we get the definition of one newton (1N) force.
One newton (1N) force is that force which when acting on a body of 1 kg mass produces
an acceleration of 1 m/s2.
F = m × a.
Putting m = 1 kg and a = 1 m/s2, F becomes 1 N.
So, 1N = 1 kg × 1 m/s2.

Do You Know
We can get an idea of 1N force by holding a weight of 100 grams on our outstretched palm.
The force exerted by 100 grams weight on our palm is approximately equal to 1 N.
Newton’s second law of motion gives us a relationship between the force applied to a
body and the acceleration produced in the body. It should be noted that just a minus sign
for acceleration shows that the acceleration is acting in a direction opposite to the motion
of the body. Similarly, if a minus sign comes with the force, it will indicate that the force
is acting in a direction opposite to that in which the body is moving.
Solved Numerical: 8
Calculate the force required to impart to a car a velocity of 15 m/s in 5 seconds. The mass
of the car is 800 kg.
Solution:
Initial velocity (u) = 0 ( Car starts from rest.)
Final velocity (v) = 15 m/s
We know
a = v-u
t
15-0
a= 5
= 3 m/s2
Now,
Mass of the car (m) = 800 kg
Acceleration (a) = 3 m/s2
Force (F) = ?
We know,
F=m×a
= 800 × 3 N
= 2400 N
∴ The force required (F) = 2400 N

Solved Numerical: 9
Calculate the acceleration produced by a force of 24N exerted on an object of mass 6 kg.
Solution:
Force (F) = 24 N
Mass (m) = 6 kg
We know,
F=m×a
or, a = m F
a = 24
6
= 4 m/s2
∴ Acceleration produced (a) = 4 m/s2
Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Newton’s third law of motion describes the relationship between the force of interaction
between two bodies. According to Newton’s third law of motion, “To every action, there
is an equal and opposite reaction; action and reaction forces act on different bodies.” In
other words, whenever two bodies interact with each other, the force exerted by the first
body on the second (called action) is equal and opposite to that exerted by the second
body on the first body (called reaction).
Reaction (force exerted by ground on the

block in upward direction)
Metal
block
ground
Fig.
W = mg
(weight of the block
Action
2.27 acting downward)
Action and reaction act on different

bodies
Do You Know
Both action and reaction are forces.
Action and reaction act simultaneously but on different bodies. So they cannot cancel
each other.
Action and reaction forces occur in pairs only.

Activity 3
Take two similar spring balances X and Y. Attach the ring of spring balance Y to the
hook fixed in a wall and then attach the hook of spring balance X to the hook of spring
balance Y.
action reaction
10 N 10 N
Wall
Fig.
spring balance spring balance Hand

Y X
2.28
Now pull the spring balance X gently and read the both spring balances. It is found that
both the spring balances show the same reading.
Repeat this activity by applying force of different magnitude and read the spring balances.
Write down the conclusion of this activity.
We observe/ experience a number of phenomena that describe Newton’s third law of
motion. Some of them are described below:
a. When a person swims, he pushes the water in the
Fig.
backward direction with his hands (action). As the
reaction, the water pushes the person in the forward
direction with an equal force (reaction). 2.29
Swimming
b. When a bullet is fired from a gun, the bullet goes out
due to force applied on it through the trigger (action).
According to Newton’s third law of motion, the gun
Fig.
recoils backwards due to the reaction acting on it in

the opposite direction (reaction). This gives a backward 2.30
jerk to the shoulders of the gun man.
Bullet fire
c. In rockets and jet engines, the fuel is burnt to produce

a large quantity of hot gases. These hot gases come out
of the nozzle with a great force (action). According to
Fig.
Newton’s third law of motion, the equal and opposite

reaction pushes the rocket and jet aeroplanes forward
with a great speed (reaction). 2.31
Playing basketball
d. When we strike a basketball against a hard floor, the ball exerts a force (action) on
the floor. According to Newton’s third law of motion, the floor exerts an equal and
opposite force (reaction) on the ball. As a result the basketball rebounds.

e. While rowing a boat, the boatsman pushes the water
backwards with the oars (action). According to
Newton’s third law of motion, the water exerts an
Fig.
equal and opposite push on the boat which moves
forward (reaction).
2.32
Balanced Forces Boating
When a number of forces acting on a body do not change the state of rest or uniform motion
of a body, these forces are called balanced forces. Balanced forces are equal in size and
opposite in direction. Balanced forces can be observed in arm wrestling and tug of war.
Fig.
2.33
Arm wrestling Tug of war
Unbalanced Forces
When a number of forces acting on a body change its state of rest or uniform motion,
these forces are called unbalanced forces. These forces always cause a change in position
(rest or motion) of a body. Unbalanced forces are not equal and opposite. Unbalanced
forces can be observed while pushing, throwing and kicking various objects.
Fig.
2.34
Pushing car Pulling a cart Kicking a football
Project work
Take a kinetic trolley, cylinders of different weights and a spring balance.
Select a smooth surface and verify Newton’s second law of motion by showing the
relation between acceleration produced into trolley with applied force and mass.
Prepare a short report and submit to your science teacher.
Key Concepts
1. A body is said to be at rest, if it does not change its position with respect to a fixed
point taken as a reference point in its surroundings.
2. A body is said to be in motion, if it changes its position with respect to a fixed point
taken as a reference point in its surroundings.
3. A physical quantity which is described completely by its magnitude only is called a
scalar quantity.
4. Length, distance, time, area, temperature, speed, mass, energy, power, volume, etc. are
some examples of scalar quantities.
5. A physical quantity which requires both magnitude and direction for its complete
description is called a vector quantity.
6. Displacement, velocity, force, acceleration, weight, etc. are some examples of
vectors quantities.
7. The speed of a moving body is defined as the distance covered by it per unit time.
8. The velocity of a moving body is defined as the distance covered by a body per unit
time in a fixed direction.
9. A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it covers equal distance in
equal intervals of time in a fixed direction.
10. A body is said to be moving with non-uniform or variable velocity if it covers
unequal distance in equal intervals of time in a certain direction.
11. Average velocity of a moving body is defined as the arithmetic mean of the initial
and the final velocity over a given period of time.
12. The rate of change of velocity of a body with respect to time is called its acceleration.
13. The graph drawn by plotting the velocity of a moving body along the Y-axis and
corresponding time along the X-axis is called velocity -time graph.
14. Inertia can be defined as the inability of a body to change its position by itself. It is
the inherent property of a body by virtue of which it resists any change in its state
of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line on its own.
15. Inertia of rest can be defined as the property of a body due to which it resists a
change in its state of rest.
16. According to Newton’s first law of motion, a body at rest will remain at rest and
a body in motion will continue in motion in a straight line with a uniform speed
unless it is compelled by an external force.
17. Newton’s second law of motion gives the magnitude of the force which produces
acceleration in a body.
18. According to Newton’s second law of motion, the force acting on a body is directly
proportional to the product of the mass of the body and the acceleration produced
in the body by the action of force and it acts in the direction of the acceleration.
19. The acceleration produced in a body is directly proportional to the force acting on
it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. This is another way of stating
Newton’s second law of motion.

20. Newton’s second law of motion gives us a relationship between the force applied to
a body and the acceleration produced in the body.
21. Newton’s third law of motion describes the relationship between the force of
interaction between two bodies. According to Newton’s third law of motion, “To
every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction; action and reaction forces act
on different bodies.”
22. When a number of forces acting on a body do not change the state of rest or uniform
motion of a body, these forces are called balanced forces. When a number of forces
acting on a body change its state of rest or uniform motion, these forces are called
unbalanced forces. These forces always cause a change in position (rest or motion)
of a body.

a. The SI unit of force is ................................
N n kg g
b. ................................ is a scalar quantity.
time velocity acceleration force
c. The rate of change in velocity of a moving body is called ......................
speed momentum acceleration force
d. ................................ is the product of mass and velocity of a body.
force speed velocity momentum
e. Launching of a rocket is based on Newton’s ................... law of motion.
first second third fourth

a. Define force with its SI unit.
b. Define rest and motion with any two examples of each.
c. Define scalar and vector quantities with any three examples of each.
d. What is speed? Write its SI unit.
e. Define velocity, uniform velocity and non-uniform velocity.
f. What is acceleration? Write its SI unit.
g. What is meant by retardation? Write its SI unit.
h. What are equations of motion? Write any two equations of motion.
i. What is velocity-time graph?
j. Draw velocity-time graph that represents
i. uniform acceleration
ii. zero acceleration
iii. non-uniform acceleration
k. Define inertia and write its types.
l. Define inertia of rest with any two examples.
m. Define inertia of motion with any two examples.
n. Write down the relationship between mass and inertia.
o. What is momentum? Write its formula and SI unit.
p. State Newton’s first law of motion.
q. State Newton’s second law of motion.
r. State Newton’s third law of motion.
s. What are balanced forces?
t. What are unbalanced forces?
3. Differentiate between:
a. Scalar quantity and Vector quantity
b. Speed and Velocity
c. Acceleration and Retardation
d. Balanced forces and Unbalanced forces
4. Give reason:
a. Rest and motion are called relative terms.
b. Speed is called a scalar quantity but velocity is called a vector quantity.
c. The passengers in a bus tend to fall backward when the bus starts to move
suddenly.
d. On shaking to the branch of a tree, the fruits fall down.
e. Dust particles can be removed by beating a carpet.
f. A person jumping out of a speeding bus falls forward.
g. While rowing a boat, the boatman pushes the water backwards.
h. A balloon moves backward when air rushes out of it.
5. Prove that:
a. v = u + at
1
b. s = ut + 2 at2
c. v2 = u2 + 2as
d. F = ma

6. Numerical Problems
a. A bus covers a distance of 3.6km in 3 minutes. Calculate the velocity of the bus.
[Ans: 20 m/s]
b. A motorcycle is moving with the velocity of 72 km/h. If the velocity reaches 40
m/s after 0.5 minutes, calculate the acceleration. [Ans: 0.66 m/s2]
c. A car starts to move from rest and attains an acceleration of 0.8 m/s2 in 10 seconds.
Calculate the final velocity and distance covered by the car. [Ans: 8m/s, 40 m]
d. A bus is moving with the velocity of 90 km/h. If the bus is stopped in 8 seconds
by applying the brakes. Calculate retardation. [Ans: 3.12m/s2]
e. Study the given velocity-time graph and answer the following questions.
Y
i. What is the acceleration of 70
the car in initial 2 seconds.
[Ans: 20 m/s2] 60
50
ii. What is the acceleration of
the car when it travels from 40
B C
velocity (m/s)
B to C? Why? [Ans: 0 m/s2]

30
iii. What is the velocity of car at 20

point C and D.
[Ans: 40 m/s, 0 m/s] 10
D
iv. What is the retardation of 0 A X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 80
the car when it travels from time (s)
C to D. [Ans: 20 m/s2]
f. A body of mass 20 kg is moving with a velocity of 90 km/h. Calculate the

momentum. [Ans: 500 kg m/s]
g. The mass of a car is 1200 kg. If the car is moving with the velocity of 30 m/s, how
much force should be applied to stop the car in 20 seconds? [Ans: 1800 N]
h. A bus of 900 kg is moving with the velocity 60km/h. If it is stopped at a distance
of 50m by applying brakes, calculate the force required to stop the bus.
[Ans: 2500 N]
i. A truck is moving with the velocity of 45 km/h. The driver applied the brakes
and stopped the truck within 6 seconds. Calculate the retardation and distance
covered by the truck to come to the rest. [Ans: 2.08 m/s², 112.44 m]

1. What is force? Write down its SI unit.
2. Define vector quantity with any two examples.
3. Define 1N force.
4. Which factor does the inertia of a body depend? Write.
5. What is the relation between the mass and inertia of a body?
6. What is retardation? In which condition is it possible?
7. What is displacement?
8. What is acceleration? Write down its unit in SI system.
9. “Every action has equal but opposite reaction.” Which law of Newton is stated by this
statement?
10. State Newton’s first law of motion.
11. State Newton’s second law of motion.
12. What is momentum? On which factors does it depend? Write.
13. What is unbalanced force ? Write with one example.

14. The blades of a fan continue to move for a while even after the switch is turned off.
Why?
15. A coin, kept on a postcard on the glass, drops in the glass when the postcard is flipped
suddenly. Why ? Give reason.
16. Why do passengers fall forward when a moving bus is stopped suddenly? Give
reason.
17. Athletes run a long distance before taking a long jump. Give reason.
18. Write any two differences between velocity and acceleration.
19. A person gets less hurt when he jumps on a muddy floor than that on a hard cemented
floor. Give reason.
20. A boat moves backward when we come out of the boat. What is action and reaction
in this statement?

21. A vehicle is moving with the velocity of 25m/s. If the vehicle is stopped within 5
seconds by applying brakes, calculate the retardation. If the mass of the vehicle is
1000kg, how much force is to be applied to stop it?

22. Prove that: v = u + at
23. What is the relationship among initial velocity, distance covered, acceleration
produced and final velocity of a moving body? Give an example that describes
Newton’s first law of motion.
24. A motorcycle moves with the velocity of 10 m/s and covers a distance of 4 km before
coming to rest. Calculate the retardation and time taken by the motorcycle to cover
the distance.
25. Prove that: F = ma.

26. A truck is moving with the velocity of 72 km/h. When the driver applies brakes, the
truck is stopped in 2 seconds. Calculate the distance covered and retardation of the
truck. If the mass of the truck is 5000 kg, calculate the force applied by the brakes to
stop the truck.
27. The velocity-time graph of a vehicle is given below. Y
Answer the following questions on the basis of
30
this graph. 25
i. What is the velocity of the vehicle at the points velocity 20

b c
15
b, c and d? 10
5
a d
ii. How long did the vehicle move with 0
X
20 30 40 50 60 70
uniform velocity? second
iii. What is the retardation of vehicle after c?
28. Explain Newton’s third law of motion with an example.
29. Write one difference between action and reaction. A bus is moving with the velocity of
60 km/h. By seeing a baby 11m ahead the driver applied the brakes and the retardation
produced is 13.88m/s2. Calculate the distance covered by the bus and time taken to
stop the bus.

UNIT
Machine
3
Before You Begin

We feel very difficult to lift a large stone. But it can be lifted easily
by using a crow-bar. Similarly, we feel difficult to lift water from the
well. This work can be done easily by using a pulley. We use different
types of devices to make our work easy, fast and convenient. These
devices are called machines. The structure and working mechanism
of machines may be simple or complex. Crow-bar, pulley, scissors,
pliers, knife, windlass, screw, axe, etc. are some examples of simple
machines. Similarly, bicycle, motorcycle, sewing machine, printing
press, aeroplane, etc. are the examples of complex machines. A simple
machine is a device having simple structure which is used to make our
work easier, faster and to apply force in a convenient direction. In this
unit, we will study different types of simple machines, mechanical
advantage, velocity ratio, efficiency and moment in detail. Similarly,
we will solve simple numerical problems related to simple machines.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to simple
i. introduce simple machines with examples. machine
ii. ii. describe different types of simple machines • Mechanical advantage (MA)
(lever, pulley, inclined plane, wheel and axle). • Velocity ratio (VR)
iii. iii. define MA, VR and efficiency related to different • Efficiency (h)
simple machines. • Lever
iv. iv. solve the numerical problems related to simple • Pulley, Inclined plane
machines.
• Wheel and axle
v. v. describe the moment in lever with a labelled
figure. • Moment
• Law of moment
• Simple numerical problems
load : the force applied by a machine on a body

effort : the force applied to the machine to do work
mechanical advantage : the ratio of load to the effort
velocity ratio : the ratio of load to the effort
efficiency : the percentage ratio of output work to input work
moment : turning effect produced by force

Simple Machine
Scissors, crow-bar, beam balance, knife, axe, screw driver, forceps, etc. are the devices that
we use in our daily life. These devices have simple structure and they make our work easy
and fast. These devices are called simple machines. A simple machine is a mechanical
device which is simple in structure and makes our work easier and faster. Scissors, knife,
door knob, beam balance, fire tongs, screw, axe, wheel-barrow and crow bar are some
examples of simple machines that we use in our daily life. These machines help us to work
more efficiently, travel faster and perform certain task more accurately. Simple machines
can be operated manually. We do not need cell, diesel and petrol to operate them.
Fig.
3.1
Wheel barrow Scissors Knife Screw driver
Simple machines are very useful to us. The major advantages of simple machines are as
follows:
1. Simple machines help to multiply the effort applied.
2. They help to apply force in convenient direction by changing the direction of force
applied.
3. They help to increase the speed of work.
4. They help to do the work safely and easily.
Terminology Related to Simple Machines
1. Effort
Effort is the force applied to a machine to do work. Its SI unit is newton (N). Without
effort, simple machines cannot be operated.
2. Load
Load is the force applied by the machine on the body on which work is done. Its SI unit is
newton (N). Load is the effect of effort applied on a machine.
3. Mechanical advantage
By using a simple machine, a heavy load can be lifted by applying less effort. It makes
our work easier. Mathematically, it is called mechanical advantage. The ratio of the load
to the effort applied is called mechanical advantage. It is denoted by MA. It is affected
by friction and weight of a machine.
Load (L)
Mechanical advantage (MA) =
Effort (E)
Mechanical advantage (MA) has no unit as it is the ratio of two forces. The MA of a simple
machine is 2 means that an effort applied on the machine can lift two times heavier load.
4. Velocity ratio
The ratio of the distance travelled by effort to the distance travelled by load is called
velocity ratio. It is denoted by VR. It has no unit as it is the ratio of two distances.
Distance travelled by effort Effort arm
Velocity Ratio (VR) = =
Distance travelled by load Load arm
Effort arm
\ VR =
Load arm
The velocity ratio of a simple machine is 3 means that the load moves three times less the
effort. The VR of a machine is more than MA because VR is not affected by friction.
Differences between Mechanical advantage (MA) and Velocity ratio (VR)

Mechanical advantage (MA) Velocity ratio (VR)
1. It is the ratio of load to the effort 1. It is the ratio of effort distance to the
applied. load distance.
2. It is affected by friction. 2. It is not affected by friction.
5. Efficiency
The efficiency of a machine is defined as the percentage ratio of output work to input
work. It is expressed in percentage and denoted by letter eta (h).
Output work
Efficiency (h) = × 100%
Input work
The work done by a machine is called output work. It is the product of load and distance
travelled by load. Similarly, the work done on a machine is called input work. It is the
product of effort and the distance travelled by effort.
In short, Output work = Load × distance travelled by load
Input work = Effort × distance travelled by effort
Relation among MA, VR and h of a machine

We know,
Output work
Input work
Load × load distance
= × 100%
Effort × effort distance

Load
Effort
= × 100%
Effort distance
Load distance
MA
= × 100%
VR
MA
\ h = VR × 100%
Efficiency of a machine can also be defined as the percentage ratio of mechanical advantage
(MA) and velocity ratio (VR) of a machine. It has no unit as it is the ratio of two similar
physical quantities, i.e. work done. The efficiency of a practical machine is always less
than 100%.
Perfect machine or Ideal machine

The machine in which the output work
is equal to the input work is called perfect Do You Know
machine or ideal machine. It is the machine The efficiency of a machine is 90% means
without friction. The efficiency of an ideal that 90% of the input work is converted
machine is 100%. However, in practice, no into useful output work and 10% of the
input work is wasted to overcome the
machine is 100% efficient. The output work friction and to move the parts of the
is always less than input work because: machine.
i. a part of input work is wasted in
overcoming friction and
ii. a part of input work is wasted in moving the parts of the machine.
Therefore, the efficiency of a practical machine is always less than 100%.
Differences between Practical machine and Perfect (Ideal) machine

Practical machine Perfect (Ideal) machine
1. Its efficiency is always less than 100%. 1. Its efficiency is 100%.
2. In this machine, output work is less 2. In this machine, output work is equal
than input work. to input work.
3. In this machine, MA is less than VR. 3. In this machine, MA is equal to VR.

Solved Numerical: 1
A load of 2000 N is lifted by a machine applying 500 N effort. Calculate the MA, VR and
h of the machine. The load distance and effort distance are 10 cm and 50 cm respectively.
Given,
Load = 2000 N
Effort = 500 N
Load distance = 10 cm
Effort distance = 50 cm
We know,
Load 2000N
MA = = =4
Effort 500N
Effort distance 50 cm
VR = = =5
Load distance 10 cm
MA 4
h = × 100% = × 100% = 80%
VR 5
\ The MA, VR and h of the machine are 4, 5 and 80% respectively.
Types of Simple Machine

There are six types of simple machines which are as follows:
1. Lever 2. Pulley 3. Inclined plane
4. Wheel and axle 5. Screw 6. Wedge
In this unit, we will study lever and its types, pulley, inclined plane and wheel and axle.
1. Lever
A lever is a rigid, straight or bent bar which is capable of turning about a fixed point or
an axis called its fulcrum. A lever consists of fulcrum, effort arm and load arm. See-saw,
scissors, beam balance, wheel-barrow, bottle-opener, fire-tongs and nut-cracker are some
examples of lever.
Load
(L) Fulcrum (F)
Load arm Effort arm
Fig.
Effort (E)
3.2
A typical lever
The fixed point about which a lever can rotate freely is called fulcrum. The perpendicular
distance of the load from the fulcrum is called the load arm and the perpendicular distance
of the effort from the fulcrum is called the effort arm. We used different types of lever in
our daily life.
Principle of lever
When a lever is in equilibrium, the input work is always equal to the output work. In
other words, the product of load and load arm is equal to the product of effort and effort
arm.
In short,
Input work = Output work
or, Effort × Effort arm = Load × Load arm
Classification of lever
There are three classes of levers on the basis of the location of the fulcrum, load and effort.
They are as follows:
a. First class lever b. Second class lever c Third class lever
a. First class lever

The lever in which fulcrum is located in between load and effort is called first class lever.
Scissors, beam balance, crow-bar, nail-cutter, handle of water pump and pliers are some
common examples of first class levers used in our daily life.
Fig.
3.3
Scissors Pliers Beam balance Handle of water
pump
First class levers are used to increase the rate of doing work, change the direction of force and
multiply the effort. The MA of first class lever may be more than one, one or less than one.
b. Second class lever

The lever in which load is located in between fulcrum and effort is called second class
lever. Nut-cracker, wheel-barrow, oar of a boat, bottle-opener, lemon-squeezer and
mango-cutter are some examples of second class lever.
Fig.
3.4
Wheel barrow Lemon squeezer Nut cracker Bottle opener
Since the load lies in between the effort and fulcrum, the effort arm is always longer than
the load arm in a second class lever. So, the MA of a second class lever is always more than
1. By applying less effort, a large load can be lifted by using these levers. Thus, second
class levers always act as force multipliers.
c. Third class lever

The lever in which effort is located in between fulcrum and load is called third class lever.
Fire tongs, human arm, fishing rod, shovel and broom are some examples of third class
lever.
Fig.
3.5
Fire tongs Fishing rod Shovel Human arm
In third class lever, as effort lies in between the fulcrum
and load, the effort arm is always smaller than the load
arm. So the MA of third class lever is always less than 1.
Third class levers act as speed multipliers, e.g. a bread Fig.
knife cuts the entire bread slice by moving less effort
distance.
3.6
Activity 1
Name any ten levers that are used at your home.
Study the structure of each of them and identify the position of load, effort and
fulcrum in each of them.
Classify these levers on the basis of the position of fulcrum, load and effort.
Solved Numerical: 2
A load of 800 N is lifted by applying 200 N effort. If the distance between fulcrum and
load is 25 cm, calculate the effort distance.
Given,
Load = 800 N
Effort = 200 N
Load distance = 25 cm
Effort distance = ?
We know,
Effort × Effort distance = Load × load distance

Load × Load distance
or, Effort distance =
Effort
800 × 25
=
200
= 4 × 25
= 100 cm
\ Effort distance = 100 cm
Solved Numerical: 3
One metre long lever is used to lift a load of 1500 N by applying 400 N effort. If the load
arm is 20 cm, calculate MA, VR and h of the lever.
Given,
Length of lever = 1 m = 100 cm
Load arm = 20 cm
\ Effort arm = (100 – 20) cm = 80 cm
Load = 1500 N
Effort = 400 N
We know,
Load 1500
MA = = = 3.75
Effort 400
Effort arm 80
VR = = =4
Load arm 20
MA 3.75
h = × 100% = × 100% = 93.75%
VR 4
\ The MA, VR and h of the machine is 3.75, 4 and 93.75% respectively.
2. Pulley
In rural areas, people use pulleys to lift water from well. Pulleys are also used to lift
heavy loads in upstairs in large buildings. Have you seen people lifting water from a
well using a pulley? Have you observed the structure of a pulley? It consists of a circular
disc having a groove over which a rope is passed. A simple machine having a groove in
circular metallic disc or wooden disc over which a rope passes is called pulley. In a pulley,
the load is connected to one end of the rope and effort is applied at another end. When the
rope moves, the disc rotates.

Types of pulley
There are two types of pulleys on the basis of mobility. They are as follows:
i. Fixed pulley
Do You Know
ii. Movable pulley
Pulley is commonly used to lift heavy loads.
Pulley makes our work easier by changing the
direction of force applied.
i. Fixed pulley
If a pulley remains at a fixed point and does not move up and down along with load, it is
called a fixed pulley. The wheel of a fixed pulley rotates about an axle fixed to a support
and does not move as the load is raised.
In a single fixed pulley, a rope passes over the

groove of the pulley, one end of which is connected
to the load and effort is applied at the other end
of the rope. Effort is applied downward and the
load can be raised upward. So, it is used to change
the direction of applied force. A fixed pulley is
generally used to lift water from a well and in a flag
pole to raise the flag. In a single fixed pulley, the
Fig.
Load
effort distance is always equal to load distance. So,
VR of a single fixed pulley is 1. Effort
3.7
Single fixed pulley
ii. Movable pulley

A movable pulley is the pulley which moves up and Effort
down along with the load and is not fixed at a point. Rope
In this pulley, one end of rope is fixed at a point and
the effort is applied at the another end. The load is
connected to the axle of the pulley. Single movable
pulley acts as a force multiplier because in this pulley,
load is equal to twice the effort. In a single movable Pulley
pulley, the effort distance is two times more than that
of load distance. Therefore, the VR of a single movable
pulley is 2.
Do You Know
Fig.
In a single movable pulley, the effort applied to Load

lift a load is shared equally by both parts of a rope 3.8
supporting the pulley. So, we can lift load two times Single movable pulley
heavy by applying an effort on a single movable pulley.
In a movable pulley, downward effort can be used to overcome the load and pull upward.

iii. Block and tackle system or mixed pulley
Fixed pulley block
In block and tackle system, two or more
pulleys are used in a combined form. This
system consists of two sets of pulleys and each Fixed end of rope
set has two or more pulleys. In this system, all

the pulleys of the same size are adjusted in a
Spring balance reading
common axle. Fixed end of rope the effort force
Block and tackle system makes our work
Fig.
Moving pulley block
easier and faster by:
Load
i. multiplying the force applied. 3.9 Slotted masses
ii. changing the direction of the force Block and tackle system
applied.
The velocity ratio of block and tackle system is equal to the number of pulleys in the
system. For example, if a pulley system contains 4 pulleys, its VR is 4.
The MA, VR and efficiency of a pulley can be calculated by the given formulae.
MA (mechanical advantage) of a pulley

Load
MA =
Effort
VR (velocity ratio) of a single fixed pulley
VR = 1
VR of a single movable pulley

VR = 2 (No. of rope segments that supports the load)
VR of a block and tackle system

VR = No. of pulleys in the system
Efficienty (h) of a pulley

MA
VR
Solved Numerical: 4
In a block and tackle system of 6 pulleys, a load of 5000 N is lifted by an effort of 1000 N.
Calculate MA, VR and h of the pulley system.
Solution:
No. of pulleys in the system = 6
\ VR of the pulley system = 6
Load = 5000 N
Effort = 1000 N
Load 5000
\ MA = = =5
Effort 1000

Now,
MA 5
Efficiency (h) = × 100% = × 100% = 83.33%
VR 6
\ The MA, VR and h of the pulley system are 5, 6 and 83.33% respectively.
Activity 2
Go to the science laboratory.
Take a single fixed pulley, a single movable pulley and a block and tackle system.
Collect a spring balance, thread, various weights and meter scale.
Calculate MA, VR and efficiency of these pulleys one by one.
Types of pulley Load Effort VR Load Effort MA Efficiency

distance distance
1. Single fixed
pulley
2. Single
movable
pulley
3. Block and
tackle system
What can you conclude from this activity?
3. Inclined plane
We know that it is very difficult to climb up
hilly areas by vehicles without winding roads.
Similarly, it is very difficult to load a heavy drum
of kerosene into a truck. But it can be lifted easily
by using a wooden plank. So a plane (a wooden
plank) which makes an angle with the horizontal
plane and is used to push things upward is called
Fig.
inclined plane. It is considered as a simple machine

because it makes work easier and comfortable by 3.10
carrying heavy loads.
Fig.
3.11
Ladder Steep road Children slide

Steep road in the hilly region, children’s slide, ladder, wooden plank used to load and
unload, etc. are the examples of inclined plane.
In an inclined plane, the length of the plane acts as an effort distance and the height as
the load distance. So an inclined plane makes our worker easier by increasing the effort
distance since the effort distance in an inclined plane is always longer than the load
distance.
In an inclined plane, the mechanical advantage (MA) is the ratio of load to the effort, i.e.
Load
MA =
Effort
The velocity ratio of an inclined plane is the ratio of effort distance (length of inclined
plane) to the load distance (height of the inclined plane).
Length of inclined plane

VR =
Height of inclined plane
The MA and VR of an inclined plane increases on increasing the length of the inclined
plane keeping its height constant.
The efficiency (h) of inclined plane can be calculated by the given formula.
MA
VR
Solved Numerical: 5
A load of 2400 N is lifted by an effort of 800 N by using an wooden plank. If the length
and height of the plank are 4 m and 1.2 m respectively. Calculate MA, VR and h of the
inclined plane.
Solution:
Given,
Load = 2400 N
Effort = 800 N
Load 2400
\ MA = = =3
Effort 800
Length of inclined plane = 4 m
Height of inclined plane = 1.2 m
Length of inclined plane
\ VR =
Height of inclined plane
4
=
1.2
= 3.33

MA
Now, h = × 100%
VR
3
= × 100%
3.33
= 90.09 %
\ The MA, VR and h of the inclined plane are 3, 3.33 and 90.09% respectively.
Activity 3
Bring three wooden planks of 50 cm, 100 cm and 200 cm length.
Put these planks inclining on a bench. Measure the height of the bench with a ruler.
Take a kinetic trolley, spring balance and thread.
Measure the weight of the trolley with a spring balance.
Now, pull the kinetic trolley on the surface of wooden planks one by one and
measure the effort required in each case.
Calculate MA, VR and η in each case.
S.N. Slope of Height of VR Load Effort MA Efficiency

inclined plane inclined plane
1. 50 cm
2. 100 cm
3. 200 cm
What can you conclude from this activity? Discuss in your classroom.
4. Wheel and axle

You might have seen simple machines having two
cylinders of different radius like screw driver, knob Wheel
of a tap, the steering of a car, bobbin of a kite, paddle
Axle
of bicycle, etc. These simple machines are examples
of wheel and axle. Wheel and axle is an arrangement
of two co-axial cylinders of different radius attached Rope
to each other. The cylinder which has longer radius
Fig.
is called a wheel and that having a shorter radius is

called an axle. The rope is wound around the wheel
and axle. 3.12 Effort Load
If we rotate the wheel, the axle also rotates and when the wheel completes one rotation,
the axle also completes the same. But distance covered by the wheel is more than the axle
due to different radius. So the effort is applied to the free end of a rope wound around the
wheel and the load is connected to the free end of the rope wound around the axle. The

effort applied on the wheel is magnified and a heavy load of axle will be overcome by a
small effort applied on the wheel.
Fig.
3.13
Steering of a car Screw driver Bobbin of a kite Handle of sewing
machine
In a wheel and axle, mechanical advantage (MA) is calculated by the given formula.
Load
MA =
Effort
In a wheel and axle, the ratio of the radius of wheel to that of axle is called velocity ratio
(VR). The VR of a wheel and axle is calculated by the given formula.
Radius of wheel (R)

VR =
Radius of axle (r)
The efficiency (h) of wheel and axle is calculated by the given formula.
MA
VR
In a wheel and axle, both wheel and axle rotate simultaneously around a common axis. In
this simple machine, the fulcrum lies in between the load and effort. So it can be considered
as a first class lever. Therefore, wheel and axle is called a continuous lever.
Solved Numerical: 6
An effort of 400 N is required to lift a load of 1200 N by using a wheel and axle. If the
radius of the wheel and axle are 20 cm and 5 cm respectively, calculate MA, VR and h of
the wheel and axle.
Solution:
Given,
Effort = 400 N
Load = 1200 N
Load
\ MA =
Effort
1200
=
400
= 3

Now, Radius of wheel (R) = 20 cm
Radius of axle (r) = 5 cm
R
\ VR =
r
20
=
5
= 4
MA
Now, h = × 100%
VR
3
= × 100%
4
= 75 %
\ The MA, VR and h of the inclined plane are 3, 4 and 75% respectively.
Activity 4
Take a wheel and axle.
Lift various loads with the help of the wheel and axle.
Measure the effort applied to lift the load and using spring balance.
Measure the radius of the wheel and that of axle.
Calculate MA, VR and h of the wheel and axle.
Moment
We prefer a long spanner to unscrew a rusted nut than a short spanner. The long spanner
produces more turning effect which makes our work easier. This turning effect produced
by a force is called moment. So, moment can be defined as the turning effect produced by
a force.
The moment produced by a force depends on following two factors.
i. Amount of force (F)
ii. Moment arm (r)
Moment is the product of force and perpendicular distance between the force and axis of
rotation.
Moment can be calculated by the given formula.
Moment = Force × moment arm

The SI unit of moment is newton-metre (Nm)

Activity 5
Take a spanner.
Fit the spanner to a nut.
Apply force from another end of the spanner and try to unscrew.
Change the point of applying force at different distance till you reach at the middle
of the spanner.
Effort
Fig.
Nut
Spanner
3.14
Where do you feel easy to apply force to unscrew the nut? What can you conclude
from this activity?
We feel easy to apply force at the end point of the spanner to unscrew the nut. It is
because the moment increases when the perpendicular distance between the force
and axis of rotation (moment arm) increases.
From above activity, it becomes clear that the moment increases when the moment arm
increases. Therefore, the probability of breaking a tall tree during storm is more than that
of a short one. Similarly, handles of doors are installed on another side of the hinges to
increase the momentum. The steering of a truck is made larger than that of a car to increase
the momentum. The handle of a screw-driver is made larger and wider to produce more
turning effect by increasing moment arm.
Law of moment
Law of moment states that, in an equilibrium condition, the sum of clockwise moments is
equal the sum of anti-clockwise moments.
In short,
Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anti-clockwise moments
Distance 1 Distance 2
pivot
Fig.
Force 1 Force 2
3.15
Solved Numerical: 7
A 25 cm long spanner is used to unscrew a rusted nut. If the effort applied is 20 N, calculate
the moment.
Solution:
Given,
25
Moment arm (r) = 25 cm = = 0.25 m
100
Force or effort (F) = 20 N
Moment = ?
We know,
Moment = F × r = 20 × 0.25 = 5 Nm
\ Moment = 5 Nm
Activity 6
Verification of law of moment
Take a stand with a clamp, a ruler (15 cm), loads of different weights and thread.
Set the apparatus as shown in the given picture.
Stand
Scale (15 cm)
ce
d istan
Load
ce Load
rt distan
Effo
Thread
Fig.
Effort
3.16
Tie some loads and suspend them on both sides of the scale as shown in given
figure.
Shift the loads to different distance so that the scale remains in equilibrium.
Increase weights and repeat the above process for 5 times.
Measure the load, load distance, effort and effort distance in each case.
S.N. Load × Load distance Effort × Effort distance
1
2
3
4
5
Here, the product of load and load distance will be equal to the product of effort and
effort distance in each case in the equilibrium condition. This activity verifies the law
of moment.

Key Concepts
1. A simple machine is a device having simple structure which is used to make our
work easier, faster and to apply force in a convenient direction.
2. A simple machine is a mechanical device which is simple in structure and makes
our work easier and faster.
3. The ratio of the load to the effort applied is called mechanical advantage. It is
denoted by MA.
4. The ratio of the distance travelled by effort to the distance travelled by load is called
velocity ratio.
5. The efficiency of a machine is defined as the percentage ratio of output work to
input work.
6. The machine in which the output work is equal to the input work is called perfect
machine or ideal machine.
7. A lever is a rigid, straight or bent bar which is capable of turning about a fixed point
or an axis called its fulcrum.
8. When a lever is in equilibrium, the input work is always equal to the output work.
In other words, the product of load and load arm is equal to the product of effort
and effort arm.
9. The lever in which fulcrum is located in between load and effort is called first class
lever.
10. The lever in which load is located in between fulcrum and effort is called second
class lever.
11. The lever in which effort is located in between fulcrum and load is called third class
lever.
12. In an inclined plane, the length of the plane acts as an effort distance and the height
as the load distance.
13. The velocity ratio of an inclined plane is the ratio of effort distance (length of
inclined plane) to the load distance (height of the inclined plane).
14. Wheel and axle is an arrangement of two co-axial cylinders of different radius
attached to each other.
15. If we rotate the wheel, the axle also rotates and when the wheel completes one
rotation, the axle also completes the same.
16. The effort applied on the wheel is magnified and a heavy load of axle will be
overcome by a small effort applied on the wheel.
17. In a wheel and axle, both wheel and axle rotate simultaneously around a common
axis. In this simple machine, the fulcrum lies in between the load and effort. So it can
be considered as a first class lever. Therefore, wheel and axle is called a continuous
lever.
18. The turning effect produced by a force is called momentum.
19. Law of moment states that, in an equilibrium condition, the sum of clockwise
moments is equal the sum of anti-clockwise moments.

a. Which of the following is a simple machine?

Car Aeroplane
Crow-bar Sewing machine
b. A load of 200 N is lifted by applying 50 N effort. What is the MA?

50 4 200 100
c. What is the VR of a single movable pulley?

1 2 3 4
d. What is the efficiency of an ideal machine?

50% 25% 100% 90%
e. What is the SI unit of moment?

Ncm N/m Nm N/M

a. Define simple machine with any five examples.
b. What is mechanical advantage of a machine?
c. Define velocity ratio and efficiency.
d. What is meant by output work?
e. What is meant by input work?
f. What is a lever? State the principle of lever.
g. What is a pulley? Why is it used?
h. What is an inclined plane? Write down the formula to calculate MA, VR and h of
an inclined plane.
i. What is a wheel and axle? Why is it used?
j. What is moment? State the law of moment.
k. Write down the factors on which moment depends.
3. Derive the relation between MA, VR and h.

4. Describe the structure of a wheel and axle with a neat and labelled figure.
a. Practical machine and Perfect machine
b. MA and VR
c. Pulley and Wheel and axle
d. Single fixed pulley and Single movable pulley
6. Give reason.
a. VR has no unit.
b. The efficiency of a practical machine is always less than 100%.
c. Wheel and axle is called a continuous lever.
d. The probability of breaking of a tall tree is more than a short one during storm.
e. A long spanner is preferred to unscrew a rusted nut.
7. Numerical problems
a. By using a lever, a load of 1000 N is lifted by an effort of 400 N. If the load arm and
effort arm are 8 cm and 24 cm respectively, calculate MA, VR and efficiency.
[Ans: MA = 2.5, VR = 3, h = 83.33%]
b. In a single movable pulley, a load of 500 N is lifted by applying 300 N effort.
Calculate MA, VR and h. [Ans: MA = 1.66, VR = 2, h = 83.33%]
c. The length and height of an inclined plane are 25 m and 5 m respectively. If a
load of 6000 N is lifted by using 1500 N effort, calculate MA, VR and efficiency
of the inclined plane. [Ans: MA = 4, VR = 5, h = 80%]
d. Study the given figure and calculate MA, VR and efficiency of the given
machine. [Ans: MA = 3, VR = 4, h = 75%]
300 N
900 N
3m
12 m
e. There are four pulleys in a block and tackle system. If a load of 1200 N is lifted
by applying 400 N effort by using that pulley, calculate MA, VR and efficiency of
the pulley system. [Ans: MA = 3, VR = 4, h = 80%]
f. The radius of a wheel and that of an axle are 25 cm and 5 cm respectively. If an
effort of 300 N can lift a loaf of 1000 N. Calculate MA, VR and h of the wheel and
axle. [Ans: MA = 3.33, VR = 5, h = 66.66%]
g. An effort of 50 N is applied to unscrew a rusted nut by using a 30 cm long
spanner. Calculate the moment. [Ans: 15 Nm]

1. Define simple machine.
2. What is velocity ratio? Write down its formula.
3. What is mechanical advantage?
4. What is the velocity ratio of a single fixed pulley?
5. What are the factors that affect the efficiency of a pulley?
6. Define input work and output work.
7. What are the factors that affect the efficiency of a simple machine?
8. What is an inclined plane?
9. What is velocity ratio of an inclined plane?
10. What is a pulley? Why is it used?
11. State the law of moment.
12. What is a wheel and axle?
13. What is a movable pulley?

14. Write down the type of the pulley shown in the given figures and also write down the
velocity ratio of each.
Effort
Load
Effort Load
(a) (b)
15. What is meant by mechanical advantage of a machine is 2? Velocity ratio has no unit.
Why ?
16. What is meant by the velocity ratio of a machine is 4? The efficiency of a machine is
always less than 100%, why ?
17. The efficiency of a machine can be increased by applying oil or grease. Why ?
18. Small spanner is made to open a small nut and long spanner is made to open a big
nut. Why ?
19. The probability of breaking a tree branch increases while moving towards the tip of
the branch. Give reason.
20. A nut is rusted and jammed. We have two wrenches one of length 10cm and another
of 20cm. Which wrench is preferred to unscrew the nut? Give reason also.
21. Write down two advantages of using simple machines. Why is it impossible to get a
perfect machine in practice?
22. Draw a neat and labelled figure of a block and tackle system.
23. How can we increase the efficiency of a simple machine? Give any two methods.
Write any two applications of simple machine.
24. What are two factors that affect the turning effect of force (moment)? No one machine
has 100% efficiency. Justify this statement.

25. A simple machine of velocity ratio 20 is used to lift a load of 600N by applying an
effort of 40N. Calculate the mechanical advantage and efficiency of the machine.
26. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of each of the given simple
machines.
a. pulley system having three pulleys
b. wheel and axle
350N
27. Study the given diagram and calculate the mechanical advantage,
velocity ratio and efficiency.
28. A 15cm long spanner is used to open a rusted nut of a bicycle. If
the effort is 50N, calculate the moment produced. Write any two
differences between ideal machine and practical machine. 500N Load
29. A load is lifted by using an inclined plane in the given diagram.
Answer the following questions.
a. What is the efficiency of the given 25 N
machine?
b. Calculate the output work and
200 N
input work when the load is raised 0.5 m
up. 5m
c. What should be the length of the
inclined plane if the same load is
lifted by an effort of 50N without changing the efficiency?

UNIT
Energy, Work and
4 Power
Before You Begin

If a person can do a lot of work, we say the person is very energetic.
Energy of a body is the capacity or ability of a body to work. Living
beings cannot survive in the absence of energy. Similarly, energy
is required to operate machines in industries, to run automobiles
and so on. Work is said to be done when the force acting on a body
produces motion in it in the direction of the force. In SI system, work
is measured in joule (J). The rate of doing work is called power. Its
SI unit is watt (W). Energy, work and power are interrelated to each
other.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to energy, work
i. introduce energy, work and power and explain the and power
relationship among them. • Relationship among energy,
ii. explain the transformation of energy and work and power
demonstrate it. • Transformation of energy
iii. write the formula to calculate energy, work and • Simple numerical problems
power. related to energy, work and
iv. solve simple numerical problems related to energy, power
work and power.
energy : the capacity of doing work

work : the product of force and displacement
power : the rate of doing work
potential energy : the form of energy that an object gains when it is lifted
kinetic energy : the form of energy that an object gains when it moves
transformation : conversion of one form of a substance into another
nuclear : related to nucleus of an atom
gravity : the force with which a body is pulled towards the surface of the earth or a
planet
Energy
We cannot work for a long time without having
food. We get energy from the food to do work.
The capacity or ability of a body to do work is
called energy. Living beings get energy from food.
So, plants and animals cannot survive without
food. In SI system, energy is measured in joule (J)
and in CGS system, it is measured in erg, where
1J = 107erg. Energy is a scalar quantity. There are
different forms of energy.
Energy provides force to do work. The object
Fig.
having no energy cannot do work. Whenever work
is done, energy is consumed. 4.1
Kinds of Energy
There are different forms of energy in nature. They are mechanical energy, chemical
energy, sound energy, heat energy, light energy, electrical energy, nuclear energy and
magnetic energy.
1. Mechanical energy
Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its state of motion or of
position. It is of two types:
i. Kinetic energy (KE)
ii. Potential energy (PE)
i. Kinetic energy
We have seen that a moving hammer can do work on a nail it strikes. Similarly, running
water can rotate a turbine. It is possible due to kinetic energy. The energy possessed by
a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. Running water, blowing air, the
bullet fired from a gun, moving vehicle, rolling ball, etc. possess kinetic energy. Running
water and blowing air have kinetic energy. So we can rotate a turbine with the help of
running water and blowing air to generate electricity.
1
Formula for Kinetic Energy (KE = mv2)
2
Let us consider a body of mass
'm' at rest (u = 0) is moving Football Football
with an acceleration 'a'. Let 'v' u=0
F
Fig.
be the final velocity of the body a

in moving the distance 's'.
4.2 s
According to the equation of
motion,

v2 = u2 + 2as
or, v2 = 0 + 2as [ u = 0]
v2
or, s = ........................... (1)
2a
Now, Kinetic energy (KE) = Work done (W)
KE = F × s [ W = F × s]
q v2 r
F=m×a
v2
KE = ma ×

2a s=
mv2 2a
KE =
2
1
\ KE = mv2
2
From the above relation, it becomes clear that the kinetic energy (KE) of the body is
directly proportional to the mass and square of the velocity of the moving body.
In short,
KE ∝ m ........................... (1)
KE ∝ v2 ........................... (2)
Activity 1
Take a volleyball. Throw it slowly and ask your friend to catch the ball. Repeat this
activity by increasing the speed of the ball while throwing. Ask your friend to say the
difference while catching the ball in both cases. More force is required to catch the ball
thrown at a high speed than that in a low speed.
Repeat the above activity with a tennis ball. The mass of a volleyball is more than
that of a tennis ball. So less force is required to catch a tennis ball than that to catch
a volleyball thrown at the same speed.
This activity proves that kinetic energy increases with increase in mass and velocity
of the moving body and vice-versa.
Solved Numerical: 1
A bullet of mass 20g is moving with the velocity of 200 km/h. Calculate the kinetic energy.
Given,
Mass of bullet (m) = 20 g
20
= kg [ 1kg = 1000 g]
1000
= 0.02 kg

Velocity (v) = 200 km/h
q r
1 km = 1000 m
200 × 1000
= m/s 1 hr. = 60 min.
60 × 60 1 min. = 60 sec.
= 55.55m/s
\ Kinetic energy (KE) = ?
1
KE = mv2
2
1
= × 0.02 × (55.55)2
2
= 30.85 J
\ Kinetic energy (KE) = 30.85 J
ii. Potential energy

The potential energy of a body is defined as the energy possessed by the body by virtue
of its position or configuration (change in shape or size). The energy stored in the stone
lifted from the ground, stored water in a dam, stretched spring, stretched elastic, etc. are
some examples of the objects having potential energy.
Formula of Potential Energy (PE = mgh)

Let us consider a body of mass 'm' is lifted to a height of Football
'h' from the surface of the ground.
Mass (m)
Then,
Potential energy (PE) = Work done (W)
or, PE = F × s [ W = F × s]
Height (h)
or, PE = mg × h [ F = mg, s = h]
Fig.
or, PE = mgh
\ PE = mgh 4.3
Solved Numerical: 2
A stone of mass 12 kg is located at a height of 25 m from the ground. Calculate the potential
energy stored in the stone. [Take g = 9.8 m/s2.]
Given,
Mass (m) = 12 kg

Height (h) = 25 m
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s2
Potential energy (PE) = ?
We know,
PE = mgh = 12 × 9.8 × 25 = 2940 J
\ Potential energy (PE) = 2940 J
Activity 2
Take a catapult. Stretch the elastic of the catapult and throw a pebble in an open
place. Be careful while throwing the pebble as it may hit birds, animals or people.
Which energy helps to throw the pebble? Name the type of energy present in the
stretched elastic of the catapult.
Differences between Potential energy and Kinetic energy

Potential energy Kinetic energy
1. It is the energy possessed by a body by 1. It is the energy possessed by a body by
virtue of its position or configuration. virtue of its motion.
2. It can be calculated by formula: 2. It can be calculated by the formula:
PE = mgh KE = 1mv²
2
2. Heat energy
We get heat energy from hot objects. The form of
energy which gives the sensation of warmth is called
heat energy. Electric heater, sun, burning coal, etc. are
some sources of heat energy. The burning of diesel
Fig.
in a truck engine provides the energy needed to run

the truck. Similarly, the heat energy produced from
burning fire is used to cook food. 4.4
Burning coal
3. Light energy
We cannot see objects in a dark room. So we need
light to see things. Light is a form of energy which
makes things visible. Light is produced by extremely
hot objects. The sun, lantern, torch light, electric bulb,
kerosene lamp, etc. are some sources of light energy.
The sun is the main source of light energy for the
Fig.
earth. Green plans use sunlight to prepare food by

photosynthesis. Similarly, sunlight can be used to
produce electricity by using photo cell or solar panel. 4.5
The sun
4. Chemical energy
We get energy stored in the food we eat. When petrol is burnt in the engine of a car, the
chemical energy stored in petrol is used to run the car. The energy stored in a matter is
called chemical energy. Bread, coal, petrol, diesel, battery, wood, oil, etc. have chemical
energy stored in them. The chemical energy is released when chemical change takes place.
Some sources of chemical energy are given below:
Fig.
4.6
Bread Kerosene Cell
5. Electrical energy
The form of energy which is produced due to
continuous flow of electrons is called electrical energy.
A cell, photocell, battery, generator, etc. are the sources
of electrical energy. Electrical energy is used to rotate
Fig.
fans, drive trains, light bulbs, operate equipment

like television, computer, camera and mobile phone. 4.7
Electrical energy can be changed into heat, light, Lighting CFL
sound, mechanical energy, etc. So, it is widely used
throughout the world.
6. Sound energy
When we ring a temple bell, it produces sound. Sound
energy is the form of energy which is produced due
to the vibration of a material medium. A vibrating
body possesses sound energy. Loudspeaker, radio,
Fig.
television, horn of vehicles, temple bell, etc. are some

sources of sound energy.
4.8
Sound can be experienced as a form of energy when Loudspeaker produces sound
the window panes shatter due to an explosion or when
loud sound is produced by a low-flying aeroplane.

7. Magnetic energy
The energy obtained from a magnet is called
magnetic energy. It is used in electric bell,
loudspeaker, mobile phone, television, radio,
etc. Similarly, magnetic energy is used to
generate electricity. A magnet attracts iron,
Fig.
nickel, cobalt, etc. due to magnetic energy.
A magnet consists of numerous molecular
magnets. 4.9
Magnet attracting iron nails
8. Nuclear energy
The energy obtained from the nucleus of an atom is called nuclear energy. This energy
can produce a large amount of heat and light energy. Nuclear energy is used in atomic
power plants to produce electricity. Similarly, nuclear energy is used for making atom
bomb, hydrogen bomb, etc. Nuclear energy is produced due to nuclear fusion or nuclear
fission reaction.
Work
Work is said to be done when the force acting on a body produces motion in it in the direction
of the force. In other words, work done is defined as the product of force and displacement.
In the SI system, work is measured in joule (J) or newton-metre (Nm).
Formula of work done

Work done (W) = Force (F) × Displacement (s) \ W=F×s
One joule work

When one newton force displaces a body through a distance of one metre, the work done
is called one joule.
In short,
1 joule = 1 newton × 1 metre [ W = F × s]
No mechanical work is done when a student studies for 2-3 hours sitting on a chair.
Similarly, no work is done by a teacher teaching a class. Work is said to be done only if
the force applied to a body succeeds in moving it. When a person pushes a wall, no work
is done because the wall does not cover distance. But work is done when a person pushes
a cart because the cart covers some distance. Therefore, the work done by a body depends
on:
a. The magnitude of force applied (F)
b. The distance covered in the direction of the force (s) applied

Fig.
4.10
A man pushing a wall (No work is done) A man pushing a cart (Some work is done)
Types of Work
There are two types of work. They are:
1. Work done against friction 2. Work done against gravity
1. Work done against friction

The work done by pushing or pulling an object on a surface is called work done against
friction. For example, work done by pulling a wooden log on the road, work done by
pushing a cart, etc.
2. Work done against gravity

Do You Know
The work done by lifting a body vertically
Friction is the force which opposes the
upward from the earth's surface is called work
motion of a body moving on other body
done against gravity. For example, work done when they are in contact.
by a crane by lifting a wooden log vertically
upward from the ground.
Formula of work done against gravity

Work done against gravity (W) = Force × displacement
or, W = Weight × height [ Force = Weight (mg), Displacement = Height (h)]
\ W = mgh
Solved Numerical: 3
A force of 375 N displaces a body through 35 m. Calculate the work done.
Given,
Force (F) = 375 N
Displacement (s) = 35 m
Work done (W) = ?

We know,
W =F×s
= (375 × 35) Nm
= 13125 J
\ Work done (W) = 13125 J.
Solved Numerical: 4
A crane lifts a wooden log of 500 kg upto a height of 25 m from the earth's surface.
Calculate the work done against gravity. [Take g = 9.8 m/s2.]
Given,
Mass of wooden log (m) = 500 kg
height (h) = 25 m
Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s2
Work done (W) = ?
We know,
W = mgh
= 500 × 9.8 × 25
= 122500 J
\ The work done against gravity (W) = –122500 J.
Transformation of Energy
We need different forms of energy in our day to day life. Therefore, we convert one form
of energy into another. A candle consists of chemical energy. When the candle is burnt,
chemical energy transforms into light and heat energy. So, the process in which one form
of energy is converted into another is called transformation of energy. An electric bulb
converts electrical energy into light and heat energy, a solar cell converts light energy into
electrical energy and a loudspeaker converts electrical energy into sound energy. These
are some examples of transformation of energy.
Light and heat

energy
Wax (Chemical
energy)
Fig.
4.11

Some examples of energy transformation and the devices required are as follows:
S.N. Devices Energy transformation

1. Electric bulb Electrical energy → Light energy and heat energy
2. Cell or battery Chemical energy → Electrical energy
3. Loud speaker Electrical energy → Sound energy
4. Microphone Sound energy → Electrical energy
5. Television Electrical energy → Light and sound energy
6. Electric motor Electrical energy → Mechanical energy
7. Dynamo or generator Mechanical energy → Electrical energy
8. Electromagnet Electrical energy → Magnetic energy
9. Solar cell / panel Light energy → Electrical energy
10. Heater Electrical energy → Heat energy
1. Transformation of energy while lighting a torchlight

Battery Copper wire Bulb
Chemical energy Electrical energy Light energy +
Heat energy
2. Transformation of energy in hydroelectric project

Water stored in Rotating Electricity
Running water
a dam turbine in coil
Potential energy Kinetic energy Kinetic energy Electrical
energy
Law of conservation of energy

According to law of conservation of energy, “Energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed. Energy can only be changed from one form to another.”
Activity 2
Take a cell, two pieces of copper wire, a bulb and a bulb holder.
Connect these materials to light the bulb.
What type of transformation of energy occurs here? Discuss in your class.
Power
Power can be defined as the rate of doing work. The SI unit of work done is joule (J) and
that of time is second (s). So the SI unit of power is J/s or W (watt). Power is also measured
in kilowatt (kW), megawatt (MW), horsepower (h.p.), etc.
Formula to calculate power (P)
Work done (W)
Power (P) =
Time taken (t)
\ W
P=
t
From the above relation, it becomes clear that power (P) depends on two factors, viz.
amount of work done (W) and time taken (t).
Two machines that do the same amount of work can have different power. For example, machine
A completes 200 J work in 5 seconds. But machine B completes 200 J work in 10 seconds.
W 200
Power of machine A (PA) = = = 40 W
t 5
W 200
Power of machine B (PB) = = = 20 W
t 10
From the above calculation, it becomes clear that when a body takes lesser time to do a
particular work, the power is said to be greater and vice-versa.
One watt power

One watt power can be defined as the rate of doing one joule work in a time of one second.
1 joule
In short, 1 watt =
1 second
Meaning of 1000 W written on an electric heater: It means that the electric heater converts
1000 J of electrical energy into heat energy in 1 second.
1000 J
\ 1000 W =
1s
The relation among watt (W), kilowatt (kW), megawatt (MW) and horse power (h.p.):
1000 W = 1 kW
1000 kW = 1 MW
746 W = 1 h.p.
Solved Numerical: 5
A man pulls a cart of 80 kg and covers a distance of 40 m in 10 seconds. Calculate the
power of the man.
Given,
Mass (m) = 80 kg
\ Weight or Force (F) = m × g
or, Force (F) = 80 × 9.8 [ g = 9.8 m/s2]
= 784 N
Distance (s) = 40 m
time (t) = 10 s
We know,
W
P =
t
F×s
=
t
784 × 40
=
10
= 3136 W
\ Power of the man (P) = 1336 W
Solved Numerical: 6
A crane lifts a load of 80000 N upto a height of 50 m in 10 seconds. Calculate the power of
the crane in horsepower.
Given,
Load (F) = 80000 N
Height (h) = 50 m
Time (t) = 10 s
Power (P) = ?
We know,
W
P =
t
F×h
= [ W = F × h]
t
80000 × 50
=
10
= 400000 W
400000
= h.p. [ 1 h.p. = 746 W]
746
= 536.19 h.p.
\ Power of the crane (P) = 536.19 h.p.

Comparative study of energy, work and power
Energy Work Power
1. It is the capacity of 1. It is the product of force 1. It is the rate of doing

doing work. and displacement. work.
2. Its SI unit is J. 2. Its SI unit is J. 2. Its SI unit is W.
3. It is not affected by time. 3. It is not affected by time. 3. It is affected by time.
Relation Among Energy, Work and Power

There is a close relationship among energy, work and power. Energy is the capacity of
a body to do work. A person or object cannot do work without energy. Human beings
cannot do work without energy and they eat food to get energy. After digestion, the
chemical energy present in food changes into muscular energy. We use muscular energy
to do various types of work. Work is the product of force and displacement. It is the effect
of energy.
Power is the rate of doing work. It is the rate of transformation of energy. Work done does
not depend on the time taken but the time taken to do a particular work determines the
power. Two machines or person that perform the same amount of work can have different
power. The capacity of a body to do work is called energy and the rate of doing work is
called power. Therefore, energy, work and power are interrelated to each other.
Key Concepts
1. The capacity or ability of a body to do work is called energy.
2. Energy provides force to do work. The object having no energy cannot do work.
3. Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by a body due to its state of motion or
of position.
4. The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.
Running water, blowing air, the bullet fired from a gun, moving vehicle, rolling
ball, etc. possess kinetic energy.
5. The potential energy of a body is defined as the energy possessed by the body by
virtue of its position or configuration (change in shape or size).
6. The form of energy which gives the sensation of warmth is called heat energy.
7. Light is a form of energy which makes things visible. Light is produced by extremely
hot objects.
8. The energy stored in a matter is called chemical energy.
9. The form of energy which is produced due to continuous flow of electrons is called
electrical energy.

10. A vibrating body possesses sound energy. Loudspeaker, radio, television, horn of
vehicles, temple bell, etc. are some sources of sound energy.
11. The energy obtained from a magnet is called magnetic energy. It is used in electric
bell, loudspeaker, mobile phone, television, radio, etc.
12. Nuclear energy is used in atomic power plants to produce electricity. Similarly,
nuclear energy is used for making atom bomb, hydrogen bomb, etc.
13. Work done is defined as the product of force and displacement. In the SI system,
work is measured in joule (J) or newton-metre (Nm).
14. The work done by pushing or pulling an object on a surface is called work done
against friction.
15. The work done by lifting a body vertically upward from the earth’s surface is called
work done against gravity.
16. Power can be defined as the rate of doing work. The SI unit of work done is joule
(J) and that of time is second (s). So the SI unit of power is J/s or W (watt).
17. There is a close relationship among energy, work and power.

a. Which of the following is the main source of heat energy?
heater moon bulb candle
b. ....................... energy is produced due to vibration of a material medium.
heat light sound chemical
c. Which of the following consists of kinetic energy?
burning coal runing wayer
light bulb ringing bell
d. Which of the given devices converts electrical energy into heat energy?
television battery heater bulb
e. The SI unit of power is .......................
J Nm W Js

a. What is energy? Write down its SI unit.
b. Name any five forms of energy.
c. Define mechanical energy with any two examples.
d. What is potential energy? Write down the formula to calculate potential energy.
e. Name the factors on which potential energy depends.
f. Name the factors which affect kinetic energy.
g. Define kinetic energy with any two examples.
h. What is chemical energy? Name any three objects having chemical energy.
i. Define heat energy and light energy. Write any two sources of heat energy.
j. What is nuclear energy? Write its two applications.
k. What is meant by work done? Define one joule work.
l. Define work against friction.
m. What is meant by work done against gravity? Give one example.
n. What is meant by transformation of energy? Give any two examples.
o. What is power? Write its SI unit.
p. Define one watt power.
q. Write down the relation between energy and power.
3. Name the devices that convert the following.

a. Electrical energy into light energy
b. Electrical energy into mechanical energy
c. Light energy into electrical energy
d. Mechanical energy into sound energy
e. Electrical energy into sound energy
f. Electrical energy into heat energy
g. Sound energy into electrical energy
h. Electrical energy into magnetic energy
4. Prove that:
1
a. PE = mgh b. KE = mv2
2
a. Kinetic energy and Potential energy
b. Work and Power
c. Heat energy and Sound energy
d. Energy and Power
e. Light energy and Magnetic energy
6. Name the form of energy present in the given objects/devices.

a. Photo cell b. Petrol
c. Running water d. Water stored in a dam
e. Stretched catapult f. Bullet fired from a gun

g. Lighting bulb h. Ringing bell
i. Tuning radio j. Battery
k. Coal l. Bread
m. Kerosene n. Rolling football
o. Compressed spring
a. A bicycle of 15 kg is moving with the velocity of 10 m/s. Calculate the kinetic
energy. [Ans: 750 J]
b. Calculate the potential energy stored in a metal ball of a mass of 80 kg kept at a
height of 15 m from the earth's surface. What will be the potential energy when
the metal ball is kept on the earth's surface. [Take g = 9.8 m/s2] [Ans: 11760 J, 0J]
200 kg
c. Study the given figure and calculate the potential energy.

[Take g = 9.8 m/s2] [Ans: 98000 J]
50 m
d. A bullet of mass of 50 g is moving with the velocity of 200 km/h. Calculate the
kinetic energy of the bullet. [Ans: 77.16 J]
e. A bullet moving with the velocity of 200 km/h has the kinetic energy of 77.16 J.
Calculate the mass of the bullet. [Ans: 50 g]
f. A man lifts a load of 40 kg to a height of 16 m. Calculate the work done against
gravity. [Ans: 6272 J]
g. A person carries an object 20 m away by applying 500 N force. Calculate the
work done. [Ans: 10000 J]
h. How much work is done while pushing a box of mass of 35 kg at a distance of 20
m? [Ans: 6860 J]
i. A crane lifts a load of 6000 N at the height of 20 m in 5 seconds. Calculate the
power of the crane in horse power. [Ans: 32.17 h.p.]
j. Suman with a mass of 45 kg climbs a 3m high ladder in 10 seconds. Calculate her
power. [Ans: 132.3W]
k. A person carries a load of 150 N and covers a distance of 40 m in 40 minutes.
Calculate his power. [Ans: 2.5 W]
l. Calculate the work done when a body of mass 100 kg is displaced 10 m with the
acceleration of 5 m/s². [Ans: 5000 J]
m. Ramita of 50 kg mass climbs a stair of 20 steps in 40 s. If each step has 25 cm
height, calculate her power. [Ans: 62.25 W]

1. What is energy? In which unit is it measured?
2. What is work done? Write down its formula and SI unit.
3. Define 1 joule work done.
4. What are the conditions required for work to be done?
5. Write the “law of conservation of energy”.
6. Name any two sources of electrical energy.
7. Define power and write its SI unit.
8. What is “one watt power”?
9. What is transformation of energy?
10. Name the equipment which converts energy as indicated below:
a. Electrical energy into heat energy
b. Sound energy into electrical energy
11. Which factors does the power of a body depend on?
12. What is chemical energy?
13. Write down the formula to calculate the work done against gravity.

14. Write any two differences between work and power.
15. No work is done when a person is standing by carrying a load of 50kg for one hour.
Give reason.
16. Electrical energy is widely used among the various types of energy. Give reason.
17. What is meant by the statement that the power of an electric bulb is 60W?
18. How much potential energy is present in a stone kept on the earth’s surface? Why?
19. The cricket player which catches the ball wears gloves. Give reason.
20. What is meant by the statement that the power of an electric heater is 1500W?

21. How is atomic energy produced? Write. Which factors does the kinetic energy of a
body depend on?
22. What happens to the kinetic energy when the velocity of a moving body is doubled?
Which factors does the power of a body depend on?
23. Write down the transformation of energy while using a microphone and a loudspeaker
in a programme.
24. What is transformation of energy? Write with examples. What is the relation between
work done and power? Write.

25. Write down the transformation of energy while lighting a bulb in a torchlight by
using cells. What are the conditions required for work to be done?

26. A man of mass 70 kg climbs the Nautale Durbar of Basantapur. He climbs 15 steps in 1
minute. If the height of 1 step is 15 cm, calculate his power, (g = 9.8 m/s2) Differentiate
between force and work in any two points.
27. Prove that:
1
a. PE = mgh b. KE = mv2
2
28. How does transformation of energy take place in each of the given actions?
a. Producing electricity in a hydropower station
b. Producing electricity in a nuclear furnace
c. While stopping a moving vehicle by applying brakes
d. Lighting a bulb by using a battery
29. The velocity of a body of mass 60kg reaches 15m/s from 0 m/s in 12 seconds. Calculate
the kinetic energy and power of the body.
30. The potential energy of a stone kept on the earth’s surface 30 kg Stone
is zero, give reason. Study the given diagram and calculate
the potential energy stored in the stone. What is the potential
energy when the stone reaches the ground surface?
25 m
Ground

UNIT
Light
5
Before You Begin

We get light from various sources like the sun, lighting bulb, burning
candle, kerosene lamp, etc. In a dark room, we cannot see the things
kept there although our eyes are open. We need light to see the things
kept there. So, light is a form of energy which makes things visible. It
is produced from extremely hot objects. The objects which emit light
are called the sources of light. The sun is the main source of light on
the earth. Some other sources of light are light bulb, burning candle,
kerosene lamp, etc. In this unit, we will study light, refraction of light,
laws of refraction of light, dispersion of light and electromagnetic
spectrum.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Indtroduction to light
i. introduce light. • Refraction of light
ii. define refraction of light and state the laws of • Law of refraction of light
refraction of light. • Total interal relection of light
iii. explain dispersion of light and demonstrate the • Dispresion of light
spectrum of light. • Electromagnetic spectrum
iv. describe the electromagnetic wave with its nature.
v. explain the frequency and wavelength of
electromagnetic waves.
light : the form of energy which makes things visible

refraction : the process of bending light when it passes from one medium to another
denser medium : the medium having more density
rarer medium : the medium having less density
dispersion : the splitting of something into its constituent parts

Light
Light is the form of energy which causes the sensation of sight. Light makes things visible.
So we can see things around us. Light does not require a material medium (like solid,
liquid or gas) for its propagation.
Objects such as the sun, a lighting bulb and a burning candle emit light and make things
visible. We can see objects when light from a luminous body falls on them. The objects
that emit light are called sources of light, e.g. the sun, lighting bulb, burning candle, etc.
All luminous objects are the sources of light.
Fig.
5.1
Sun Lighting bulb Burning coal
Refraction Light
Light travels in a straight path as long as it travels in a
vacuum or the same medium. But it bends when passes
from one medium to another. This process is called
refraction of light. So, the bending of light when it passes
from one medium to another is called refraction of light.
Light travels through different media like glass, air, water,
plastic, etc. The medium through which light can pass is
Fig.
called an optical medium. Different optical media have

different densities. On this basis, there are two types of
5.2
optical media, viz. rarer medium and denser medium.
Refraction of light
Rarer medium
The optical medium having relatively Do You Know
lower density is called rarer medium. For The speed of light is more in a rarer
example, out of glass and air media, air is medium and less in a denser medium.
rarer medium. The speed of light is maximum in a
vacuum, i.e. 3 × 108 m/s.
Denser medium
The optical medium having relatively higher density is called denser medium. For
example, out of air and glass media, glass is denser medium.

Cause of Refraction of Light
The density of different optical media is different. Due to this, the speed of light differs
in different media. The change in the speed of light when it passes from one medium to
another is the main cause of refraction of light. The velocity of light in air is 3 × 108 m/s,
that in water is 2.25 × 108 m/s passes from air to glass medium or water medium, it bends.
On their hand, when light passes from glass medium to air medium, it also bends.
Refraction of Light through a Glass Slab

When a ray of light IO strikes a glass slab PQRS, it bends at O and travels along OE. The
ray OE again refracts and emerges out.
I N
Air (Rarer medium)

i
P Q
O
r
Glass slab (Denser
N’ N medium)
r
S R
E B’
e
Fig.
Lateral shift
5.3 N’ F
Refraction of light through a glass slab
The terms related to refraction of light are given below.
1. Incident ray
The ray of light which strikes a transparent medium is called incident ray. In this figure,
IO is an incident ray.
2. Refracted ray
The ray of light that passes in the second medium after refraction is called refracted ray.
In the figure, OE is the refracted ray.
3. Angle of incidence
The angle made by incident ray to the normal is called angle of incidence. It is denoted by
∠i or i. In the figure, ∠ION is the angle of incidence.
4. Normal
The perpendicular drawn at the point on incidence is called normal. In the figure, NN’ is
the normal.

5. Angle of refraction
The angle made by refracted ray to the normal is called angle of refraction. It is denoted
by ∠r or r. In the figure ∠N’ROE is the angle of refraction.
6. Emergent ray
The ray of light which emerges out of the second medium is called emergent ray. In the
figure, EF is the emergent ray.
7. Emergent angle
The angle made by emergent ray to the normal is called emergent angle. It is denoted by
∠e or e. In the figure ∠N'EF is emergent angle.
8. Lateral displacement
The perpendicular distance between emergent ray and incident ray is called lateral
displacement or lateral shift.
Laws of Refraction of Light

1. The incident ray, normal and refracted ray all lie in the same plane at the point of
incidence.
2. When a ray of light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards
the normal and when a ray of light travels from a denser medium to a rarer medium,
it bends away from the normal. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of
angle of refraction is constant for a given pair of media. It is called refractive index. It
is denoted by the Greek letter m (mew).
I N
Glass
i Air (Rarer medium)
O (Denser medium)
Glass
r
(Denser medium)
N'
I N
R i
O
Air (Rarer medium) r R
Fig.
N'
5.4
Sin i
In short, = m (refractive index)
Sin r
Refractive index can also be calculated by given formula.
Speed of light in air (vacuum)
Refractive (index (m) =
Speed of light in a medium
90° Air
3. The ray of light does not bend
when it passes normally from one
medium to another.
Glass
Fig.
90° Air
5.5
Refractive Index
The refractive index can be defined as the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of
angle of refraction for a given pair of media. It is denoted by ‘m’. Refractive index (m) has
no unit as it is a ratio of two similar quantities.
Formula:
sin i
Refractive index (m) =
sin r
When a ray of light travels from air medium to water medium, then the ratio of sin i/sin r
is called the refractive index of water with respect to air, i.e.
sin i
= air m
sin r
water
Solved Numerical: 1
Calculate the refractive index of glass medium if the angle of incidence is 45° and angle
of refraction is 28°.
Solution:
Angle of incidence (i) = 45°
Angle of refraction (r) = 28°
Refractive index (m) = ?
We know,
sin i sin 45°
Refractive index (m) = = = 1.5
sin r sin 28°
\ The refractive index of glass with respect to air medium is 1.5.

The refractive index of a medium can also be defined as the ratio of speed of light in
vacuum to the speed of light in the medium, i.e.
Speed of light in vacuum (c)

Speed of light in medium (v)
Solved Numerical: 2
The speed of light in water is 2.2 × 108 m/s and that in vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s. Calculate the
refractive index of water.
Solution:
Speed of light in vacuum (c) = 3 × 108 m/s
Speed of light in water (v) = 2.2 × 108 m/s
We know,
c 3 × 108
Refractive index (m) = = = 1.36
v 2.2 × 108
\ The refractive index of water is 1.36.
Real depth and Apparent depth

When a ray of light travelling in a denser medium enters a rarer medium, it bends away
from the normal. Due to this, a coin lying at the bottom of the cup full of water appears to
be raised. Similarly, the bottom of a swimming pool appears to be raised and the depth
seems to be less than that of the actual one. So, the actual depth of a pond is the real depth
and the virtual depth at which a body appears due to refraction of light is called apparent
depth.
Eye N
Coin (apparent
Apparent depth position)
Fig.
Real depth
N' Coin (real
Water
position)
5.6
The refractive index in terms of real depth virtual depth can be calculated by the given
formula:
Real depth
Apparent depth

Solved Numerical: 3
The apparent depth of a pond appears to be 4.4 m. If the real depth of the pond is 6m,
calculate the refractive index of water.
Solution:
Real depth = 6 m
Apparent depth = 4.4 m
We know,
6
Refractive index (m) = = 1.33
4.4
\ The refractive index of water (m) = 1.33
Activity 1
Demonstration of refraction of light through a glass slab
Take an A4 size paper and fix it on a drawing board with push pins.
Take a glass slab and put it on the middle of the paper and draw an outline PQRS.
Draw a line A at a certain angle that meets PQ at point B. Draw a normal NM at point B.
Fix two pins P1 and P2 on the line AB as shown in the figure.
Now, observe the pins P1 and P2 in a straight position from another side of the glass
slab and fix two pins P3 and P4.
Remove the glass slab and join B and C with the line CD.
Now, measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction and angle of emergence.
This activity shows the refraction of light through a glass slab.
Activity 2
Take a beaker and fill it half with water. Take a glass rod and immerse half portion of
the glass rod into water. What do you observe? Does the glass rod appear bent? Why?
Glass rod
Water
Beaker
Fig.
5.7

The glass rod immersed in water appears to be bent at the surface water due to refraction
of light. Similarly, a coin placed at the bottom of a beaker full of water appears to be raised
due to refraction of light. We observe a number of phenomena due to refraction of light.
Some of them are mentioned below.
1. We cannot kill a fish when we spear a fish where it appears in a pond.
2. A swimming pool or a pond appears less deep than its actual depth.
3. The legs of a person standing in a pond appear shorter.
4. The letter on a paper lying at the bottom of the glass slab appears to be raised when
viewed through the glass.
Activity 3
Take an empty beaker and place a coin into it. Observe the coin in the beaker. Does
it appear raised or not?
Now, fill the beaker with water and observe the position of the coin.
What is the conclusion of this activity?
Critical angle
When light travels from a Rarer medium
denser medium to a rarer
90° Refracted ray
medium, it bends away
from the normal. When
ay 42°
the angle of incidence n tr
e
is further increased, the id
I nc
corresponding angle of
Fig.
refraction also increases Denser medium

and for a certain angle Glass
5.8
of incidence, the angle of
refraction becomes 90°. In Critical angle for glass medium
this condition, the angle of incidence in the denser medium is called critical angle.
Critical angle for a certain medium can be defined as the angle of incidence in a denser
medium when the corresponding angle of refraction in rarer medium becomes 90°. It is
denoted by C. For example, the value of critical angle for glass medium is 42°, for water
medium is 49°, for ice is 50° and for diamond is 24°.
Following figures show the critical angle for different media.
90° Rarer 90° Rarer 90° Rarer
42° 49° 50°

Fig.
Denser Denser Denser

5.9
Glass Water Ice
Critical angle and refractive index of some media with respect to air
S.N. Medium Critical angle Refractive index

1. Glass 42° 1.5
2. Water 49° 1.33
3. Diamond 24° 2.42
4. Ice 50° 1.31
5. Glycerine 43° 1.47
Relation between the Refractive index and Critical angle

When a ray of light passes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, then according to
Snell’s law;
glass sin i
m =
air sin r
For the incident ray moving from a denser medium to a rarer medium, the angle of
refraction is 90° and the refracted ray is parallel to the glass-air interface.
Thus, i = ic (critical angle) and r = 90°.
glass sin ic
Then, m =
air sin 90°
= sin ic [ sin90° = 1]
glass 1
But, m =
air air
m
glass
1
\ sin ic =
air
m
glass
glass 1
or, m =
air sin ic
glass
Here, is the refractive index of denser (glass) medium with respect to rarer (air)
m
air
medium. So, if the refractive index of the denser medium with respect to rarer medium is
known, the critical angle can be calculated.
Solved Numerical: 4
Calculate the refractive index of water medium with respect to air if the refractive index
of water is 1.33.
Solution:
Refractive index (m) = 1.33
Critical angle (ic) = ?
We know,
1
m =
sin ic
1
or, 1.33 =
sin ic
1
or, sin ic =
1.33
1
or, ic = sin–1o p = 48°45° ≈ 49°
1.33
\ The critical angle of water medium with respect to air is 49°.
Total Internal Reflection in a Glass Prism

The refractive index of glass medium is about 1.5. So, the critical angle of glass medium
with respect to air is about 42°. Therefore, a ray of light travelling from glass medium to air
medium and incident on glass-air interface at an angle greater than 42° suffers total internal
reflection. A prism having an angle of 90° between two refracting surfaces and remaining
angles 45° is called total reflecting prism. This type of prism is generally used to
(i) deviate a ray of light through 90°.
(ii) erect the inverted image without deviation and
(iii) deviate ray of light through 180°.
45°
45°
45°
45°
45° 90°
°
45°
45
Prism
45°
90° 45°
Fig.
45° Prism
5.10
Total Internal Reflection of Light

When the angle of incidence in a denser medium is more than the critical angle, the ray of
light reflects in the same medium. This process is called total internal reflection of light.
For example,
The critical angle for glass medium is 42°. If the angle of
incidence in glass medium becomes more than 42°, the ray 45° 45°
of light reflects in the same medium. This process is called
Fig.
total internal reflection.

Glass
Similarly, the critical angle for water medium is 49°. When 5.11
the angle of incidence is more than 49°, total internal Total internal refection
reflection takes place. in glass
50° 50°
Fig.
5.12 Water
Total internal reflection
in water medium
Conditions required for total internal reflection of light

1. The ray of light should pass from a denser medium to a rarer medium.
2. The angle of incidence should be more than the critical
angle.
Applications of total internal reflection of light
Fig.
1. Sparkling of a cut diamond
The value of critical angle for diamond is very low, i.e. 5.13
24°, when a ray of light enters a piece of diamond cut into
various surfaces, the ray of light suffers repeated total internal reflection. As a result, a cut
diamond sparkles.
2. Mirage
Mirage is seen in hot deserts
or coal-tarred roads in hot
days due to total internal
reflection of light. Mirage
is an optical illusion which
can be observed as if there
is a pond on hot desert or
coal-tarred road. A mirage
Fig.
is formed when an inverted

image of the distant object is
formed on the desert or coal- 5.14
tarred road. The image can be seen along with the object.
Mirage is formed on a very hot day when the surface of the coal-tarred road or desert
is heated and the air molecules above it become hot. As a result, different layers of air
having different density are formed. The density increases from the surface of the road.
The air with high density acts as a denser medium. So the light travelling down from
upper layer of air bends away from the normal as it goes down from cold layers to hot
layers of air. After coming down through a number of layers, the rays of light suffer total
internal reflection and start going in upward direction. As a result, mirage is seen in coal-
tarred road or desert in hot sunny days.
3. Light pipe
Light pipe is a transparent pipe or rod made of glass or plastic fibres. The light ray that
falls on each optical fibre suffers total internal reflection as show in the figure. A light pipe
is used to view the internal organs of human body. It is based on total internal reflection
of light. It is also used for telecommunication for transmitting signals. It is also used to
transmit images of the objects.
Do You Know
The internal parts of human body can be seen
with the help of light pipe or endoscope due
to total internal reflection of light. The light
pipe is made of optical fibres. When light
pipe is inserted inside the human body, the
light rays coming from internal parts of body
suffer total internal reflection. As a result, the
Fig.
internal parts of the body can be seen.
5.14
Dispersion of light
In some rainy days, we can see
rainbow in the sky. Do you know
how rainbow is formed? A rainbow
is formed due to dispersion of light.
When the sunlight passes through R
rainwater, it gets dispersed into its
ctr ht
Fig.
seven constituent colours. These
spe te lig
um
White light
colours are violet (V), indigo (I), blue beam
i
Wh
(B), green (G), yellow (Y), orange (O), 5.15 Glass prism V
and red (R). So, dispersion of light Dispersion of light
can be defined as the phenomenon
in which white light splits into seven colours. Dispersion of light can be observed by
passing sunlight through a glass prism. The dispersion of light through a prism in shown
in the given figure.
Activity 4
Take a glass prism and go to a sunny place. Allow sunlight to pass through the
prism.
What do you observe?
Does the sunlight split into seven colours?
When the sunlight passes through a prism, it splits into seven colours. This process is
called dispersion of light.

From the above activity, it becomes clear that the sunlight is made of seven different
colours. The pattern of seven colours that can be seen on the screen is called spectrum of
light.
Causes of dispersion of light

The major cause of dispersion of light is the difference in speed of light of different colours
in the same medium. The speed of different colours in glass medium is different.
When white light strikes the surface of the prism, different colours move with different
speed. Due to difference in speed, they bend by making different angles. Out of seven
colours of light, the speed of red colour is maximum, so it suffers less deviation and the
speed of violet colour is minimum and surfers more deviation. As a result, a colourful
band of seven colours is formed on the screen which is called spectrum.
The wavelength of red ray has longest wavelength and hence it has minimum frequency.
Similarly, the violet colour has shortest wavelength and hence it has maximum frequency.
Pleases note that the wave length of red ray is 8 × 10–7 m and its frequency is 2.75 × 1014
Hz. Similarly, the wavelength of violet ray is 4 × 10–7 m and its frequency is 7.5 × 1014 Hz.
Electromagnetic wave
The wave which is not affected by electric field and magnetic field is called electromagnetic
wave. Electromagnetic waves can propagate through vacuum or without medium.
Sunlight is an example of electromagnetic wave. It consists of different types of rays. But
our eyes can detect only seven types of rays. These rays are called visible rays and the
spectrum is called visible spectrum.
Radio Microwave Sub- Infrared Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma-ray

mm 10
Wavelength cm nm nm
m
40
0.1
m
10
1m
0
m
80
nm
nm
1
0.
Size scale Pin

Hand Width at a Single cells Molecules Atoms
width head Human hair
Fig.
0.01 K 3K 30 K 300 K 3,00,00,000 K

–273°C –270°C –243°C –27°C 5000 K 300,000 K
5.16
Different types of spectra are found above the red ray and below the violet ray during
dispersion of light. But we cannot see other spectra. These spectra are called invisible
spectra.
Infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves are the electromagnetic waves having longer
wavelength than that of red rays. Similarly, ultraviolet rays (UV- rays), X-rays, and gamma
rays are the electromagnetic waves having less frequency than that of violet ray. These
waves are harmful for human beings and other animals. However, these waves are utilized
for radiotherapy, radiography and transmission of radio, telephone, television, etc.
X-rays
X-ray are harmful rays for human beings having wavelength from 0.01nm to 10 nm. They
cannot penetrate through bones but can easily penetrate through skin and muscle.
Use of X-rays
1. X-rays are used to know about fracture
and cracks in bones. Do You Know
2. They are used in radiotherapy. The exposure to x-rays for a long time is
harmful which causes cancer.
3. They are used to study molecular
structure and structure of crystals.
4. They are also used in security checking like in airports, custom offices, and other
security threatened zones.
Ultraviolet rays
Ultraviolet rays are commonly known as UV-rays. They are harmful rays having wave
length 10nm to 400 nm. Over exposure to UV-rays may cause eye disease (cataract) and
skin cancer.
Uses of UV-rays
1. UV-rays are used for sterilizing of medical equipment.
2. They are used to check the purity of food items like eggs, ghee, etc.
3. They are used to check the purity of jewelleries.
4. They are used to generate vitamin D.
Key Concepts
1. Light is the form of energy which causes the sensation of sight.
2. Light does not require a material medium (like solid, liquid or gas) for its
propagation.
3. The bending of light when it passes from one medium to another is called refraction
of light.
4. Different optical media have different densities. On this basis, there are two types
of optical media, viz. rarer medium and denser medium.
5. The optical medium having relatively lower density is called rarer medium.
6. The optical medium having relatively higher density is called denser medium.
7. The change in the speed of light when it passes from one medium to another is the
main cause of refraction of light.
8. The angle made by incident ray to the normal is called angle of incidence.
9. The perpendicular drawn at the point on incidence is called normal.
10. The perpendicular distance between emergent ray and incident ray is called lateral
displacement or lateral shift.
11. When a ray of light travels from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends
towards the normal and when a ray of light travels from a denser medium to a rarer
medium, it bends away from the normal.
12. Critical angle for a certain medium can be defined as the angle of incidence in a
denser medium when the corresponding angle of refraction in rarer medium
becomes 90°.
13. When the angle of incidence in a denser medium is more than the critical angle,
the ray of light reflects in the same medium. This process is called total internal
reflection of light.
14. Mirage is an optical illusion which can be observed as if there is a pond on hot
desert or coal-tarred road.
15. A mirage is formed when an inverted image of the distant object is formed on the
desert or coal-tarred road.
16. When the sunlight passes through a prism, it splits into seven colours. This process
is called dispersion of light.
17. The major cause of dispersion of light is the difference in speed of light of different
colours in the same medium. The speed of different colours in glass medium is
different.
18. The wave which is not affected by electric field and magnetic field is called
electromagnetic wave.
19. Electromagnetic waves can propagate through vacuum or without medium.
Sunlight is an example of electromagnetic wave.
20. X-rays are harmful rays for human beings having wavelength from 0.01nm to 10
nm. They cannot penetrate through bones but can easily penetrate through skin
and muscle.
21. X-rays are used to know about fracture and cracks in bones. They are used in
radiotherapy.
22. Ultraviolet rays are commonly known as UV-rays. They are harmful rays having
wave length between 10nm to 400 nm.

a. The critical angle for glass medium is ..................
49° 24° 42° 50°
b. When sunlight passes through a glass prism, it splits into .............. colours.
five seven three two
c. Which of the rays has the maximum wave length?
gamma rays X-rays microwave radio wave
d. The waves which are used for transmission of television are ..............
radio waves microwaves infrared rays X-rays

a. What is light?
b. What are the sources of light? Give any three examples.
c. Define refraction of light. Draw a figure showing this process.
d. Define the following:
i. Incident ray
ii. Refracted ray
iii. Denser medium
iv. Rarer medium
e. State the laws of refraction of light.
f. Write down the cause of refraction of light.
g. What is angle of incidence?
h. What is angle of refraction?
i. What is refractive index?
j. Write down the formula to calculate refractive index.
k. What is critical angle?
l. Write down the value of critical angle for glass, water and ice.
m. What is total internal reflection of light?
n. What is mirage? How is it formed?
o. What is dispersion of light? Draw a neat figure showing this process.
p. Write down the cause of dispersion of light.
q. What are electromagnetic waves?
r. Write down the uses of X-rays and UV-rays.
3. Give reason.
a. A pencil appears bent when it is half-immersed in water.
b. Diamond sparkles in dim light.
c. Light bends when it passes form one medium to another.
d. The depth of a pond appears less than its real depth.
e. X-rays are harmful for human health.
4. Differentiate between.
a. Incident ray and refracted ray
b. Denser medium and rarer medium
c. X-rays and UV-rays

5. Complete the given figures.
a. b.
c. d.
42° 49°
Glass Water
e. f.
90°
90°
6. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing

a. Total internal reflection of light
b. Dispersion of light
7. A rainbow is seen in a rainy day. Describe its reason.
a. The velocity of light in air is 3 × 108 m/s, calculate the velocity of light when it
enters water. The refractive index of water is 1.33. [Ans: 2.25 × 108 m/s]
b. The refraction index of water is 4/3. If the apparent depth of water in pond is 4m,
calculate the real depth. [Ans: 5.32 m]
c. The refractive index of glass is 1.5. Calculate the value of critical angle. [Ans: 42°]
d. The real depth of a pond is 5.32 m and its apparent depth is 4m. Calculate the
refractive index. [Ans: 1.33]
e. A ray of light is passing through a medium making an angle of 45°. If the
refractive index of the medium is 1.4, calculate the angle of refraction. [Ans: 30°]

1. What is refraction of light?
2. Define emergent ray and angle of reflection.
3. State Snell’s law.
4. What is the refractive index of glass medium?
5. What is meant by denser medium? Write.
6. What is total internal reflection of light?
7. What is optical fibre?
8. What is mirage?
9. What is critical angle?
10. What is dispersion of light?
11. What is the velocity of light in air and glass medium?
12. What is endoscope? Why is it used?
13. How is light travelled in a curved pipe?

14. The apparent depth of water in a pond appears less than the real depth. Why?
15. Light bends away from normal when it passes from the denser medium to the rarer
medium. Why?
16. Why is the refractive index of glass more than that of water? Give reason.
17. Mirage is seen in pitched road or desert during hot summer season. Why?
18. X-ray is called an electromagnetic wave. Why ? Diamond has extraordinary brilliance,
why?
19. The red ray lies at the top and violet ray lies at the bottom during dispersion of light.
What is the reason behind this fact?
20. Mention the differences between X-ray and visible ray on the basis of source and
nature.

21. Write any three uses of X-ray.
22. What is endoscope? Why is it used? What is the relationship among refractive index,
real depth and apparent depth?

23. Complete the given ray diagrams.
a. b. c. N air 45°
B air
water 50°
90°
A M
90°
ice
24. Write down the importance of Ultraviolet ray and X-ray in the field of medical science.
25. Write down the importance of electromagnetic waves. Draw a figure showing
dispersion of light through a prism.

I N
26. Study the given diagram and answer the following
questions: i
O Air
a. Which phenomenon is shown in the given
r Glass
diagram?
M
b. Name the angle of incidence, angle of refraction
and emergent angle in the given diagram. R
c. Which medium is denser out of air and glass?
Explain the reason.
27. Answer the following questions on the basis of given ray
diagram.
a. Name the rays A and B. Light
A
B
b. Which ray has more speed (A or B) in the glass Prism
medium?
c. Which phenomenon is shown in the given diagram?
d. Ray B is bending more than the ray A. What is the reason behind it?
28. Write short notes on:
a. X-ray b. Ultraviolet ray
29. The speed of light in air is 3 × 105 km/s and the refractive index of paraffin is 1.44.
Calculate the speed of light in the paraffin. Differentiate between angle of incidence
and critical angle in two points.
30. A ray of light is passing through a medium by making an angle of 45°. If the refractive
index of the medium is 1.4, calculate the magnitude of angle of refraction. The apparent
depth of water in a pond appears less than the real depth. Why?

UNIT
Sound
6
Before You Begin

In our surroundings, we see different things that produce sound.
When materials vibrate, sound is produced. So, sound is the form
of energy which is produced due to vibration of a material medium.
Sound produces sensation of hearing. The substances that produce
sound are called sources of sound. Temple bell, horn of vehicles,
loudspeaker, guitar, television, etc. are some sources of sound. Sound
waves are produced when a material vibrates. Sound propagates
through these waves.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to sound and
i. introduce some terms related to sound, i.e. speed, sound wave
frequency and wavelength. • Wave length
• Frequency
ii. introduce echo and reverberation and differentiate
between them. • Speed of sound
• Reflection of sound
iii. describe the effect of echo and reverberation.
• Echo
iv. solve simple numerical problems related to sound. • Reverberation
• Simple numerical problems
related to sound
sound : the form of energy which is produced due to vibration of a body

longitudinal wave : a wave that vibrates in the direction that it is moving
frequency : the number of complete cycles made in one second
echo : the repetition of sound caused by reflection
reverberation : the prolongation of the original sound

Sound
There are different forms of energy. Sound energy is one of them. Sound produces the
sensation of hearing in our ears. It is produced when a body vibrates. So sound is the form
of energy produced due to vibration of a material medium. A vibrating body is a source
of sound. Radio, temple bell, horn of vehicles, guitar, etc. are some examples of sources
of sound.
Sound wave
The wave produced due to vibration of a material medium is called a sound wave. It is
produced due to vibration of solid, liquid and gas. Sound wave needs a medium (solid,
liquid or gas) for propagation. It cannot propagate through vacuum.
Fig.
R C R C R C R C
8.1 C = Compression R = Rarefaction
Sound wave
When sound waves coming from a source
propagate through air, and reach our ears, Do You Know
we hear the sound. Sound propagates in the A compression is that part of a
form of longitudinal waves. A longitudinal
longitudinal wave in which the particles
wave consists of alternately arranged
compressions and rarefactions. When a of the medium are closer to one another.
sound wave passes through air, the particles Rarefaction is the part of a longitudinal
of air vibrate back and forth parallel to wave in which the particles are farther
the direction of propagation forming apart.
compressions and rarefactions.
Activity 1
Take a rubber pad and a tuning fork.
Hit the rubber pad with the tuning fork. Do you hear vibrations.
Now, touch the tuning fork. What do you feel?
Activity 2
Take a small stone and go to a nearby pond.
Throw the stone in the pond. Be careful while throwing the stone.
Do you see ripples in the pond?
Now, throw a leaf on the surface of the ripples. What do you observe?
Characteristics of Sound Wave
1. Frequency of Sound
Frequency of sound is defined as the number of complete cycles produced in one second.
It is denoted by 'f'. In SI system, frequency is measured in hertz(Hz). The larger units of
frequency are kilohertz(kHz), Megahertz (MHz), etc. The relation between hertz, kilohertz
and megahertz is given below:
1000 Hz = 1 kHz
1000 kHz = 1MHz Do You Know
1 MHz = 1000000 Hz The frequency of a sound wave is 40 Hz means that
the sound wave produces 40 completes cycles or
vibrations in one second.
2. Time period
The total time taken to from a complete wave is called time period. It is denoted by T. In
the SI system, the unit of time period is second (s).
Time period is calculated by the given formula:
1
Time period (T) =
frequency (f)
In short,
1
T=
f
3. Wave length
The total distance covered by a sound wave in one vibration is called wave length. It is
denoted by the Greek symbol Lambda (λ). In the SI system, wave length is measured in
meter (m).
4. Amplitude
Amplitude of a sound wave is defined as the maximum displacement of vibrating particle
from its mean position. It is denoted by 'a'. Its SI unit is metre (m).
5. Wave velocity
Wave velocity can be defined as the total distance covered by a sound wave per unit time.
Its SI unit is meter per second (m/s).
The mathematical relation between wave velocity, frequency and wavelength is called
wave equation.
Wave velocity (v) = frequency of sound (f) × wavelength (λ)
In short, v = f × λ
Solved Numerical: 1
The frequency of a sound wave is 60 Hz and its wave length is 85 m. Calculate the speed
of sound in the medium.
Given,
Frequency (f) = 60 Hz
Wavelength (λ) = 85 m
Speed of sound (v) = ?
We know,
v =f×λ
= 60 × 85
= 5100 m/s
\ The speed of sound (v) = 5100 m/s
Solved Numerical: 2
The speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s. If the wave length is 12.5 m, calculate the
frequency of the sound.
Given,
Speed of sound (v) = 1500 m/s
Wave length (λ) = 12.5 m
Frequency (f) = ?
We know,
v =f×λ
or, 1500 = f × 12.5
1500
or, f =
12.5
= 120 Hz
\ The frequency of sound is 120 Hz.
Relation between velocity of sound and medium

Sound wave can propagate through solids, liquids and gases. Sound travels with different
speed in different media. The speed of sound is maximum in solids and minimum in gases.
The molecules in solids are closely packed together and hence carry more vibrations. As
a result, the speed of sound is maximum in solids.

The speed of sound in some common media is given below:
Medium Speed of sound

1. Iron (20 °C) 5130 m/s
2. Glass (25 °C) 5500 m/s
3. Aluminium (25 °C) 5100 m/s
4. Water (20 °C) 1498 m/s
5. Alcohol (25 °C) 1210 m/s
6. Air (0 °C) 332 m/s
7. Hydrogen (0 °C) 1284 m/s
Speed of sound in Air or Gas medium

The speed of sound in air or gas medium depends on the following factors.
1. Density of air
The speed of sound is more in the object having less density. Similarly, the speed of sound
is less in the object having more density. In fact, the speed of sound is directly proportional
to the square root of the density of air.
2. Temperature of air
When the temperature of air increases, the speed of sound in air increases and vice-versa.
3. Humidity of air
The speed of sound increases when the humidity of air increases and the speed of sound
decreases when the humidity of air decreases. Humidity is the amount of water vapour
present in air.
4. Motion of air molecules

The speed of sound increases when the direction of movement of sound and air molecules
is the same. But the sped of sound decreases if the direction of the sound is opposite to
that of the direction of air molecules.
Types of Sound wave

There are three types of sound waves on the basis of their frequency. They are as follows:
(i) Ultrasound (ii) Audible sound (iii) Infrasound
(i) Ultra sound

Ultra sound is the sound having frequency more than 20,000 Hz. Ultra sound is widely
used in medical sector to examine the inner body organs. Ultrasound cannot be heard
by human ears. However, bat, insects, rats, birds can hear and produce ultrasound. This
sound carries more energy due to its high frequency and hence has a great penetrating
power.
Application of ultrasound
Ultrasound is the sound wave having frequency more than 20kHz. So the wave length
of ultrasound is very short. Ultrasound can travel from one place to another without
bending.
1. Doctors use ultrasound to
i. determine the sex of the child in the mother's womb.
ii. observe the growth of the embryo.
iii. kill bacteria.
iv. investigate the diseases in the inner parts of the body.
v. locate and observe tumour.
vi. do bloodless operation, etc.
2. Ultrasound is used in SONAR to measure the depth of the sea, lake, rive, etc. SONAR
stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging. A SONAR consists of a vibrator with high
frequency, a source and a detector or receiver. Ultrasound is sent towards the bottom
of the sea from its surface. The receiver gets the reflected ray from the bottom of the
sea. It also records the time taken by the sound to return the surface. Then the depth
of the sea is calculated by the given formula.
speed of sound (v) × time (t)
Depth (d) =
2
or,
v×t
d=
2
Fig.
8.2
SONAR
The process of finding the depth of the sea or distance with the help of ultrasound is
called echolocation.

Solved Numerical: 3
A man shouts in front of a cliff and hears the echo after 0.4 seconds. If the speed of sound
in air is 330 m/s, calculate the distance between the man and the cliff.
Given,
Time (t) = 0.4 s
Speed of sound (v) = 330 m/s
Distance (s) = ?
We know that,
v×t
s =
2
330 × 0.4
or, s = m = 66 m
2
\ The distance between the man and the cliff (s) = 66 m
(ii) Audible sound

The sound which can be heard by human Do You Know
beings is called audible sound. The
Rhinoceros can produce infra sound
frequency of audible sound ranges from 20
of frequency 6 Hz.
Hz to 20,000 Hz. All sounds that we hear are
called audible sound. The frequency of sound wave ranges
from 1 Hz to 108 Hz.
The frequency of sound of man is
(iii) Infrasound
about 6.5 KHz and that of woman is
Infrasound is the sound having frequency
8.5 KHz.
less than 20Hz.We cannot hear infrasound. It
is produced during earthquake and volcano
eruption. Some animals like rhinoceros, elephant, whale, etc. produce infrasound.
Activity 3
Take a sensitive stop watch and go to a nearby cliff or in front of a tall building
along with your science teacher.
Shout in front of the cliff or wall and record the time taken to hear the echo.
Now calculate the distance between you and the cliff or wall using the formula.
Reflection of sound
When a sound wave travelling in a medium strikes a surface, it returns to the same
medium. This process is called reflection of sound. So reflection of sound is defined as
returning of sound in the same medium when it strikes a hard surface. When we shout in
front of a cliff or wall or a hill, we can hear a reflected sound. The reflected sound is called
echo. Reflection of sound obeys the laws of reflection of light. We utilize the reflection of
sound in the working of megaphone, sound boards, etc.

Activity 4
Take a cardboard, a watch, a mirror and two plastic pipes of equal diameter. Arrange
these materials as shown in the figure.
Mirror
Plastic pipe B Plastic pipe A

Fig.
Cardboard
Watch
8.3 Human
Place a watch at the end of plastic pipe A and hear the sound from the end of pipe
B.
Now, move the plastic pipe B at different angles and listen to the sound.
What can you conclude from this activity?
Echo
When a sound wave strikes any hard surface, it gets reflected, which is called echo. So,
echo can be defined as the repetition of sound caused by the reflection of sound.
The conditions required for formation of echo are as follows:
1. The minimum distance between the source of sound and the reflecting surface should
be at least 17.2 metres.
2. The size of the reflector should be large
3. The loudness of the sound should be sufficient.
Let us consider the distance between the sources of sound an the reflecting surface is x
meter and the speed of sound in air is 332 m/s. Therefore, the distance covered by sound
wave in 0.1 second is 2x meter.
Given,
Speed of sound in air (v) = 332 m/s
Distance covered by sound (s) = 2xm
Time (t) = 0.1s
The distance covered by sound wave (2x) = Speed of sound × time
or, 2x = 332 × 0.1

332 × 0.1
or, x =
2
= 16.6 m
\ The distance covered by sound wave (s) = 16.6 m
Reverberation
If we speak in a large unoccupied hall, we can hear a number of echoes of original sound. This
phenomenon is called reverberation. So reverberation can be defined as the prolongation
of original sound due to reflection. Reverberation is the process of intermixing of original
sound with a reflected sound. A number of echoes are heard during reverberation.
Reverberation occurs when the distance between the source of sound and the reflecting
surface is less than 17.2 m. We hear reverberation in an unfurnished empty room and a
newly built room. Reverberation does not occur in an occupied room or furnished room
due to the presence of sound absorbing materials.
Activity 5
Go in a empty room or an unfurnished room and produce sound "Hello". Can you
hear reverberation?
Now, go in an occupied or furnished room of the same size and repeat the above
activity. Can you hear reverberation ? What is the reasons behind this fact?
Sound absorbing materials are kept in the walls of cinema hall to prevent reverberation so
that the audience can hear clear sound. But the sound of singer is prolonged to add melody.
Differences between echo and reverberation

Echo Reverberation
1. It is the repetition of sound caused by 1. It is the prolongation of original sound
reflection. due to reflection.
2. The minimum distance required to 2. The distance required to take place
take place an echo is 17.2 m. reverberation should be less than 17.2
m.
3. The intensity of echo is less than that
of original sound. 3. The intensity of reverberation is more
than that of original sound.
Application of reflection of sound

1. Reflection of sound is used to investigate diseases like kidney stone, tumour, etc.
2. It is used to investigate the minerals.
3. It is used in SONAR to find out the depth of the sea, lake, river, etc.
4. It is used to observe the growth of the embryo inside the mother's womb.
5. It is used by soldiers to identify weapons.
Refraction of Sound
The bending of sound when it passes from one medium to another is called refraction of
sound. When sound passes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from
the normal. Similarly, when sound passes from a rarer medium to a denser medium it
bends towards the normal. It shows that sound also obeys the laws of refraction of light.
Different layer of air have different temperature. Due to variation in temperature one
layer may act as a denser medium and another layer acts as a rarer medium.
Sound is heard more clear at night than that in a day due to total internal reflection of
sound waves.
Sound is heard more clear at night than in day time, why?

The surface of the land gets heated due to heat of the sun during day time. Due to this,
the temperature of land surface becomes maximum and it decreases gradually on moving
upwards. As a result, layers of air behave as denser medium while moving upwards. So,
the sound waves bend towards normal and diverge upwards from the source. Due to this
reason, less sound waves reach the listener and the sound is not heard clearly.
Cold air
Hot air
Sound wave
Sound wave
Fig.
Hot air Cold air

8.4 At day At night
On the other hand, the land surface gradually cools down at night due to absence of solar
heat and the layers of air near the land surface behave as denser layer than the upper
layers. So the sound waves coming from the source get refracted away from the normal
while moving upwards. These sound waves suffer total internal reflection and reach the
listener on the surface of the land. As a result, sound is heard more clear at night than in
the day time.
Intensity of sound
Sound waves carry energy with them. The amount of energy that a sound wave carries
in one second is called intensity of sound. In simple language, the loudness of a sound is
called intensity of the sound. It is measured in decibel (dB).
The frequency of some sound /activities is given blow:
Activities/sound Intensity (in decibel)

1. Whispering 0 – 20 dB
2. Environment of library 20 – 40 dB

3. Sound of printing press 70 – 80 dB
4. Conversation 40 – 60 dB
5. Sound of motor car 110 – 120 dB
6. Sound due to mechanical failure 140 – 160 dB
7. Railway station 85 – 110 dB
8. Heavy street traffic 60 – 70 dB
9. Maximum hearing limit of pain 120 – 140 dB
When sound propagates, energy gets transmitted along with the sound. Every wave
carries energy from the source. When a wave carries more energy, its amplitude increases.
A sound is heard large if it has more intensity and vice-versa. The sound of more intensity
affects our ears. The sound with intensity more than 120 dB harms our ears. Deafness is
the condition of not hearing the sound of intensity upto 80 dB. The sound ranging from
60 dB to 140 dB is hard to hear.
Factors affecting the intensity of sound

1. Amplitude
The intensity of sound is directly proportional to the amplitude.
2. Density of the medium
The intensity of sound is directly proportional to the density of gas medium. The
intensity of sound in cold air is more than that of hot air because the density of cold
air is more than that of hot air.
3. Frequency of sound
The intensity of sound is directly proportional to the frequency of sound.
4. Distance from the source of sound
The intensity of a sound is more near to its. Source and the intensity gradually
decreases while moving away from the source. It is because when sound propagates
away from the source, some energy is absorbed by air molecules and some energy
gets reflected and refracted.
5. Area of vibrating body
The intensity of sound increases when the area of the vibrating increases. For example,
the intensity of the sound produced by a large temple bell is more than that produced
by a smaller one.
Pitch of sound
We hear sound of different shrillness. The shrillness of a sound is called the pitch of the
sound. The sound of a girl is more shrill as compared to that of a boy. Pitch of a sound
cannot be measured but it can be felt. The pitch of the sound helps to differentiate between

a flat sound and a thin or shrill sound. The pitch of a sound depends on the frequency. It
means that when the frequency of sound increases, its pitch also increases and vice-versa.
Following examples help us to get the concept of pitch of sound.
i. The pitch of the sound produced by thin string of guitar is more than the sound
produced by its thick string.
ii. The pitch of the sound of a child is more than the sound of an adult.
iii. The pitch of the sound produced by a long flute is more than that produced by a short
flute.
Noise pollution
The production of unwanted loud
sound is called noise pollution. Vehicles,
loudspeakers, crowd, musical instruments,
machineries, etc. are the sources of noise.
Causes of noise pollution Fig.

i. Automobiles like, trucks, buses, cars, 8.5
motorcycles, aeroplanes, etc. causes noise pollution.
ii. Various machines in industries and construction sites cause noise pollution.
iii. Use of loudspeakers, tape recorders, etc. causes noise pollution.
iv. Playing musical instruments in high volume and blowing pressure horns in vehicles
also cause noise pollution.
Effects of noise pollution

i. Noise pollution weakens hearing capacity.
ii. It increases irritability and loss of concentration.
iii. It increases blood pressure and mental tension.
iv. It causes insomnia, migraine and headache.
v. It may rupture the ear drum and cause deafness.
vi. Noise pollution results in psychological disorders.
Ways to reduce noise pollution

i. Avoiding the use of pressure horns in vehicles.
ii. Establishing airports away from the human settlement.
iii. Using silencers in vehicles.
iv. Using earmuffs while working in factories.
v. Plantation around industries states.

Key Concepts
1. Sound produces the sensation of hearing in our ears. It is produced when a body
vibrates.
2. The wave produced due to vibration of a material medium is called a sound wave.
It is produced due to vibration of solid, liquid and gas.
3. Frequency of sound is defined as the number of complete cycles produced in one
second. It is denoted by ‘f’. In SI system, frequency is measured in hertz(Hz).
4. The total distance covered by a sound wave in one vibration is called wave length.
It is denoted by the Greek symbol Lambda (λ).
5. Wave velocity can be defined as the total distance covered by a sound wave per unit time.
6. The mathematical relation between wave velocity, frequency and wavelength is
called wave equation.
7. Sound travels with different speed in different media. The speed of sound is
maximum in solids and minimum in gases.
8. The speed of sound increases when the direction of movement of sound and air
molecules is the same. But the sped of sound decreases if the direction of the sound
is opposite to that of the direction of air molecules.
9. Ultrasound is the sound having frequency more than 20,000 Hz. Ultrasound is
widely used in medical sector to examine the inner body organs.
10. The process of finding the depth of the sea or distance with the help of ultrasound
is called echolocation.
11. Reflection of sound is defined as returning of sound in the same medium when it
strikes a hard surface.
12. Echo can be defined as the repetition of sound caused by the reflection of sound.
13. Reverberation can be defined as the prolongation of original sound due to reflection.
Reverberation is the process of intermixing of original sound with a reflected sound.
14. Infrasound is the sound having frequency less than 20Hz.We cannot hear infrasound.
It is produced during earthquake and volcano eruption.
15. Reflection of sound is used to investigate diseases like kidney stone, tumour, etc.
16. The bending of sound when it passes from one medium to another is called
refraction of sound.
17. The amount of energy that a sound wave carries in one second is called intensity of
sound. In simple language, the loudness of a sound is called intensity of the sound.
It is measured in decibel (dB).
18. The shrillness of a sound is called the pitch of the sound. The sound of a girl is more shrill
as compared to that of a boy. Pitch of a sound cannot be measured but it can be felt.
19. The production of unwanted loud sound is called noise pollution. Vehicles,
loudspeakers, crowd, musical instruments, machineries, etc. are the sources of noise.

a. Frequency of a sound is the number of waves formed in ........... second.
1 2 3 5

b. Which of the following is ultrasound?
f = 25000 Hz f = 20Hz f = 2 Hz f = 19000 Hz
c. Which of the following is the intensity of normal conversation?
20 dB 60 – 70 dB 40 – 60 dB 70 – 80 dB
d. The full from of SONAR is .....................
Sound Navigator and Range Sound Navigation and Ranging
Sound Navigation and Range Sound Neutralization and Ranging

a. What is sound ?
b. What are sources of sound? Give any two examples.
c. What is longitudinal wave? Give one example.
d. Write any three characteristics of longitudinal wave.
e. What is time period? Write its formula.
f. Define wavelength and amplitude.
g. What is wave velocity? Write down its formula.
h. Write down the relationship between speed of sound and medium.
i. Name the factors that affect the speed of sound in air.
j. What is ultrasound? Write its practical applications.
k. What is audible sound?
l. What is infrasound? When is it produced?
m. Define reflection of sound. Draw a figure to show this process.
n. What is echo? Write down the conditions required to hear an echo.
o. What is reflection of sound? Write its applications.
3. What is meant by intensity of sound ? Write down the factors affecting it.
4. Define pitch of sound with examples.
5. What is noise pollution? Write its causes and preventive measures.
a. Echo and Reverberation
b. Intensity and Pitch of sound
c. Frequency and Wave length
7. Give reason:
a. Sound wave is called a longitudinal wave.

b. Sound is heard more clear at night.
c. SONAR is useful for human beings.
d. Sound absorbing materials are kept in walls of cinema hall.
8. Numerical problems
a. The sound of wave length 0.022 m has a frequency of 15 kilohertz. Calculate the
speed of the wave. [Ans: 330 m/s]
b. If the speed of a sound wave in a medium is 5100 m/s and the frequency is 200
Hz, calculate the wave length. [Ans: 25.5 m]
c. The speed of sound in a medium is 1200 m/s and the wave length is 15.5 m.
Calculate the frequency of the sound wave. [Ans: 77.41 Hz]
d. A sound wave is sent at the bottom of a sea. If the echo is heard after 2 second,
calculate the depth of the sea. The speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s.
[Ans: 2250 m]
e. If the sound of thunderstorm in the sky is heard after 20 seconds, calculate the
height where thunder storm occurred. The speed of sound in air is 332 m/s.
[Ans: 3320 m]
f. A ship transmits a sound to the sea of depth 2250m. If the echo is received after 3
seconds, calculated the speed of sound in water. [Ans: 1500m/s]
g. The depth of a sea is 6200m and the speed of sound in water is 1500m/s. Calculate
the time at which th echo is heard after sending the sound waves. [Ans: 8.26s]
1. What is source of sound?
2. What is wavelength?
3. What is frequency? Write down its SI unit.
4. Define mechanical wave with one example.
5. Define longitudinal wave with one example.
6. What is meant by the sound spectrum?
7. Which type of sound can be heard by human ear?
8. What is echolocation? Write.
9. What is echo?
10. What is fathometer?
11. Write down the intensity of the sound that makes us deaf and can rupture the ear
drum.
12. What is the frequency of the sound of a man and woman?
13. What is intensity of sound? In which unit is it measured?

14. Sound wave cannot propagate in a vacuum. Why?
15. Write any two differences between echo and reverberation.
16. Why the speed of sound in hot air is more than that in the cold air.
17. Why is the wavelength of girls voice is shorter than that of the boys? Give reason.
18. Why is it harmful to settle near the airport? Give reason.
19. Write any two differences between infrasound and ultrasound.
20. Sound absorbing materials are kept in the walls of cinema hall. Give reason.

21. Write any three effects noise pollution.
22. Write any three control measures of sound pollution.
23. Describe in brief the effects of sound pollution in human life.
24. Write down utility of SONAR. How is the depth of sea measured by using sound?
Write in brief.
25. If you are kept blind folded in a room, how can you find out whether the room is
occupied or blank by producing sound?

26. The velocity of sound in three media carbon dioxide, steel
(Medium) (Speed)
and water is given in the table. Answer the following
questions on this basis. A 5200 m/s
Name the media ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C. Write down the reason B 258 m/s
for the fact that the speed of sound in^medium ‘A’ is C 1498 m/s
the highest. What happens to the speed of sound when
medium ‘B’ is heated? Explain the reason.
27. Differentiate between echo and reverberation. The speed of sound in a medium is
1200m/s. If the wavelength of the sound is 15.5m, calculate the frequency of the sound.
Is the sound audible to human ears?
28. A ship transmits a sound to the sea of depth 2250 m. If the echo is received after 3
seconds, calculate the speed of sound in water. Differentiate between Echolocation
and Reverberation.
29. A sound is sent at the bottom of a pond. If the echo is heard after 6 seconds, calculate
the depth of the pond. The speed of sound in water is 1498m/s. Differentiate between
audible sound and infrasound.
30. How is the density of a sea measured by using sound? Explain.

UNIT
Current Electricity and
7 Magnetism
Before You Begin

When a cell is connected to a bulb with copper wires, the bulb glows due
to continuous flow of electrons through the wire. Such flow of electrons
through a conductor is called current electricity. So, the form of energy which
is produced due to continuous flow of electrons is called current electricity.
Cell, battery, dynamo and generator are the sources of current electricity.
Current electricity is a very useful form of energy. It can be converted into
heat energy, light energy, sound energy, magnetic energy. It is used to
light bulb, to operate heater, television, computer, radio, fan, telephone,
etc.
A magnet is a substance that attracts magnetic substances like iron, nickel,
etc. and rests in north-south direction when suspended freely The lodestone
is a naturally occurring magnet. The Chinese found that the lodestone,
when suspended freely, always pointed north-south direction. These days
magnets are made artificially from iron, nickel, etc. in various shapes and
sizes depending on their uses. These magnets are called artificial magnets.
A magnet has two poles at the two ends, a north pole and a south pole.
When a bar magnet is suspended by a string freely, one end of the
magnet points towards north and the other end towards south. The end
which points towards north is called north pole and another is called
south pole. The substances which are attracted by a magnet are called
magnetic substances. The phenomenon related to attractive and directive
properties of magnets is called magnetism.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Ohm’s law
i. their measurement. • Resistance
ii. state Ohm’s law and establish the relation among V,
R and I. • Conductivity
iii. measure the conductivity of different substances.
• Magnetic field
iv. describe magnetic field and magnetic lines of force
and demonstrate them. • Magnetic lines of force
v. explain the elements of earth’s magnetism (angle of
dip and angle of declination). • Terrestrial magnetism
current electricity : the form of energy which is produced due to continuous flow of electrons
through a conductor
resistance : the property of a conductor to oppose the flow of electricity through it
magnetism : the phenomenon of attracting magnetic substances
terrestrial : connected or related with the earth

Current Electricity
When a cell is connected to a bulb with copper wires, the bulb glows due to continuous
flow of electrons through the wire. Such flow of electrons through a conductor is called
current electricity. So, the form of energy which is produced due to continuous flow of
electrons is called current electricity. Cell, battery, dynamo and generator are the sources
of current electricity.
Current electricity is a very useful form of energy. It can be converted into heat energy,
light energy, sound energy, magnetic energy. It is used to light bulb, to operate heater,
television, computer, radio, fan, telephone, etc.
Open Electric Circuit

The electric circuit in which a load does not
work is called open circuit. In an open circuit,
electric current does not flow continuously. So
the load (bulb) does not work. A circuit may be Switch
(OFF)
Fig.
open (i) if the switch is turned 'OFF', (ii) wire
has broken or (iii)load (bulb) is damaged.
7.1
Open circuit
Closed Electric Circuit

The electric circuit in which a load works
continuously is called closed electric
circuit. In this condition, current flows
Fig.
continuously through the circuit. The Switch (ON)

switch is turned 'ON' in a closed circuit.
7.2
Symbols Used in Circuit Diagrams Closed circuit
While drawing circuit diagrams, electrical equipment and components of electric circuit
are represented by their symbols. The main components and electrical equipments with
their symbols and functions are as follows:
S. No. Components/Devices Symbols Function
1. Wire To make circuit
2. Wires (not connected) To make electric path
3. Wires (connected)
To open and close

4. Switch
circuit
5. Electric cell Source of electricity
6. Battery Source of electricity
To convert electrical
7. Resistor/Load or energy into another
form
To convert electricity
8. Bulb or into light
9. Ammeter A To measure the current
To measure the
10. Voltmeter V
voltage
To break the circuit in

11. Fuse or case of overloading
To detect electric
12. Galvanometer G
current
An electric circuit showing various components in proper order of combination is given

below:
A
V
Fig.
7.3
Electric circuit
Electric current
The rate of flow of charge in an electric circuit is known as electric current. It is denoted
by I. In SI system, electric current is measured in ampere (A).

Electric current flowing through an electric circuit is calculated by the given formula:
Flow of charge (Q)
Electric current (I) =
Time (t)
Q
or, I =
t
The SI unit of flow of charge is coulomb (C) and that of time is second. So, the SI unit of
electric current is coulomb/second or ampere (A).
One ampere current

One ampere current (1A) can be defined as the rate of flow of one coulomb charge in one
second.
We know,
Q 1C
I = t = = 1A
1s
One coulomb charge consists of 6 × 1018 electrons. So 1A current is also called the rate of
flow of 6 × 1018 electrons through a conductor in 1 second.
Ammeter and Galvanometer

Ammeter is an electric equipment which is used to measure the amount of electric current
flowing through a conductor.
In order to measure the electric current flowing through an electric circuit, the positive
terminal of the cell or battery is connected to the positive terminal of the ammeter and the
negative terminal of the cell or battery is connected to the negative terminal of the ammeter.
Fig.
7.4
Ammeter Galvanometer
Ammeter is a device having low resistance. It is always connected in series in an electric
current so that all current flowing through the circuit passes through ammeter. The device
which is used to detect the presence of electric current is called galvanometer. It is also
used to measure very small amount of electric current.
In an electric circuit, galvanometer is always connected in series.

Voltmeter
The electric equipment which is used to
measure the potential difference (p.d.) between
any two points of a closed electric circuit is
called voltmeter.
In an electric circuit, voltmeter is always
connected in parallel to a device, or a source
of electricity in order to find the difference in
Fig.
potential between any two points of the source
or a device. Voltmeter has a high resistance. So
7.5
it is not connected in series.
Voltmeter
Differences between Ammeter and Voltmeter
Ammeter Voltmeter
1. Ammeter is used to measure the 1. Voltmeter is used to measure the
magnitude of electric current flowing potential difference between any two
through a circuit. points of an electric circuit or source.
2. It is always connected in series with 2. It is always connected in parallel with
the circuit. a resistance.
Electromotive force
Metals have free electrons so they are called good conductor of electricity. But the free
electrons present in metals do not move on their own without supplying energy from an
external source. When a source (cell or a battery) is connected to a conductor, it supplies
energy necessary for flow of electrons through the conductor and during this process
some amount of work is done. So, electromotive force can be defined as the amount of
energy supplied to move unit charge (i.e. 1 coulomb charge) throughout the whole circuit.
Potential difference
Electromotive force creates potential difference across the two ends of a conductor. As a
result, an electric current flows from the positive terminal of the source to the negative
terminal. During this process, a certain amount of work is done to bring unit charge from
one point to another which is called potential difference (p.d.). So, the amount of work
done in bringing unit charge or one coulomb charge from one point to another point
of a conductor is called potential difference. It is denoted by V. In SI system, potential
difference is measured in volt (V). Potential difference is measured in closed circuit.
One volt potential difference
We know,
Work done
Potential difference (p.d.) =
Charge moved form one point to another
1 joule
\ 1 volt p.d. = 1 coulomb

When 1 joule work is done move one coulomb charge from one point to another point of
a conductor, it is called one volt potential difference (1 V p.d).
Differences between potential difference and electromotive force.

Potential difference Electromotive force
1. It is the amount of work done in 1. It is the amount of energy supplied to
bringing one coulomb charge from carry one coulomb charge throughout
one point to another. the whole circuit.
2. It is less than electromotive force. 2. It is more than potential difference.
3. It is measured in closed circuit. 3. It is measured in open circuit.
Ohm's law
The relation between electricity flowing through a circuit (I), resistance in the circuit
(R) and the potential difference or voltage (V) was discovered by the famous German
Physicist George Simon Ohm. This relation is popularly known as Ohm’s law.
Ohm's law states that,"When the temperature and other physical conditions remain
constant, the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its two ends.”
or, I ∝ V
or, V ∝ I
or, V = RI
\ V = IR ............... (i)
Where 'R' is a constant. It is the resistance of the conductor.
Form equation (1),
V
I =
R
V
Or, R = .................... (2)
I
From above relation, it becomes clear that the resistance of a conductor is the ratio of the
potential difference across two ends of a conductor and the current following through it.
In SI system, resistance (R) is measured in ohm (Ω). Similarly, electric current (I) is
measured in ampere (A) and potential difference is measured in volt (V).
Experimental verification of Ohm's law

● Take four dry cells of 1.5 V each, a resistor, an
ammeter a voltmeter and a switch.
● Now, prepare an electric circuit by connecting
Fig.
them as shown in the figure. A

● Measure the voltage and current by connecting
7.6 V
four cells in the circuit and fill it in the table.
● Remove one cell from the circuit and measure the voltage and current.
● Now, measure the voltage and current by combining two cells in the circuit and then
by connecting one cell in the circuit.
● Calculate the resistance in each case and fill in the given table.
Observation Table:
S.No. Voltage (V) Current (A) Resistance (R) Conclusion

1.
2.
3.
4.
● Now, plot a graph putting the voltage (V) along the X-axis and current (I) along the
Y-axis. The graph is obtained as shown in the given figure.
Y
(R)
Current ce
tan
(I) sis
Re
Fig.
X
7.7 Voltage (V)
This graph shows the voltage (V) is directly proportional to the current (I). This activity
proves Ohm's law.
Solved Numerical: 1
A load of 6 Ω is connected to a source of 12 V potential difference. Calculate the amount
of current.
Solution:
Resistance (R) = 6 Ω
Voltage (V) = 12 V
Current (T) = ?
We know,
V = IR
V
or, I =
R

12
or, I =
6
= 2A
\ The amount of current that flows through a circuit = 2A.
Conductors Insulators and Semi-conductors

The substances through which electric current flows very easily are called good conductors
of electricity. Examples : copper, silver, aluminium, etc.
The resistors that are sold commercially have very high resistance. They are used to
control the amount of current flowing through a circuit.
Substances like rubber, dry wood, brick, plastic, paper, etc. do not have free electrons so
they do not allow electricity to flow through them. The substances which do not allow
electric current to pass through them are called bad conductor or insulators.
Some substances like silicon, germanium, etc. contain a few free electrons. So they allow
less amount of current to flow them. They are called semi-conductors.
The substances which allow less amount of current flow through them are called semi-
conductors. More current flows through semi-conductors when their temperature
increased.
Semi-conductors pass more current than insulators and less current than conductors.
Resistance
When electric current flows through a conductor, the conductor opposes the flow of
current partially. However, the resistance of a conductor depends on various factors
like type and nature of conductor, length of conductor, thickness of conductor and so
on. Therefore, resistance vary according to nature of the conductor. The property of a
conductor due to which it opposes the flow of current through it is called resistance. It is
denoted by R. In SI system, resistance is measured in ohm (Ω).
The resistance of copper wire is very less but the resistance of nichrome wire is very high.
When one volt potential difference is produced while flowing 1A current, the resistance
of the conductor is called one ohm (1Ω).
The larger units of resistance are kiloohm (KΩ)and megaohm (MΩ) .
Relation between ohm, kiloohm and megaohm
1000 Ω = 1K Ω
1000 k Ω = 1M Ω
1M Ω = 1000000 Ω
Metals contain a large number of free electrons. Therefore, electric current flows easily
through them. But they also have resistance. The resistance of silver wire and copper wire
is very less as compared to that of nichrome wire and tungsten wire.

Metals like copper, aluminium, etc. have a large number of free electrons. So they
produce very low resistance. They have very less resistivity. Therefore, they are called
good conductors of electricity.
Factors affecting resistance of a conductor

1. The resistance (R) of a conductor increases with the increase in the length (l) of
conductor, i.e.
R∝l
2. The resistance of a conductor (R) is inversely proportional to its area (A) of cross-
section, i.e.
1
R=
A
3. The resistance of a conductor (R) is directly proportional to the temperature (T) of the
conductor, i.e.
R∝T
4. The resistance of the coiled wire is more than that of the straight wire.
Combination of Resistance
Generally, resistances are connected by two ways. They are:
i. Series combination of resistances
ii. Parallel combination of resistance
i. Series combination of resistances

In this type of combination, one resistance is
connected after another in series. In this type R1 R2 R3
of connection, the same current flows through
all resistances.
Fig.
In figure, three resistances, R1, R2 and R3 are

+ –
connected in series. So, the total resistance (R) 7.8
is equal to the sum of individual resistance, i.e.
Fig: Series combination of resistance
(R1 + R2 + R3),
or, R = R1 + R2 + R3
In series combination, total resistance increases with the increase in the number f resistance.
Similarly, the current in series combination decreases with increase in the number of
resistances. If one of the bulb gets fused, remaining bulbs/devices stop working as the
circuit is opened.

ii. Parallel combination of resistances
R1
In this combination, each resistance is individually
connected to the two terminals of the electric
R2
source. In this type of combination, the total
potential difference across each resistance remains
the same. So, the current flowing through each R3
resistance also remains the same.
Fig.
In parallel combination, total resistance is equal to
the sum of reciprocal of individual resistances.
7.9 V
1 1 1 1
= + +
R R1 R2 R3
Do You Know
In parallel combination, the total resistance
In domestic electric circuits, all
decreases on increasing the number of
appliances are connected in parallel
resistances. In this connection, if one bulb so that if one appliance goes off due to
gets fused, remaining bulbs/devices work any reason, the others may still keep
continuously. on working.
Activity 1
Prepare an electric circuit as shown in the figure by connecting two dry cells, a
switch, a bulb, an ammeter with a conducting wire (copper wire).
Leave a gap AB as shown in the figure.
1. Now, take two pieces of copper wire (one 5
cm long and another 50cm long) and connect
the gap AB one by one by using those pieces A
Fig.
of wire.
Measure the amount of current flowing 7.10
A B
through the circuit.
When the circuit is completed by using the short wire (5 cm) the ammeter
shows more current flowing through the circuit than the current flown when
the circuit is completed by using long wire.
It shows that the resistance of a conductor increases on increasing its length.
In other words, resistance (R) of a conductor is directly proportional to the length
(L) of the conductor.
In short, R ∝ L
Were, R = Resistance of the wire
L = length of the wire
2. Take two wires one thick and another thin having the same length of 10cm. Complete
the electric circuit by connecting the circuit by thin and thick wire one by one.
Note down the reading of the ammeter in each case.

When the circuit is completed by thick wire, more current flows and when the
circuit is completed by thin wire less current flows. It shows that the resistance of
a conductor decreases if its thickness increases and vice-versa. It means that the
resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the thickness or cross-sectional
area of the conductor.
In short,
1
R ∝
a
Where, R = Resistance of a conductor
a = Cross-sectional area of the conductor.
3. Now, complete the circuit by using a piece of copper wire and a piece of nichrome
wire of equal length and equal thickness. Measure the current flowing through the
circuit in each case. More amount of current flows when the circuit is completed
by using copper wire and very less amount of current flows when the circuit is
completed by using nichrome wire. Copper and nichrome are two different
materials. Therefore, they have different resistance though they have the same
length and thickness.
It shows that the resistance differs according to the nature of the conductor,
4. Take a piece of nichrome wire. Complete the circuit using the nichrome wire and
measure the current.
Now, heat the piece of nichrome wire with the help of a Bunsen burner. Complete
the circuit by using hot piece of nichrome wire. Measure the current again. What do
you observe?
Less current flows when the circuit is completed with hot nichrome wire than it is
done with cold nichrome wire. It shows that the resistance of a conductor increases
when the temperature increases. The reverse of this is also true.
or, R ∝T
where, R = Resistance
T = Temperature
From the above activities, we can concludes that the following factors affect the
resistance of a conductor.
1. Length of the conductor
2. Thickness of the conductor
3. Temperature of the conductor
4. Nature of the conductor.
Conductivity
Most metals are good conductors of electricity and most non-metals are bad conductors
or insulators. However, graphite is a non-metal which can conduct electricity.
We know that the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the length of the
conductor, i.e.
R ∝ L ...................... (i)

The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the thickness or cross-sectional
area of the conductor, i.e.
1
R ∝ ......................... (ii)
a
Form equation (1) and (2), we get
L
R∝
a
L
or, R = δ ................... (3)
a
Where δ is a constant called the resistivity of a conductor. Its SI unit is Ω m (ohm meter).
So, conductivity can be defined as the reciprocal of resistivity. The conductivity of a
conductor is more if its resistivity is less. Similarly, the conductivity of a conductor is less
if its resistivity is more.
The conductivity of tungesten, nichrome, etc. is less due to more resistivity. Similarly, the
conductivity of copper, gold, aluminium, silver, etc. is more due to less reactivity.
Generally, the conductivity of metals is more than that of non-metals. On the other hand,
the resistivity of non-metals is more than that of metals. Similarly, the conductivity of
good conductors is more than that of poor conductors.
Magnetism
In previous classes, you have studied about magnet and its properties. Similarly, you have
studied the methods of making method artificially. A magnet is a substance which attracts
the substances like iron, cobalt, nickel, steel, etc. The substances like iron, cobalt, nickel,
etc. are called magnetic substances because they are attracted by a magnet.
Fig.
7.11
Bar magnet U-shaped magnet
The property of a magnet due to which it attracts magnetic substances kept inside the
magnetic field is called magnetism. Magnetic force is developed when the molecular
magnets present in a magnetic substance align parallel to each other. The magnetic force
is maximum at the poles and minimum at the centre. A magnet has two poles. They
are north pole (N) and south pole (S). Magnets may be natural or artificial. The natural
magnets have less magnetism than the artificial magnets.
Magnetic Field
The attractive force of a magnet
decreases when magnetic substances are
taken away from the magnet. A magnet
attracts those magnetic substance which
are kept nearby the magnet. When we
Fig.
increase the distance between a magnet
and magnetic substances there is no 7.12
influence of magnet on these substances. A magnet is attracting iron dust
So, magnetic field of a magnet can be
defined as the space around a magnet
upto where its influence on magnetic
substances can be seen.
A magnet attracts only theses magnetic
substances which are kept inside the
magnetic field.
Fig.
Magnetic field is a vector quantity. The

magnetic field of a powerful magnet is
large and that of less powerful magnet is 7.13
small. Magnet field
Magnetic Lines of Force

Inside the magnetic field, numerous lines of force arise form the north pole of a magnet
and these lines of force move towards the south pole in the from of curves. These curves
are known as magnetic lines of force. So, magnetic lines of force are the paths along which
unit north pole moves in a magnetic field. We can trace magnetic lines of force with the
help of a magnetic compass.
N N
N
N
E E E E
S S
Fig.
S S
7.14 (a) (b)

Magnetic lines of force
The magnetic field of a magnet is stronger in the pole than in its middle. So the magnetic
lines of force are crowded at the poles of a magnet. They always start form the north pole
of a magnet and end at south pole of the same magnet. The magnetic lines of force are the
closed and continuous curves.
The north pole of a magnetic compass kept inside the magnetic field becomes parallel to
the magnetic line of force towards the direction of magnetic line of force. When a compass
is moved form the north pole towards the path shown by it, a continuous and closed
curve is obtained which is known as magnetic line of force.
When magnetic lines of force are traced by pointing the north pole of a bar magnet
towards the geographical north pole, the magnetic lines of force are obtained as shown in
the figure 7.12 (a).
Similarly, when magnetic lines of force are traced by pointing the north pole of a bar
magnet towards the geographical south, the magnetic lines of force are obtained as shown
in the figure 7.12 (b). The tangent drawn to a magnetic line of force at any point gives the
direction of magnetic field at that point.
Properties of magnetic lines of force

1. Magnetic lines of force are continuous and closed curves.
2. Magnetic lines of force always start from the north pole of a magnet and end at south
pole (outside the magnet).
3. Magnetic lines of force are crowded near the poles of the magnet as magnetic field is
stronger than in the middle of the magnet.
Activity 2
Take a bar magnet and place it on the centre of a cardboard paper kept on a wooden
board.
Fig.
7.15
Draw the outline of the bar magnet with a pencil.
Draw a dot at the north pole of the bar magnet.

Adjust a magnetic compass in such a way that the north pole of the compass lies on
the dot drawn.
Draw a dot on the north pole of the compass and adjust the north pole of the
compass on the second dot. Continue this process till you move to the south pole of
the magnet.
Now, connect these dots with a pencil. You will get a curve starting from the north
pole of the magnet. This curve is called magnetic line of force.
By repeating the above process, we can get numerous magnetic lines of force.
While drawing magnetic lines of force, we get two points where the magnetic compass
does not show any particular direction. These points are called neutral points. These
points are denoted by (×) are the neutral points.
Neutral points can be defined
as the points near magnet
where the magnetic field of
the magnet is completely
neutralized by the earth's
Fig.
magnetic field. Therefore, a
magnetic compass cannot
show any particular direction. 7.16 Neutral point
At neutral points, the magnetic
field of a magnet and the magnetic field of the earth's magnet is equal but opposite to
each-other. Therefore, the resultant field at the poles is zero.
Terrestrial magnetism
The earth also exhibits magnetism. The earth itself can be taken as an extremely large magnet.
So the earth has its own magnetic field. These are magnetic lines of force in the earth's
magnetic field. A magnetic compass always remains parallel to the direction of magnetic
lines of force of the terrestrial magnet. A bar magnet when suspended freely by tieing with
a polyster or nylon thread always remains parallel to the magnetic lines of force of the
terrestrial magnet. When we trace the magnetic lines of force using a magnetic compass
form the magnetic north pole of the earth, we reach the magnetic south pole of the earth.
When an iron rod is buried in the soil facing it north south direction it develops magnetic
properties with 4 – 5 days. The magnetic north pole of the earth lies at the geographical
south pole and the magnetic south pole of the earth lies at geographical north pole, The
magnetic north pole is located at the corner of Antarctica. Similarly, the magnetic south
pole is located at Northern Canada.
Angle of declination
The magnetic poles of the terrestrial magnet and the geographical poles of the earth do
not lie in the same plane. So the imaginary line that joins geographical north - south
direction and the imaginary line that joins magnetic north - south poles cross each other
making a certain angle. This angle is called angle of declination.
Magnetic south
A B Geographical
q pole of the earth
north pole
F
Angle of
q
declination
Fig.
D C
Geographical
7.17 E south pole
Angle of declination
Angle of declination can be defined as the angle between the magnetic meridian and geographical
meridian at a place. The value of angle of declination varies from place to place on the earth.
Angle of declination is denoted by q. It helps to find out true geographical direction.
The imaginary line passing through magnetic
north pole and magnetic south pole of the earth
is known as magnetic meridian. Similarly, the
imaginary line passing through geographical
north pole and geographical south pole is known Declination
as geographical meridian.
We should know the value of angle of declination
Fig.
of a certain place to know the exact geographical
direction. Angle of declination is used by pilots,
navigators, sailors, travellers, etc. to find out the 7.18
exact direction.
Angle of dip
Horizontal
Angle of dip at a certain place is defined q Angle of
as the angle made by dip needle to the dip
horizontal line of that place. A magnetic
needle which rotates freely and arranged
north -south direction is called dip needle. S
Fig.
Dip needle remains parallel to the Vertical

magnetic lines of force of the earth's 7.19
magnet. In a certain place, a dip needle
inclines towards the ground. It means that the magnetic lines of force of the earth's magnet
also incline towards the ground.
The angle of dip varies from place to place on the surface of the earth. The value of angle
of dip at equator is zero. It is due to the equal effect of north pole and south pole of the
terrestrial magnet. The value of angle of dip in Kathmandu is 42° means that the dip
needle placed in Kathmandu makes an angle of 42° to the horizontal line of the place.
The value of angle of dip increases gradually while moving towards the north or south
form the equator and the value of angle of dip at poles is 90°.

a. Electricity is the form of energy which is produced due to continuous flow of
.....................
Protons neutrons electron atoms
b. The SI unit of current is .....................
ohm ampere volt watt

c. The resistance of a conductor depends on .....................
length of the conductor temperature of the conductor
nature of the conductor all of th above
d. The device which is used to measure the potential difference is called .....................
ammeter voltmeter galvanometer dip needle
e. The value of angle of dip at the equator is .....................
0° 90° 45° 180°

a. What is electric current?
b. Write any two sources of electric current.
c. Define electric circuit. Draw a neat figure showing a closed electric circuit.
d. What is meant by electromotive force? Define potential difference.
e. State Ohm's law and prove V = IR.
f. Define resistance of a conductor and write its three units.
g. Write any three factors that affect the resistance of a conductor.
h. What happens to the resistance of a conductor when
i. the length of the conductor is increased?
ii. thickness of the conductor is decreased?
iii. temperature of the conductor is increased?
i. What is meant by conductivity? How does it differ from resistivity?
j. What is magnetism?
k. What is magnetic field?
l. What are magnetic lines of force?
m. What is terrestrial magnetism ? Write any two evidences of existence of terrestrial
magnetism.
n. What is angle of declination? Write its advantages.
o. What is angle of dip? What is its value:
i. at equator?
ii. at north pole?
iii. at south pole?
p. What is meant by the statement that the angle of dip in Kathmandu is 42°?
q. What are neutral points?
a. Potential difference and Electromotive force
b. Voltmeter and Ammeter
c. Angle of dip and Angle of declination
4. Give reason:
a. Ammeter is always connected in series in an electric circuit.
b. Voltmeter is always connected in parallel.
c. The angle of dip at the equator is 0°.
d. The angle of dip at poles is 90°.
e. Angle of declination is very useful for us.
5. Draw a neat figure showing magnetic lines of force.

6. Numerical problems:
a. If 360 coulomb charge flows through a conductor in 3 minutes, calculate the
current flowing through a circuit. [Ans: 2V]
b. A current of 5A flows when 300 coulomb charge flows through a circuit. Calculate
the time taken to flow the charge. [Ans: 60 s]
c. Calculate the current flowing through a circuit when a resistance of 6 Ω is
connected to the potential difference of 3V. [Ans: 0.5A]
d. Calculated the resistance of a conductor when a current of 6A can be drawn by
connecting it to 12V potential difference with a wire. [Ans: 2 Ω]
e. A current of 2A flows through a circuit when a conductor of 6 Ω is connected to
a source. Calculate the potential difference or voltage. [Ans: 12V]
1. What is current electricity?
2. Define electromotive force.
3. Define one ohm resistance.
4. What is an electric load? Write with an example.
5. What is the actual direction of current flow? Write.
6. What is ammeter? How is it connected in an electric circuit?
7. What is potential difference?
8. What is voltmeter? How is it connected in an electric circuit?
9. State Ohm’s law.
10. What is angle of declination?
11. What is magnetic field?
12. What is a neutral point?
13. What is the magnitude of angle of dip at the magnetic equator?

14. Copper is called good conductor and silicon is called semiconductor. Give reason.
15. Hydroelectricity is called a renewable source of energy, why? Why is voltmeter
connected parallel with loads ?
16. Write any two differences between potential difference and electromotive force.
17. Write any two differences between Ammeter and Voltmeter.
18. We should know angle of declination to know the actual geographical direction of a
certain place, why?
19. Differentiate between angle of dip and angle of declination.
20. The value of angle of declination changes from place to place. Why?

21. State Ohm’s law and prove that V = IR.
22. Define series combination and parallel combination of cells. In which condition are
cells connected in series?
Z
23. How is galvanometer connected in an electric circuit? Write
down the utility of angle of declination.
24. Write any three evidences that prove the magnetic property X
of the earth. Label ‘X’, ‘Y’ and ‘Z’ shown in the given diagram. Y
25. How is the angle of dip at a certain place measured? Describe

in brief with figure.

26. Study the electric circuit shown in the given diagram and answer the following
questions:
a. What happens to the brightness of bulb when the number
of electric bulb is reduced ? Why ?
b. Write down an advantage of such type of circuit.
c. Name the type in which the bulbs are connected in the
circuit. Define the type of connection of bulbs.
27. A current of 0.33 A is flowing through a circuit. If the potential difference across two
points of a wire is 5V, calculate the resistance. Differentiate between closed circuit and
open circuit.
28. The power of the bulb in a car is 60W. Calculate the current that flows when it is
connected to a battery of 6V. Also, calculate the resistance of the bulb. Differentiate
between semiconductor and insulator.
29. Study the given figures and answer the following questions:
a. Which type of combination of loads 6V 6V
is shown in the fig. (a) and fig. (b)?
1.5 Ω
b. How much current flows in the 1.5 Ω 1.5 Ω
circuit (a) and (b)?
1.5 Ω
30. The voltage of an electric line is 220V. If 4.54 A current flows through the line when
a heater is connected to the circuit, calculate the power of the heater. Differentiate
between angle of declination and angle of dip.

Chemistry
UNIT
Classification of
8 Elements
Before You Begin

Any thing having mass and volume is called matter. Different
substances around us are matter. Solid, liquid and gas are three states
of matter. Some matter can be decomposed into simple substances.
These substances are called compounds. A compound is a substance
formed by combination of two or more elements in a fixed proportion
by weight. The smallest particle of a compound is called molecule.
Water (H2O), Sodium chloride (NaCl), Carbon dioxide (CO2), etc.
are some examples of compounds. Some matter cannot be divided
into simple substance by ordinary chemical means. These matter are
called elements. The smallest particle of an element is called atom. An
element is a pure substance made of atoms. Hydrogen (H), Oxygen
(O), Carbon (C), Sodium (Na), etc. are some examples of elements.
Scientists have discovered 118 elements so far. Among them 92
elements are found in nature and the remaining 26 elements have
been synthesized in laboratory by scientists.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Element and compound
i. define atom and describe the atomic structure of • Atomic structure
elements and their electronic configuration. • Electronic configuration
ii. introduce valency in terms of combining capacity • Valence electron and valency
of elements and write molecular formulae of some • Chemical bond
common compounds.
• Molecular formula
iii. introduce radicals and ions with examples. • Radicals and their types
iv. write molecular formulae of some common • Electrovalent bond and
compounds. covalent bond
matter : anything having mass and volume

atom : the smallest particle of an element
molecule : the smallest particle of a compound
valency : the combining capacity of an atom with another atom to form a molecule
symbol : an abbreviation of the full name of an element
abbreviation : a short form of a word
GREEN Science (Chemistry) Book-9 141

Elements
Different types of substances are found in our surroundings. Among them, some cannot
be broken down into simple substances by ordinary chemical means. These substances
are called elements. An element is a pure substance which cannot be divided into two
or more simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C),
Oxygen (O), Sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca), Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), etc. are
examples of elements. Elements are pure substances formed by only one kind of atoms.
Fig.
8.1
Gold Iron Silver Copper
Hydrogen, gold, iron, silver and copper are called elements because they are formed
by only one type of atoms and they cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
ordinary chemical methods. All the atoms of the same element are identical but atoms of
different elements are different.
Scientists have discovered 118 elements so far. Among them 92 are found in nature and
remaining 26 elements have been discovered by chemists in the laboratory. At normal
temperature and pressure, elements exist in all three states, viz. solid, liquid and gas. Elements
like iron, copper, gold, silver, sodium, magnesium, aluminium, etc. are found in solid state.
Elements like mercury, bromine, caesium and gallium are found in liquid state and elements
like hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, argon, etc. are found in gaseous state.
Compound
Substances like water (H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl), H H
carbon dioxide (CO2), calcium carbonate (CaCO3) etc.
are some examples of compounds. They are formed by O
combination of two or more elements in a fixed
Fig.
proportion by weight. So, the chemical substance

formed by a combination of two or more elements in a 8.2 Water (H2O)
fixed proportion by weight is called a compound. A
compound is made of two or more atoms. Two or more active elements undergo chemical
reaction which results in the formation of a compound. A compound does not contain the
properties of its constituent elements.
Water is a compound formed by combination of two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
O C O
Fig.
Carbon dioxide is a compound formed by combination

of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. Sodium
8.3 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
chloride (NaCl) is formed by combination of one atom
of sodium and one atom of chlorine.
142 GREEN Science (Chemistry) Book-9
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is a compound
formed by a combination of one atom of magnesium
and two atoms of chlorine. Similarly, Aluminium Cl Mg Cl
Fig.
chloride is formed by combination of one atom of
Aluminium and three atoms of chlorine. Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
8.4
Differences between Elements and Compounds
Elements Compounds
1. An element is a pure substance formed 1. A compound is a pure substance
by only one type of atoms. formed by a combination of two or
more types of atoms.
2. The smallest particle of an element is 2. The smallest particle of a compound is
called atom. called a molecule.
3. An element cannot be split into simpler 3. A compound can be split into two or
substances by ordinary chemical more simpler substances by ordinary
means. chemical means.
Atom
An atom is the smallest particle of Shell or orbit
an element which can take part in
a chemical reaction. All atoms of Proton
an element are similar but atoms of
different elements are different. For
Neutron
example, all atoms of gold are identical
Fig.
Nucleus
but the atom of gold differs from that
of copper or silver. Scientists have Electron
discovered 118 types of atoms so far. 8.5
Among them, most atoms cannot exist An atom
freely in nature but atoms of helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon
(Xe) and radon (Rn) exist freely in nature. Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), sodium
(Na),calcium (Ca), Copper, (Cu), Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), etc. are the examples of atom.
Molecule
A molecule is smallest
particle of an element or a O O
compound which can exist O O
freely in nature. There are a C
Fig.
thousand types of molecules.

The molecule of an element
Oxygen molecule Carbon dioxide molecule
consists of two or more atoms 8.6
of the same kind where as the molecules of a compound consists of two or more atoms
of different elements. Hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2), ozone (O3), water (H2O), calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium carbonate (MgCO3), etc. are
some examples of molecules.
A molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of oxygen. Similarly, a molecule of carbon
dioxide consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
Structure of an atom Electron

An atom is made of three fundamental Shell or orbit
particles or sub-atomic particles. They
Nucleus
are proton, neutron and electron.
Proton
Among them, proton and neutron are
located in the nucleus whereas electrons Neutron
Fig.
revolve around the nucleus in elliptical
orbits or shell.
Protons are positively charged sub- 8.7
atomic particles located in the nucleus Oxygen atom
of an atom. The mass of one proton is equal to that of one hydrogen atom. The mass of
one hydrogen atom is considered as one amu. (atomic mass unit). The mass of one proton
is 1837 times more than that of one electron. A proton is denoted by p+.
Neutrons are chargeless sub-atomic particles located in the nucleus of an atom. The mass
of a neutron is equal to that of a proton. A neutron is denoted by n°.
Electrons are negatively-charged sub-atomic particles that revolve around the nucleus in
elliptical orbits or shells. The mass of one electron is 1837 times smaller than that of one
proton. An electron is denoted by e–.
Atomic mass unit (amu)

The mass of an atom is very small. It cannot be expressed into milligram, gram and
kilogram. So the mass of proton, neutron and electron is expressed in atomic mass unit
(amu). The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1 amu. 1 gram is equal to 6 × 1023 amu. The mass
of a proton is 1 amu. So the mass of 6 × 1023 protons is equal to 1 gram. The mass of one
proton is equal to that of one neutron. Similarly, the mass of one neutron is 1837 times
more than that of one electron.
In short,
1p+ = 1n° = 1837e– = 1 amu
Electric charge
Protons and electrons are electrically Do You Know
charged. Protons have positive charge and An atom is electrically neutral due to the
electrons have negative charge but neutrons presence of equal number of protons and
do not have any charge. The unit of electronic electrons having opposite charges.
charge is coulomb (coul). In a neutral atom,
the number of protons is equal to that of
electrons. One coulomb charge contains 6.25 × 1018 electrons. The given table shows the
comparative study of proton, neutron and electron.

S.N. Sub-atomic particles Symbol Charge Mass Location
1. Proton p+ +ve 1amu Nucleus
2. Neutron n° nil 1 amu Nucleus
3. Electron e– –ve 1 Orbit or shell
amu
1837
Atomic number
An atomic number of an atom is the total number of protons present in the nucleus of
that atom. It is also defined as the total number of electrons present in a neutral atom. An
atomic number is denoted by z.
In short,
Atomic number (z) = No. of p+ = No. of e– in a neutral atom
Atomic mass or Atomic weight

The sum of number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is called
atomic mass or atomic weight. It is denoted by A.
Atomic mass (A) = No. of p+ + No. of n°
No. of p+ = Atomic mass (A) – No. of n°
No. of n° = Atomic mass (A) – No. of p+
No. of n° = Atomic mass (A) – Atomic number (z) [ Atomic number = No. of p+]
Worked out Numerical: 1

The atomic number of calcium atom is 20 and its atomic mass is 40. Calculate the number
of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Given,
Atomic no. (z) = 20
Atomic weight (A) = 40
We know,
Atomic no. (z) = No. of p+ = No. of e–
= 20 = 20
\ No. of p = 20
+
No. of e– = 20
Now,
Atomic mass = No. of p+ + No. of n°
or, 40 = 20 + No. of n°
or, No. of n° = 40 – 20 = 20
Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration is the systematic distribution of electrons in various orbits or
energy levels around the nucleus of an atom. The distribution of electrons around the
nucleus was proposed by Bohr and Bury in 1921 AD.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
p+ K L M N O P Q
n° 2 8 18 32 32 18 8
Fig.
8.8
Electronic configuration in various orbits
In an atom, the shells or orbits are named as K, L, M, N, O, P and Q according to the
increasing distance from the nucleus. 2n2 rule determines the maximum number of
electrons that are accommodated in different shells of an atom. In this rule, 'n' represents
the number of shells or orbits.
Orbit/shell No. of shell Maximum number of electrons
K n=1 2n2 = 2 × 12 = 2
L n=2 2n2 × 2 × 22 = 8
M n=3 2n2 = 2 × 32 = 18
N n=4 2n2 = 2 × 42 = 32
The outermost shell of an atom cannot accommodate more than 8 electrons. So 2n2 rule
is applicable for a few elements and shells K, L, M and N. The maximum number of
electrons that can be accommodated by shells O, P and Q is 32, 18 and 8 respectively.
Electronic
Atomic Name of Number of Atomic mass
Symbol configuration Valency
number elements (p+ + n°)
p+ n° e– K L M N
1. Hydrogen H 1 0 1 1+0=1 1 1
2. Helium He 2 2 2 2+2=4 2 0
3. Lithium Li 3 4 3 3+4=7 2 1 1
4. Beryllium Be 4 5 4 4+5=9 2 2 2
5. Boron B 5 6 5 5 + 6 = 11 2 3 3
6. Carbon C 6 6 6 6 + 6 = 12 2 4 4
7. Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 + 7 = 14 2 5 3
8. Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 + 8 = 16 2 6 2
9. Fluorine F 9 10 9 9 + 10 = 19 2 7 1
10. Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 + 10 = 20 2 8 0
11. Sodium Na 11 12 11 11 + 12 = 23 2 8 1 1
12. Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 + 12 = 24 2 8 2 2
13 Aluminium Al 13 14 13 13 + 14 = 27 2 8 3 3
14. Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 + 14 = 28 2 8 4 4
15. Phosphorus P 15 16 15 15 + 16 = 31 2 8 5 3, 5
16. Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 + 16 = 32 2 8 6 2, 6
17. Chlorine Cl 17 18 17 17 + 18 = 35 2 8 7 1
18. Argon Ar 18 22 18 18 + 22 = 40 2 8 8 0
19. Potassium K 19 20 19 19 + 20 = 39 2 8 8 1 1
20. Calcium Ca 20 20 20 20 + 20 = 40 2 8 8 2 2
The atomic structure and electronic configuration of the first 20 elements is given below:
1. Hydrogen (H)
Atomic number = 1
1p
Fig.
Atomic mass = 1
0n
Shells K L M N
No. of e– 1 × × × 8.9
Hydrogen

2. Helium (He)
Atomic number = 2
Atomic mass = 4 2p
Fig.
2n
Shells K L M N
No. of e– 2 × × × 8.10
Helium
3. Lithium (Li)
Atomic number = 3
3p
Atomic mass = 7
4n
Fig.
Shells K L M N
No. of e– 2 1 × ×
8.11
Lithium
4. Beryllium (Be)
Atomic number = 4 4p
Atomic mass = 9 5n
Fig.
Shells K L M N
No. of e– 2 2 × × 8.12
Beryllium
5. Boron (B)
Atomic number = 5
Atomic mass = 11 5p
6n
Fig.
Shells K L M N
No. of e– 2 3 × ×
8.13
Boron
6. Carbon (C)
Atomic number = 6
Atomic mass = 12 6p
Shells K L M N 6n
Fig.
No. of e– 2 4 × ×
8.14
Carbon
7. Nitrogen (N)
Atomic number = 7
Atomic mass = 14
Shells K L M N 7p
7n
Fig.
No. of e– 2 5 × ×
8.15
Nitrogen
8. Oxygen (O)
Atomic number = 8
Atomic mass = 16
Shells K L M N 8p
No. of e– 2 6 × × 8n
Fig.
8.16
Oxygen
9. Fluorine (F)
Atomic number = 9
Atomic mass = 19
Shells K L M N 9p
10n
Fig.
No. of e– 2 7 × ×
8.17
Fluorine
10. Neon (Ne)
Atomic number = 10
Atomic mass = 20 10p
Shells K L M N 10n
Fig.
No. of e– 2 8 × ×
8.18
Neon
11. Sodium (Na)

Atomic number = 11
Atomic mass = 23
11p
Shells K L M N 12n
No. of e– 2 8 1 ×
Fig.
8.19
Sodium
12. Magnesium (Mg)

Atomic number = 12
Shells K L M N 12n
Fig.
No. of e– 2 8 2 ×
8.20
Magnesium

13. Aluminium (Al)
Atomic number = 13
Atomic mass = 27
13p
Shells K L M N
14n
No. of e– 2 8 3 ×
Fig.
8.21
Aluminium
14. Silicon (Si)

Atomic number = 14
Atomic mass = 28
14p
14n
Fig.
Shells K L M N
No. of e– 2 8 4 ×
8.22
Silicon
15. Phosphorus (P)

Atomic number = 15 15p
Atomic mass = 31 Fig. 16n
Shells K L M N
No. of e– 2 8 5 ×
8.23
Phosphorus
16. Sulphur (S)

Atomic number = 16
16p
Atomic mass = 32
16n
Shells K L M N
Fig.
No. of e– 2 8 6 ×
8.24
Sulphur
17. Chlorine (Cl)

Atomic number = 17
18n
Shells K L M N
Fig.
No. of e– 2 8 7 ×
8.25
Chlorine
18. Argon (Ar)
Atomic number = 18
Shells K L M N 22n
Fig.
No. of e– 2 8 8 ×
8.26
Argon
19. Potassium (K)

Atomic number = 19
19p
Atomic mass = 39
20n
Shells K L M N
Fig.
No. of e– 2 8 8 1
8.27
Potassium
20. Calcium (Ca)

Atomic number = 20
Shells K L M N 20n
No. of e– 2 8 8 2
Fig.
8.28
Calcium
Electronic Configuration of Elements on the Basis shells and sub-

shells
Atomic Name and symbol Electronic Electronic Valency
number of elements configuration on configuration on the
the basis of shells basis of sub - shells
1. Hydrogen (H) 1 × × × 1s1 1
2. Helium (He) 2 × × × 1s² 0
3. Lithium (Li) 2 1 × × 1s² 2s1 1
4. Beryllium (Be) 2 2 × × 1s² 2s² 2
5. Boron (B) 2 3 × × 1s² 2s² 2p1 3
6. Carbon (C) 2 4 × × 1s² 2s² 2p² 4

7. Nitrogen (N) 2 5 × × 1s² 2s² 2p³ 3
8. Oxygen (O) 2 6 × × 1s² 2s² 2p4 2
9. Fluorine (F) 2 7 × × 1s² 1s² 2p5 1
10. Neon (Ne) 2 8 × × 1s² 2s² 2p6 0
11. Sodium (Na) 2 8 1 × 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s1 1
12. Magnesium (Mg) 2 8 2 × 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 2
13. Aluminium (Al) 2 8 3 × 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 2p1 3
14. Silicon (Si) 2 8 4 × 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 3p² 4
15. Phosphorus (P) 2 8 5 × 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 3p³ 3, 5
16. Sulphur (S) 2 8 6 × 1s² 2s² 2p6 2s² 2p4 2, 6
17. Chlorine (Cl) 2 8 7 × 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 3p5 1
18. Argon (Ar) 2 8 8 × 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 3p6 0
19. Potassium (K) 2 8 8 1 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 3p6 4s1 1
20. Calcium (Ca) 2 8 8 2 1s² 2s² 2p6 3s² 3p6 4s² 2
Sub-Shells or Orbitals
The main shells of atoms are K, L, M, N, O, P and Q. Each main shell consists of one or
more sub-shells or orbitals which are given below:
Main shells Sub-shells or orbitals

K(n = 1) s
L (n = 2) s, p
M (n = 3) s, p, d
N (n = 4) s, p, d and f
Each sub-shell can accommodate a certain number of electron in it. The maximum number
of electrons that can be accommodated by sub-shells or orbitals is given below:
Sub-shells/orbitals Maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in

the sub-shell
s 2
p 6
d 10
d 14
Aufbau Principle
Aufbau principle states that, "the elements in an atom are so distributed that they occupy
orbits in order of their increasing energy". Form this principle it becomes clear that the
orbits having low energy level are filled faster than the orbits having high energy level as
shown in the given order.
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4l < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p
Do You Know
Aufbau principle was propounded by
wolfgang
Pauli and Neils Bohr. According to this
principle, electrons always try to enter into
the shell having low energy level.
Fig.
8.29
Symbol
The abbreviation of the full name of an element is called symbol. It is represented by one
or more English letters. If the symbol of an element has only one letter, it is written in the
capital letter. If the symbol has two letters, the first letter is written in the capital and the
second in small letter.
Some elements which are symbolized by only one letter are as follows:
Atomic Atomic
Name of element Symbol Name of element Symbol
number number
1 Hydrogen H 15 Phosphorus P
5 Boron B 16 Sulphur S
7 Nitrogen N 23 Vanadium V
8 Oxygen O 53 Iodine I
9 Fluorine F 92 Uranium U
Some elements which are symbolized by two letters are as follows:
Atomic Atomic
Name of element Symbol Name of element Symbol
number number
2 Helium He 17 Chlorine Cl
3 Lithium Li 20 Calcium Ca
4 Beryllium Be 24 Chromium Cr
10 Neon Ne 25 Manganese Mn
12 Magnesium Mg 27 Cobalt Co
13 Aluminium Al 30 Zinc Zn
14 Silicon Si

Some elements whose names are written in English but symbolized from Latin or German
names are as follows:
English name Latin/German name Symbol

1. Sodium Natrium (Latin) Na
2. Potassium Kalium (Latin) K
3. Iron Ferrum (Latin) Fe
4. Copper Cuprum (Latin) Cu
5. Silver Argentum (Latin) Ag
6. Gold Aurum (Latin) Au
7. Tungsten Wolfram (German) W
Valency
Valency is the combining capacity of an atom or a radical with another atom or radical to
form a molecule. Valency of an atom is determined by the number of electrons present in
the valence shell.
Valency is the number of electrons lost, gained or shared. For example, the valency of sodium
(Na) is 1 because it loses one electron from its outermost shell. The valency of magnesium
(Mg) is 2 because it loses 2 electrons from its outermost shell during chemical reaction.
Similarly, the valency of chlorine is 1 as it gains 1 electron from other atoms and the valency
of oxygen (O) is 2 as it gains 2 electrons from other atoms during chemical reaction.
If an atom has only a shell K having two electrons, the atom does not take part in chemical
reaction. For example, the outermost shell of Helium (He) contains 2 electrons. So the
valency of Helium (He) atom is zero. The state of an atom having two electrons in the
shell K is called a duplet state. The tendency of an element to maintain two electrons in its
K-shell is called duplet rule.
The elements like Ne, Ar, Kr, Xn and Rn have eight electrons in their valence shell. This
state is called an octate state. The state of an atom having eight electrons in the valence
shell is called the octate state. The tendency of elements by which they maintain eight
electrons in their valence shell is called octet rule. The outermost shell of inert gases is
already fulfilled. So, these elements do not take part in chemical reaction. Hence, their
valency is zero. The elements having a valency of zero are called inert gases.
If elements have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outermost shell except shell K, their valency is 1, 2
or 3 respectively. If elements have 4 electrons in their valence shell, their valency is also 4. If
elements have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their valence shell, their valency is 3, 2 and 1 respectively.
If an atom has only one shell K and the shell K has two electrons, the valency of the atom is
zero. If an atom has eight electrons in the outermost shell, its valency is also zero.
Some elements show variable valency. During chemical reaction,most elements lose or gain
electrons from the valence shell. But in case of transition elements, electrons from the shell

just inner to valence shell also take part in chemical reaction. Due to this, these elements
show variable valency. For example,
S.N. Name of the elements Symbol Valency
1. Iron Fe 2 and 3
2. Copper Cu 1 and 2
3. Mercury Hg 1 and 2
4. Silver Ag 1 and 2
5. Gold Au 1 and 3
6. Lead Pb 2 and 4
Radicals
Radicals are charged atoms or group of atoms having a common charge which acts as
a single unit during a chemical reaction. Radicals have either a positive charge or a
negative charge. So, they are chemically reactive and do not occur in free state. On the
basis of electric charge, there are two types of radicals, viz. electro-positive radicals or
basic radicals and electro-negative radicals or acidic radicals.
1. Electro-positive radicals or Basic radicals

The atoms or groups of atoms having a positive charge are called electro-positive radicals.
They are also called basic radicals.
Some common electro-positive radicals with their valencies are given below:
a. Electro-positive radicals having valency 1 (Monovalent radicals)

i. Hydrogen (H+) ii. Lithium (Li+)
iii. Sodium (Na+) iv. Potassium (K+)
v. Cuprous (Cu+) vi. Mercurous (Hg+)
vii. Aurous (Au+) viii. Ammonium (NH4+)
b. Electro-positive radicals having valency 2 (Bivalent radicals)

i. Beryllium (Be++) ii. Magnesium (Mg++)
iii. Calcium (Ca++) iv. Cupric (Cu++)
v. Ferrous (Fe++) vi. Zinc (Zn++)
vii. Nickel (Ni++) viii. Manganous (Mn++)
c. Electro-positive radicals having valency 3 (Trivalent radicals)

i. Boron (B+++) ii. Aluminium (Al+++)
iii. Ferric (Fe+++) iv. Auric (Au+++)

d. Electro-positive radicals having valency 4 (Tetravalent radicals)
i. Silicon (Si++++) ii. Plumbic (Pb++++)
iii. Stannic (Sn++++)
2. Electro-negative radicals or Acidic radicals

The atoms or group of atoms having negative charge/s are called electro-negative radicals.
They are also called acidic radicals.
Some common electro-negative radicals with their valency are given below:
a. Electro-negative radicals having valency 1

–
i. Fluoride (F ) ii. Chloride (Cl–)
iii. Bromide (Br–) iv. Iodide (I–)
v. Nitrate (NO3–) vi. Nitrite (NO2–)
vii. Hydroxide (OH–) viii. Bisulphate (HSO4–)
ix. Bicarbonate (HCO3–)
b. Electro-negative radicals having valency 2

i. Oxide (O– –) ii. Sulphate (SO4– –)
iii. Carbonate (CO3– –) iv. Sulphide (S– –)
v. Sulphite (SO3– –) vi. Silicate (SiO3– –)
c. Electro-negative radicals having valency 3

i. Nitride (N– – –) ii. Phosphate (PO4– – –)
iii. Phosphide (P– – –) iv. Phosphite (PO3– – –)
Molecular Formula
A molecular formula is defined as the symbolic representation of the molecule of
an element or a compound in a molecular form. It represents the number and type of
atoms present in a molecule. The molecular formula of Magnesium Chloride is MgCl2. It
means that one molecule of Magnesium Chloride is formed by combination of one atom
of magnesium and two atoms of chlorine. Similarly, the molecular formula of calcium
carbonate is CaCO3. It means that one molecule of Calcium Carbonate is formed by one
atom of calcium, one atom of carbon and three atoms of oxygen. We follow criss-coss
method while writing molecular formulae.
Steps for writing molecular formulae

1. First of all, the symbols of electro-positive and electro-negative radicals are written
side by side.
2. The valency of each radical is written just below the symbol.
3. The valency of these radicals is exchanged. HCF is taken when required.
4. Radicals should be combined with exchanged valency to get the correct molecular
formula.
Examples:
1. Hydrochloric acid 2. Sodium chloride
H Cl Na Cl
1 1 1 1
H1 Cl1 Na1 Cl1

= HCl = NaCl
3. Magnesium oxide 4. Carbon dioxide

Mg O C O
2 2 4 2
Mg2 1 O2 1 C2 1 O4 2
= MgO = CO2
5. Ammonia 6. Magnesium chloride

N H Mg Cl
3 1 2 1
N1 H3 Mg1 Cl2
= NH3 = MgCl2
Information Obtained from Molecular Formula

1. Molecular formula represents one molecule of a substance.
2. The valency of each element can be calculated from molecular formula.
3. Molecular formula indicates the total number of atoms of the same/different element/s
in each molecule.
4. Molecular formula indicates percentage composition of each element of a molecule.
Inert gases or Noble gases

Inert gases are the elements which have eight electrons in their valence shell (except helium)
and do not take part in the chemical reactions. They are also called noble gases or inactive
gases. Helium (He), argon, (Ar), neon (ne), etc. are the examples of inert gases. They are kept
in the zero group or group 18 of the modern periodic table. They are chemically inert and
occur in atomic form in gaseous state. Inert gases have duplet state or octet state in their atoms.
18p+
2p+ 10p+ 22n0
2n0 10n0
Fig.
Helium Neon Argon

8.30
Name and Electronic configuration

Atomic
symbol of inert Atomic state
number K L M N O P
gases
2 Helium (He) 2 Duplet
10 Neon (Ne) 2 8 Octet
18 Argon (Ar) 2 8 8 Octet
36 Krypton (Kr) 2 8 18 8 Octet
54 Xenon (Xe) 2 8 18 18 8 Octet
86 Radon (Rn) 2 8 18 32 18 8 Octet
Ions
An atom is electrically neutral as it contains equal number of protons and electrons having
opposite charges. When an atom loses electrons it becomes positively charged and when
an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged. These charged particles are called
ions. So, ions are the charged atoms formed by gain or loss of electrons.
Some examples of the ions having positive charge are Na+, K+, Mg++, Ca++ Cu++, Zn++,
Al+++, etc. These ions are formed by losing one or more electrons from their valence shell.
Some examples of the ions having negative charge are F–, Cl–, Br–, O– –, N– – –, etc.
Chemical bond
The atoms of the elements lose or gain electrons from their valence shell while taking part
in a chemical reaction. Similarly, some atoms share electrons during chemical reaction.
During this process, positively charged and negatively charged particles are formed and
there is a force of attraction between those opposite charges, which is called chemical
bond. Due to presence of chemical bond, atoms combine together in a molecule. So,
chemical bond can be defined as the force between atoms in a molecule which binds them
together.

Types of chemical bond
There are three types of chemical bond. They are as follows:
1. Electrovalent bond or Ionic bond
2. Covalent bond
3. Co-ordinate covalent bond
In this unit, we will study electrovalent bond and covalent bond only.
1. Electrovalent bond
Inert gases neither gain nor lose electrons as they have octet state. Other elements either
lose or gain electrons during chemical reaction to form molecules. Metals have one, two
or three electrons in their valence shell. So they lose either one, two or three electrons
from their valence shell. Non-metals have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their valence shell. So, they
gain 3, 2 or 1 electron from metallic atoms during chemical reaction. The chemical bond
which is formed by transfer of one or more electrons from metal to non-metal is called
electrovalent bond.
During the formation of electrovalent bond, ions are formed. So, this bond is also called
ionic bond. The compounds formed by ionic bond are called ionic compounds. These
compounds are generally found in solid state. Sodium chloride (NaCl), Magnesium
chloride (MgCl2), Potassium chloride (KCl), Calcium chloride (CaCl2), etc. are some
examples of electrovalent or ionic compounds.
To know the formation of electrovalent compounds, let us discuss the formation of
sodium chloride.
p+ = 11 –e– p+ = 11
n° = 12 n° = 12
Sodium (Na) atom Sodium (Na+) ion

Fig.
11 proton = +11 charge 11 proton = +11 charge

11 electron = – 11 charge 11 electron = – 10 charge
8.31 Total charge = 0 Total charge = +1
Formation of Sodium ion (Na+)
Sodium atom has only one electron in its valence shell. So, sodium loses one electron from
its valence shell to obtain octet state like Neon. Its nucleus has 11 protons but the number
of electrons become 10. So, sodium ion has one positive charge, i.e. Na+.

p+ = +17 +e– p+ = +17
n° = –17 n° = –17
Chlorine atom (Cl) Chloride ion (Cl–)

Fig.
17 proton = +17 charge 17 proton = +17 charge

17 electron = – 17 charge 17 electron = – 18 charge
8.32 Total charge = 0 Total charge = –1
The outermost shell of chlorine atom contains seven electrons. So, it gains one electron
from other atoms to obtain octet state like argon and forms chloride radical. The charge of
the chloride radical (Cl–) becomes –1.
When sodium atom and chlorine atom are kept in a close contact, sodium atom loses
one electron from its valence shell which is taken by chlorine atom. As a result, sodium
ion (Na+) and chloride ion (Cl–) are formed. There is a force of attraction between these
opposite charges which results in the formation of electrovalent bond between sodium
and chlorine in the molecule sodium chloride.
p+ = +17
p+ = 11
n° = –17
Fig.
n° = 12
8.33
Formation of sodium chloride (NaCl)
Electrovalent compounds are found in the form of crystalline soilds. They have high
melting and boiling point. They are brittle and soluble in water. They conduct electricity
in molten or solution state.
ii. Covalent bond

Non-metallic atoms share electrons pairs during chemical reaction to obtain either duplet
or octet state. During this process, covalent bond is formed between non-metallic atoms.
The chemical bond formed by sharing of electron pairs is called covalent bond. The
compounds containing covalent bond are called covalent compounds. Water, ammonia,
methane, hydrochloric acid, etc. are the examples f covalent compounds.
To know the formation of covalent bond and covalent compounds, let us study the
formation of water molecule.

8p+
1p+ + 8n° + 1p+
Hydrogen atom Oxygen atom Hydrogen atom
8p+
1p+ 1p+
8n°
Fig.
8.34 Water molecule
Hydrogen atom has only one electron in its valence shell. So it requires one more electron
to obtain duplet state. Similarly, oxygen atom has six electrons in its valence shell. So it
requires two more electrons to obtain octet state. In this condition, one atom of oxygen
shares two electrons with two hydrogen atoms. As a result, water molecule is formed.
Generally, covalent bond is formed between two or more non-metallic atoms. Covalent
compounds exist in all three states, i.e. solid, liquid and gas. They are generally soft. They
have low melting point and boiling point. They are insoluble in water and cannot conduct
electricity.
Differences between electrovalent compound and covalent compound

Electrovalent compound Covalent compound
1. It contains electrovalent bond. 1. It contains covalent bond.
2. It is formed by transfer of electrons. 2. It is formed by sharing of electron
pairs.
3. It has high melting point and boiling 3. It has low melting point and boiling
point. point.
4. It is generally found in solid state. 4. It may be found in solid, liquid or
gaseous state.
Key Concepts
1. An element is a pure substance which cannot be divided into two or more simpler
substances by ordinary chemical means.
2. All the atoms of the same element are identical but atoms of different elements are
different.
3. Scientists have discovered 118 elements so far. Among them 92 are found in nature and
remaining 26 elements have been discovered by chemists in the laboratory.
4. The chemical substance formed by a combination of two or more elements in a
fixed proportion by weight is called a compound.
5. An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can take part in a chemical
reaction.
6. Among 118 elements, most atoms cannot exist freely in nature but atoms of helium
(He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn) exist freely in
nature.
7. A molecule is smallest particle of an element or a compound which can exist freely
in nature.
8. The mass of one proton is equal to that of one hydrogen atom. The mass of one
hydrogen atom is considered as one amu (atomic mass unit).
9. Electrons are negatively-charged sub-atomic particles that revolve around the
nucleus in elliptical orbits or shells.
10. An atom is electrically neutral due to the presence of equal number of protons and
electrons having opposite charges.
11. An atomic number of an atom is the total number of protons present in the nucleus
of that atom.
12. The sum of number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is
called atomic mass or atomic weight.
13. Electronic configuration is the systematic distribution of electrons in various orbits
or energy levels around the nucleus of an atom.
14. Aufbau principle states that, "the elements in an atom are so distributed that they
occupy orbits in order of their increasing energy".
15. The abbreviation of the full name of an element is called symbol. It is represented
by one or more English letters.
16. Valency is the combining capacity of an atom or a radical with another atom or
radical to form a molecule.
17. The state of an atom having two electrons in the shell K is called a duplet state. The
tendency of an element to maintain two electrons in its K-shell is called duplet rule.
18. The state of an atom having eight electrons in the valence shell is called the octate
state. The tendency of elements by which they maintain eight electrons in their
valence shell is called octet rule.
19. Radicals are charged atoms or group of atoms having a common charge which acts
as a single unit during a chemical reaction.
20. On the basis of electric charge, there are two types of radicals, viz. electro-positive
radicals or basic radicals and electro-negative radicals or acidic radicals.
21. The atoms or groups of atoms having a positive charge are called electro-positive
radicals. They are also called basic radicals.
22. The atoms or group of atoms having negative charge/s are called electro-negative
radicals. They are also called acidic radicals.
22. A molecular formula is defined as the symbolic representation of the molecule of
an element or a compound in a molecular form. It represents the number and type
of atoms present in a molecule.

23. Inert gases are the elements which have eight electrons in their valence shell (except
helium) and do not take part in the chemical reactions.
24. When an atom loses electrons it becomes positively charged and when an atom
gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.
25. chemical bond can be defined as the force atoms in a molecule which binds them
together.
26. The chemical bond which is formed by transfer of one or more electrons from metal
to non-metal is called electrovalent bond.
27. The compounds formed by ionic bond are called ionic compounds. These
compounds are generally found in solid state. Sodium chloride (NaCl), Magnesium
chloride (MgCl2), Potassium chloride (KCl), Calcium chloride (CaCl2), etc. are some
examples of electrovalent or ionic compounds.
28. Electrovalent compounds are found in the form of crystalline solids. They have
high melting and boiling point.
29. The chemical bond formed by sharing of electron pairs is called covalent bond.
The compounds containing covalent bond are called covalent compounds. Water,
ammonia, methane, hydrochloric acid, etc. are the examples f covalent compounds.
30. Generally, covalent bond is formed between two or more non-metallic atoms.
Covalent compounds exist in all three states, i.e. solid, liquid and gas.

a. The smallest particle of an element is called ...................
matter atom molecule compound
b. Which of the following is a compound?
Water Hydrogen Oxygen Gold
c. Which of the given elements is an inert gas?
H O Ne Na
d. Which of the following is the correct molecular formula of Calcium carbonate?

CaCO CaCO2 CaCO3 Ca2CO3
e. Which of the following is an electrovalent compound?

Water Ammonia Sodium chloride Methane

a. What are elements? Give any three examples.
b. Define compounds with any five examples.
c. What is electronic configuration? Write down the electric configuration of O, Na,
Mg, P, Cl and Ca on the basis of shells and sub-shells.
d. What is a molecule? Give any two examples.
e. What is valency? What are valence electrons?
f. What are radicals? Write down their types.
g. State duplet rule and octet rule.
h. What are ions? Give any five examples.
i. What is a chemical bond? Name its types.
j. What is an electrovalent bond?
k. Write any three features of electrovalent compounds with any three examples.
l. What is a covalent bond? How is it formed?
m. What are covalent compounds? Give any three examples.
n. Write any three properties of covalent compounds.
a. Element and Compound
b. Atom and Molecule
c. Duplet state and Octet state
d. Electrovalent compound and Covalent compound
4. Give reason:
a. Atoms are electrically neutral.
b. The valency of chlorine is 1.
c. The valency of neon is zero.
d. Magnesium chloride is called an ionic compound.
e. Water is called a covalent compound.
5. Write down the valency of the given radicals:

a. Sulphate b. Chloride
c. Nitrate d. Chlorate
e. Carbonate f. Nitrate
g. Phosphate h. Silicate

6. Write down the molecular formula of given compounds.
a. Calcium sulphate b. Sodium carbonate
c. Potassium chloride d. Zinc sulphate
e. Potassium nitrate f. Calcium sulphate
7. Describe the formation of sodium chloride with a neat figure.
8. Describe the formation of water molecule with a neat figure.
9. Describe the formation of magnesium chloride molecule with a neat figure.
10. Describe the formation of carbon dioxide molecule with a neat figure.
1. What is an element ?
2. What is a compound ?
3. What is electronic configuration ?
4. What is a diatomic molecule?
5. What are sub-atomic particles ?
6. What type of bond is called covalent bond?
7. What is a chemical bond?
8. Define electrovalent bond.
9. What are valence electrons?
10. What is 2n2 rule?
11. What is octet rule?
12. What is duplet state? Give one example.
13. What is molecular formula? Give one example.

14. Write any two differences between element and compound.
15. Sodium chloride is called an electrovalent compound whereas carbon dioxide is
called covalent compound, why?
16. The valency of sodium is + 1 and that of chlorine is -1, why ?
17. Write any two differences between electrovalent bond and covalent bond.
18. Neon atom can exist freely in nature but sodium atom cannot, why ?

19. What is the valency of calcium and hydroxide in the molecular formula Ca(OH)2 ?
Which are the acidic and basic radicals in that molecular formula?
20. Why do radicals contain charge? Write.

21. Calculate the maximum number of electrons present in shell L and N by using 2n2
rule.
22. What is a chemical bond? How is it formed? Write with an example.
23. How is covalent bond formed? Write in brief with are example.
24. How is electrovalent compound formed? Explain with an example.
25. How is sodium chloride formed by combination of sodium and chlorine? Describe
with figure.

26. Answer the following questions on the basis of given table:
i. What is the valency of the elements A Elements Electronic configuration
and D? A 2, 8, 8, 2
ii. Name the compound and type of B 2,8,2
bond formed by the combination of C 2,8,7
elements B and C.
D 2,6
27. Draw the molecular structure of the
following molecules:
i. Sodium chloride ii. Carbon dioxide
28. In a part of the periodic table given below, some elements are denoted by symbols A,
B, C,D and E. Answer the following questions on this basis.
Group I A(1) I A (2) III A IV A VA VI A VII A 0 (18)
(13) (14) (15) (16) (17)
Period
2 Beryllium D
3 B A Sulphur C Argon
4 Potassium E
i. Name the elements 'B' and 'D‘ and state their valency also.
ii. Name the compound formed by the combination of elements 'A' and 'C'. Also
write down the type of bond present between them.
29. Name any four elements having variable valency. Also, write their valencies.

UNIT
Chemical Reaction
9
Before You Begin

When we burn a piece of paper, it changes into ash and gas. When
we burn firewood, kerosene, coal, etc., we can see the formation of
smoke. In these cases, one from of a matter changes into another
matter having different chemical properties. Such types of change
in matter is called chemical change. It occurs as a result of chemical
reaction. The process of chemical change is expressed in chemical
reaction. The combination, decomposition or replacement that occurs
in the molecules of matter during a chemical change is called chemical
reaction. We have studied general introduction to chemical reaction
in class 8. In this unit, we will study of chemical reaction, word
equation, balanced chemical equation methods of writing chemical
equation and catalyst with its types in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to chemical
i. introduce chemical reaction with examples reaction
• Word equation
ii. write chemical change in the form of word equation
chemical equation. • Reactant and products
• Chemical equation
iii. explain the method of writing chemical equation.
• Balanced chemical equation
iv. introduce catalyst with its types and examples. • Information obtained from a
v. introduce exothermic and endothermic reaction. balanced chemical equation
• Catalyst and its types
• Exothermic and endothermic
reaction
decomposition : Dissociation, breaking down

displacement : replacement
neutralization : an act or process of neutralizing, to cause a chemical to be neither an acid,
nor a base
catalyst : the chemical substance which can increase or decrease the rate of a
chemical reaction being itself chemically unchanged
exothermic : the chemical reaction that evolves heat
endothermic : the chemical reaction that requires heat for the chemical change
Chemical Reaction
The chemical bond present in the molecules Do You Know
of reactants breaks due to heat, light, Losing, gaining or sharing of electrons
electricity, etc. during a chemical change. by an atom to gain stable electronic
Then combination, dissociation or exchange configuration is the major cause of
take place between the atoms and molecules chemical reaction.
of reactants to from new substances called
products. This process is called chemical
reaction.
The combination, decomposition or replacement or neutralization that occurs in molecules
of matter during a chemical change is called a chemical reaction.
Carbon + Oxygen burn Carbon dioxide
C + O2 CO2 [Combination]
When Copper carbonate is heated, it decomposes into Copper oxide and Carbon dioxide.
Copper carbonate heat Copper oxide + Carbon dioxide
CuCO3 CuO + CO2 [Decomposition]
When magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid, it forms magnesium chloride and
hydrogen gas.
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen
Mg + HCl MgCl2 + H2 [Displacement]
The above examples show that a chemical change is expressed in both word equation and
formula/chemical equation.
Word Equation
A word equation is the chemical reaction expressed by writing the full names of reactants
and products.
Examples:
Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride
Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
Magnesium + Chlorine Magnesium chloride
Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
Zinc + Sulphuric acid Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
Potassium chlorate Potassium chloride + Oxygen
Magnesium + Sulphuric acid Magnesium sulphate + Hydrogen
Formula Equation
A formula equation or chemical equation is the chemical reaction expressed by writing
symbols and molecular formulae of reactants and products. It gives more information
than a word equation.
Examples:
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
2H2 + O2 2H2O
Do You Know
Mg + Cl2 MgCl2
Formula equation gives more information
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 than a word equation.
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
Reactants and Products

Reactants are chemical substances which take part in a chemical reaction. They are written
on the left hand side of the arrow.
Products are the chemical substances which are produced after a chemical reaction. They
are written on the right hand side of the arrow.
For example
Ca + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2 Do You Know
(Reactants) (Products) Reactants are written on the left hand side
and products are written on the right hand
side of the arrow?
Unbalanced Chemical Equation
The chemical equation in which the total number of atoms of each element in reactants
and products are not equal is called an unbalanced chemical equation.
Examples:
H2 + O2 H2O
Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2
NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O
Mg + HNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + H2
Balanced Chemical Equation

The chemical equation written by balancing the total number of atoms of each element in
reactants and products is called a balanced chemical equation.
Examples
2H2 + O2 2H2O
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Mg + 2HNO3 Mg(NO3)2 + H2
Methods of Writing Balanced Chemical Equation

1. First of all, a chemical change is written correctly in the form of word equation.
For example: Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride
2. A word equation is written correctly in the form of formula equation.
For example: Na + Cl2 NaCl
3. The number of atoms of each element are balanced by using suitable coefficient
without changing the molecular formulae of reactants and products.
For example: 2Na + Cl2 2 NaCl
Information obtained from a Balanced Chemical Equation

We can get the following information from a balanced chemical equation.
1. The names of reactants and products.
2. Symbols and molecular formulae of reactants and products.
3. Total number of atoms or molecules of reactants and products.
4. Type of chemical reaction.
Some more examples of balanced chemical equation

1. Carbon + Oxygen burn Carbon dioxide
C + O2 CO2
2. Potassium + Chlorine Potassium chloride
2K+ Cl2 2KCl
3. Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
4. Aluminium + Nitrogen Aluminium nitride
2 Al + N2 2AlN
5. Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
6. Iron + Sulphur Iron (Ferrous) sulphide
Fe + S FeS
7. Iron + Oxygen Ferric (iron) oxide
4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
8. Calcium carbonate + Carbon dioxide + Water Calcium bicarbonate
CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca(HCO3)2
9. Sodium + Oxygen Sodium oxide
4Na + O2 2Na2O
electricity
10. Water Hydrogen + Oxygen
2H2O 2H2 + O2
11. Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
12. Ammonium hydroxide heat Ammonia + Water
NH4OH NH3 + H2O
13. Copper carbonate heat Copper oxide + Carbon dioxide
CuCO3 heat CuO + CO2
14. Potassium chlorate heat Potassium chloride + Oxygen
2KClO3 heat 2KCl + 3O2

MnO2
15. Hydrogen peroxide Water + Oxygen
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
16. Silver nitrate heat Silver + Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen
2AgNO3 heat 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
17. Copper nitrate heat Copper + Nitrogen dioxide + Oxygen
Cu (NO3)2 heat Cu + 2NO2 + O2
18. Potassium + Hydrochloric acid Potassium chloride + Hydrogen
2K + 2HCl 2KCl + H2
19. Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen

Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
20. Calcium + Sulphuric acid Calcium sulphate + Hydrogen
Ca + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2
21. Iron + Copper sulphate Iron sulphate + Copper
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
22. Magnesium + Zinc chloride Magnesium chloride + Zinc
Mg + ZnCl2 MgCl2 + Zn
23. Sodium chloride + Silver nitrate Sodium nitrate + Silver chloride
NaCl + AgNO3 NaNO3 + AgCl
24. Magnesium chloride + Silver nitrate Magnesium nitrate + Silver chloride
MgCl2 + 2Ag NO3 Mg(NO3)2 + 2AgCl
25. Sodium hydroxide + Ferrous chloride Sodium chloride + Ferrous hydroxide
2NaOH + FeCl2 2NaCl + Fe(OH)2
26. Calcium chloride + Silver nitrate Calcium nitrate + Silver chloride
CaCl2 + 2Ag NO3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2AgCl
27. Sodium sulphate + Lead nitrate Lead sulphate + Sodium nitrate
Na2SO4 + Pb (NO3)2 PbSO4 + 2NaNO3
28. Hydrochloric acid + Potassium hydroxide Potassium chloride + Water
HCl + KOH KCl + H2O
29. Nitric acid + Potassium hydroxide Potassium nitrate + Water
HNO3 + KOH KNO3 + H2O
30. Sulphuric acid + Sodium hydroxide Sodium sulphate + Water
H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
31. Sulphuric acid + Calcium oxide Calcium sulphate + Water

H2SO4 + CaO CaSO4 + H2O
32. Sulphuric acid + Ferrous oxide Ferrous sulphate + Water
H2SO4 + FeO FeSO4 + H2O

Limitation of a Balanced Chemical Equation
A balanced chemical equation cannot provide information about:
i. the physical state of reactants and products
ii. conditions required for the chemical reaction
iii. the rate of chemical reaction
iv. the duration of chemical reaction
v. concentration of reactants
Modification of Chemical Equation

Following modifications are done in a balanced chemical equation to make it more
informative.
i. The physical states of reactants and products are denoted by 's' for solid, 'l' for liquid
'g' for gas and 'aq' for aqueous solution.
ii. The conditions required like heat, light, electricity, etc. are written above or below the
arrow.
iii. The concentration of reactants is denoted by 'dil.' for dilute and 'conc.' for concentrated
solution.
iv. A double ways arrow ( ) is used to represent reversible reaction and single way
arrow (→) is used to represent irreversible reaction.
v. Positive (+D) sign is used for exothermic reaction and negative sign (–D) is used for
endothermic reaction.
Catalyst
The chemical substance which is used to increase or decrease the rate of a chemical
reaction is called a catalyst. A catalyst remains chemically unchanged throughout the
chemical reaction but its presence may increase or decrease the rate of a chemical reaction.
The catalyst which increases the rate of a chemical reaction is called a positive catalyst.
Examples:
i. Manganese dioxide (MnO2) acts as a positive catalyst during decomposition of
Hydrogen peroxide, (H2O2).
MnO2
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
ii. Manganese dioxide (MnO2) acts as a positive catalyst during decomposition of
Potassium chlorate (KClO3).
2KClO3 2KCl + 2O2

The catalyst which decreases the rate of a chemical reaction is called a negative
catalyst.

Example :
Glycerol [C3H5(OH)3] acts as a negative catalyst during decomposition of Hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2).
2H2O2 Glycerol 2H2O + O2
Characteristics of a catalyst
1. The mass of a catalyst does not change till the end of the chemical reaction.
2. A catalyst remains chemically unchanged throughout the chemical reaction.
3. A catalyst does not initiate a chemical reaction but increases or decreases the rate of
chemical reaction.
Endothermic reaction and exothermic reaction

Most chemical reactions occur due to change in heat. Some chemical reactions absorb heat
whereas some chemical reactions evolve heat during the chemical reaction. On this basis,
there are two types of chemical reaction. They are : Endothermic reaction and exothermic
reaction.
The chemical reaction that absorbs heat during the chemical change is called endothermic
reaction.
Examples :
N2 + O2 + Heat 2NO
CaCO3 + Heat CaO + CO2
2NaCl + Heat 2Na + Cl2
NH4Cl + NaNO2 + Heat NaCl + 2H2O + N2
2KClO3 + Heat 2KCl + 3O2

The chemical reaction that evolves heat during the chemical change is called exothermic
reaction.
Examples:
C + O2 CO2 + Heat
C + 2H2 CH4 + Heat
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2 + Heat
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Heat
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

Reversible Reaction
The chemical reaction which occurs in forward as well as backward directions is called a
reversible reaction. In this reaction, the products are changed back into reactants again,
e.g.
H 2 + O2 H 2O
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
Irreversible Reaction
The chemical reaction which occurs only in one direction is called irreversible reaction. In
this reaction, we cannot obtain reactants from the products again, e.g.
CaCO3 CaCO3
Na + Cl2 2NaCl
Key Concepts
1. Losing, gaining or sharing of electrons by an atom to gain stable electronic
configuration is the major cause of chemical reaction.
2. The combination, decomposition, replacement or neutralization that occurs in
molecules of matter during a chemical change is called a chemical reaction.
3. A word equation is the chemical reaction expressed by writing the full names of
reactants and products.
4. A formula equation or chemical equation is the chemical reaction expressed by
writing symbols and molecular formulae of reactants and products.
5. Reactants are chemical substances which take part in a chemical reaction. They are
written on the left hand side of the arrow.
6. Products are the chemical substances which are produced after a chemical reaction.
They are written on the right hand side of the arrow.
7. The chemical equation in which the total number of atoms of each element in
reactants and products are not equal is called an unbalanced chemical equation.
8. The chemical equation written by balancing the total number of atoms of each
element in reactants and products is called a balanced chemical equation.
9. The chemical substance which is used to increase or decrease the rate of a chemical
reaction is called a catalyst.
10. The catalyst which increases the rate of a chemical reaction is called positive catalyst.
11. The catalyst which decreases the rate of a chemical reaction is called a negative
catalyst.

12. A catalyst does not initiate a chemical reaction but increases or decease the rate of
chemical reaction.
13. The chemical reaction that absorbs heat during the chemical change is called
endothermic reaction.
14. The chemical reaction that evolves heat during the chemical change is called
exothermic reaction.

a. A chemical change is a ....................... change.
reversible irreversible
physical molecular
b. The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called .......................
products reactants
atoms molecules
c. The substances which are formed after a ....................... change are called products.
chemical physical
atomic molecular
d. Which of the following is a catalyst?
MnO2 H2SO4
CaCO3 MgCO3
e. Which of the following is an endothermic reaction?
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
N2 + O 2 2NO
C + O2 CO2

a. Define chemical reaction with any three examples.
b. What are reactants and products? Write with an example.
c. What is a word equation? Give any three examples.
d. What is a chemical equation? Write any three examples.
e. What is a catalyst? Write its types.
f. Define positive and negative catalyst with any one example of each.
g. Define exothermic and endothermic reaction with any two examples of each.
a. Reactants and Products
b. Word equation and Chemical equation
c. Positive catalyst and Negative catalyst
d. Endothermic reaction and Exothermic reaction
4. Convert following unbalanced chemical equations into balanced chemical

equations.
a. Mg + N2 Mg3N2
b. HCl + K2O KCl + H2O
c. K + O2 K2O
d. Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
e. HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
f. Au + Cl2 AuCl3
g. H2SO4 + NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O
h. CaCO3 CaO + CO2
i. AgNO3 Ag + NO2 + O2
j. Na2SO4 + Pb (NO3)2 PbSO4 + NaNO3
5. Write down the given word equations into balanced chemical equations.
a. Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia
b. Hydrogen + Oxygen Water
c. Aluminum + Nitrogen Aluminium nitride
d. Magnesium + Chlorine Magnesium chloride
e. Calcium oxide + Water Calcium hydroxide
f. Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
g. Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Hydrogen

h. Copper + Oxygen Copper oxide
i. Potassium chlorate Potassium chloride + Oxygen
j. Nitric acid + Calcium hydroxide Calcium nitrate + Water
6. Write down the method of writing balanced chemical equation with examples.
7. Write any four pieces of information that can be obtained from a balanced chemical
equation.
1. What is a physical change ?
2. What is a chemical reaction?
3. What is a chemical equation ?
4. What is a word equation? Give one example.
5. What is a chemical (or formula) equation ?
6. What is a balanced chemical equation?
7. Write any two limitations of a balanced chemical equation.
8. What is a catalyst? What are its types? Write
9. What is a chemical change ?
10. What is a catalyst?
11. Write any two characteristics of catalyst.
12. Define 'reactants'.
13. What type of catalyst is called a positive catalyst?

14. The formation of ice from water is called a physical change, why?
15. The formation of ash by burning a paper is called a chemical change, why?
16. Why is formula equation more meaningful than a word equation?
17. Manganese dioxide is called a positive catalyst and glycerol is called a negative
catalyst, why ?
18. Write any two limitations of the given chemical equation.
AgBr Ag + Br2
19. Write any two differences between physical change and chemical change.
20. Write any two pieces of information which can be obtained from given chemical
equation. A

21. What do you mean by 'reactants'? Write with examples. Write down the balanced
chemical equation of the reaction between sulphuric acid and ammonium hydroxide.
22. Write down the information which can be obtained from a balanced chemical equation.
Write a balanced equation of the chemical reaction between Iron (III) chloride and
Ammonium hydroxide.
23. What type of catalyst is called a positive catalyst? Give an example. Write any two
applications of catalysts.
24. 'What are the limitations of a balanced chemical equation? Write down the balanced
chemical equation for the following reaction.
Calcium chloride + Silver nitrate Calcium nitrate + Silver chloride
25. We can get more information from a formula equation than from a word equation.
Justify this statement. Write down the balanced chemical equation of the given word
equation.
Aluminium + Oxygen Aluminium oxide

26. Correct and rewrite the given chemical equations:
i. NaCO3 + CaCI2 NaCI2 + CaCO3
ii. HNO2 + NaHCO3 NaNO3 + H2O + CaCO2
iii. NaOH + NH3CI NaCI + NH2 + H2O
iv CaCI2 + AgNO3 CaCO3 + AgCl

27. Study the given word equation and answer the following equations:
Heat
Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon dioxide
i. Express the above word equation in the form of formula equation.
ii. Write any two information that can be obtained from the given equation.
iii. Name the factor that brings out chemical change in the above reaction.
28. Change the given word equations into balanced chemical equation. Differentiate
between reactants and products.
i. Sulphuric acid + Zinc Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen
ii. Iron + Oxygen Ferric oxide

29. Complete and balance the given chemical equations:
i. Na2CO3 + ..... NaCI + ..... ii. HCI + ... CaCl2 + H2O
30. What happens in the given conditions ? Write with balanced chemical equation :
i. When magnesium reacts with nitric acid
ii. When silver nitrate reacts with sodium chloride
UNIT
Solubility
10
Before You Begin

Take a beaker with some water. Add a spoonful of sugar and stir it
with a glass rod. What happens? The sugar dissolve in water. It is
called sugar solution. When we add salt in water, the salt dissolves.
It is called salt solution. Sugar solution and salt solution both are
homogeneous mixtures. So solution can be defined as a homogeneous
mixture of two or more substances. A solution is made of solution
and solvent. In a solution, the dissolved component, i.e. solute cannot
be seen with our naked eyes. Solution is very important in our daily
life. In this unit, we will study solution, types of solution, solubility,
solubility curve and crystallization in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Mixture and its types
i. introduce solution and state its types with examples. • Solution, solute and solvent
ii. define unsaturated, saturated and super saturated • Types of solution
solution and prepare such solutions.
• Solubility
iii. define solubility of a substance and explain the
relation between solubility and temperature. • Solubility curve
iv. describe crystallization in brief. • Crystalline solids and
amorphous solids.
• Crystallization
solution : the homogeneous mixture made of solute and solvent

solute : the substance which dissolves in a solvent
solvent : the substance in which a solute dissolves
crystalline : made up of repeating crystals
crystal : a solid substance having a fixed geometrical shape, smooth surface and
sharp edges

Solution
A solution is the homogeneous mixture of two
or more substances. All the components of a
solution cannot be seen through our naked
eyes. Solution of sugar and water, salt and
water, alcohol and water, coke and water, milk
and water, etc. are some examples of solution.
Fig.
Sugar + water
A solution consists of two components. They
are solute and solvent. 10.1
Sugar solution
Solute + solvent = Solution
A solute is a substance which gets dissolved in a solvent. For example, sugar, salt, copper
sulphate, magnesium chloride, etc.
A solvent is a substance which dissolves a solute into it. For example, water, alcohol,
ether, etc. In the solution of salt and water, salt is a solute and water is a solvent.
Green plants absorb minerals from soil in the form of solution. Similarly, animals get
nutrients in the form of solution. Therefore, solution plays a great role in the growth and
development of living beings.
Experiment: 1
To prepare the mixture of various substances with water
Materials required
Sugar, salt, washing soda, soil, sand, cooking oil, chalk, stone, wood, beaker, water, glass rod
Procedure
• Take a beaker. Add some water into it.
• Now, add one teaspoonful of sugar into water and stir it with a glass rod. Observe
whether sugar dissolves in water or not. Fill in the given table after your observation.
• By the same way prepare a mixture of above given substances one by one.
• Observe whether these substances dissolve in water or not.
• Fill in the given table after your observation.
S.N. Mixtures Homogeneous mixture Heterogeneous mixture

1 water + sugar √ √
2 water + sand
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
There are different types of solution on the basis of states of the components of the
solution. Some common types of solutions are tabulated below:
Types of solution Examples Solution Solvent

1. Solid + liquid Salt water salt water
2. Liquid+ liquid Ink and water ink water
3. Liquid + gas Oxygen dissolved in water oxygen water
1. Gas + gas Atmosphere other gases nitrogen
From above table, it becomes clear that the solution of solid and gas is not found in nature.
Dilute solution and concentrated solution

Dilute solution is the solution which
contains relatively less amount
of solute. Similarly, concentrated
solution is the solution which contains
relatively more amount of solute.
Dilute solution is lighter than the
concentrated solution. It means that
the density of concentrated solution is
Fig.
more than that of dilute solution.

10.2 Dilute solution Concentrated solution
Differences between Dilute solution and Concentrated solution

Dilute solution Concentrated solution
1. It has relatively less amount of a solute 1. It has relatively more amount of solute
in a certain amount of solvent. in a certain amount of solvent.
2. It has less density. 2. It has more density.
Activity 1
Take two beakers and keep 100 ml of water in each. Mark the beakers A
and B.
Add 5 gram of copper sulphate in the beaker A and stir it with a glass rod.
Add 50 gram of copper sulphate in the beaker B and stir it with a glass rod.
The concentration of copper sulphate is more in the beaker B than in beaker A. The
solution in beaker A is dilute and that in beaker B is concentrated.
Activity 2
Take two glasses and put about 100 ml pure drinking water in each. Mark
one glass A and another glass B.
Dissolve 10 gram of table salt in the glass A and 50 gram of salt in glass B.
Taste the salt solution from the beaker A. Rinse your mouth. Then taste
the same amount of salt solution from the glass B. Which solution is more
salty A or B? Which solution is dilute and which one is concentrated?
Why?
Unsaturated, Saturated and Supersaturated solution

Take a beaker and put
50 ml water in it. Put a b c
5 gram of salt in it and
stir with a glass rod.
Now, add 5 gram more
salt and stir till the salt
dissolves completely.
This type of solution
Fig.
is called unsaturated
solution. The solution 10.3 Unsaturated Saturated Super saturated
which can dissolve
some more solute at a certain temperature is called unsaturated solution.
Keep on adding some more salt, the salt gets dissolved and finally some more amount
of salt does not dissolve at that temperature. This type of solution is called saturated
solution. The solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a fixed temperature
is called saturated solution. But more amount of solute can be dissolved by raising
the temperature of the solution. We can dissolve further amount of salt by raising its
temperature.
But the solution releases excess solute in the form of crystals when the solution is cooled.
This type of solution is called supersaturated solution. The saturated solution prepared
at a higher temperature which throws excess solute as a solid when cooled is called
supersaturated solution. The density of unsaturated solution is minimum and that of
supersaturated solution is maximum.
We can identify the type of solution by using a crystal of the solute from which the solution
is made. When a crystal of the solute dissolve in the solution at a fixed temperature, the
type of solution is unsaturated. If the crystal does not dissolve in the solution at the given
temperature, the type of solution is saturated. If the size of the crystal increases gradually,
the type of the solution is supersaturated.

Differences between Unsaturated solution and Saturated solution
Unsaturated solution Saturated solution
1. More amount of solute can dissolve at 1. No more amount of solute can dissolve
a certain temperature. at a certain temperature.
3. It has less saturation. 3. It has more saturation.
Differences between Saturated solution and Supersaturated solution

Saturated solution Supersaturated solution
1. No more amount of solute can dissolve 1. It is the saturated solution prepared at
at a certain temperature in this type of higher temperature.
solution.
3. It does not change concentration when 3. Its concentration decreases and crystals
it comes in contact of a solute. are formed when it comes in contact of
solute.
Utilities of solution in Our Daily Life

Solution is very important in our daily life. The major utilities of solution are given below:
i. We use many medicines in the form of solution.
ii. We consume many drinks in the form of solution.
iii. The food that we eat is digested and absorbed in the form of solution.
iv. Green plants absorb water and minerals in the form of solution.
v. Aquatic plants and animals take oxygen in the form of solution.
vi. We use ink, paint, etc. in the form of solution.
Solubility
In order to get the concept of solubility, let's perform the following activity.
• Take a beaker and add 100 gram water (100 ml water) into it. Measure the temperature
of water. Let the temperature of water be 20°C.
• Now keep the beaker on a top pan balance. Note down the weight of the beaker along
with water.
• Take a spoon and dissolve some sugar in the water. Keep on dissolving sugar until it
stops to dissolve.
The amount sugar dissolved in 100 gram of water in this condition is taken as the solubility
of sugar. It will be approximately 179. It means that 179 gram of sugar dissolves in 100
gram of water of 20°C and forms a saturated solution.
Solubility of a solute can be defined as the amount of solute (in gram) dissolved in 100
gram of a solvent at a certain temperature to form a saturated solution.
In other words, the solubility of a solute at a fixed temperature can be defined as the amount
of solute required to form a saturated solution in 100 gram of water at that temperature.
Formula:
Weight of solute (in gram)

Solubility = × 100
Weight of solvent (in gram)
Solution has no unit as it is a percentage ratio of two masses (weights).
At 20°C, the solubility of sodium chloride is 35.7. It means that 35.7 gram of sodium
chloride is required by 100 gram of water at 20°C to form a saturated solution.
Different solutes have different solubility at a fixed temperature. Similarly, same solute
has different solubility at different temperature. Therefore, temperature is mentioned
while writing solubility of a substance. The solubility of some common solutes at 20°C
temperature is given below.
S.N. Solute Solubility Temperature

1 Sugar 179
2 Copper sulphate 20
3 Common salt 35.7 20°C
4 Sodium nitrate 88
5 Magnesium chloride 32

At 25°C, 65 gram of a solute dissolves in 75 gram of water. Calculate the solubility of the
salt.
Solution
Given,
At 25°C,
Weight of solute = 65 gram
Weight of solvent = 75 gram
Solubility = ?
We know,
wt. of solute
Solubility = × 100
wt. of solvent
65
= × 100 = 86.66
75
\ At 25°C, the solubility of the solute = 86.66

When 50 gram of a saturated solution prepared at 60°C is dried, 20 gram of a salt is left
behind. Calculate the solubility of the salt at the given temperature.
Solution,
Given,
At 60°C,
Weight of solution = 50 gram
Weight of solute = 20 gram
Then weight of solvent = (50 – 20) gram
= 30 gram
Solubility = ?
We know,
wt. of solute
Solubility = × 100
wt. of solvent
20
Solubility = × 100
30
= 66.66
\ The solubility of the solute = 66.66 at 60°C.
Relation between solubility and temperature

The solubility of most solutes increases on increasing the temperature of the solution.
The reverse of this is also true. When a solvent is heated, the intermolecular space of the
solvent increases. As a result, more solute dissolves in a solvent at high temperature. At
different temperature same mass of a solvent can dissolve different amount of a solute.
Solubility at
Solutes
20°C 100°C
1. Copper sulphate 20 76.99
2. Common salt 35.7 39.1
3. Sugar 179 487
4. Ammonia gas 89.9 7.4
5. Oxygen gas 0.0045 0.0033
From above table, it becomes clear that the solubility of solid substances increases on
increasing the temperature. But the solubility of gases decreases on increasing the
temperature of the solution. In summer season, the amount oxygen dissolve in water
decreases. So fishes come on the surface for breathing.

Liquids expand more than solids and gases expand more than liquids. So the solubility of
gases decreases on increasing the temperature of solvent due to expansion of gases.
Solubility curve
Solubility curve is defined as the
curve obtained by plotting the
solubility of a solute at different
temperatures along Y-axis and
corresponding temperature
along X-axis.
Let us observe the given graph
having solubility curves of
different solutes at different
temperatures.
Fig.
Above graph shows the solubility

of different solutes at different
10.4
temperature. These curves also
show that the solubility of different substances at a fixed temperature is also different.
Application of solubility curves

1. The solubility of a solute at a fixed temperature can be known.
2. The solubility of different solutes at a fixed temperature can be known.
3. The solubility of different substances at a certain temperature can be compared.
4. The relation between increase in temperature and change in solubility can be
observed.
5. The amount of solute that crystallizes out while cooling a solution to a certain
temperature can be calculated.
6. We can predict the solute that crystallizes first among many solutes.
Activity 4
Take a graph paper and plot a solubility curve on the basis of given table. Also, find out
the relation between solubility and increase in temperature.
Temperature (°C) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Solubility 14 17 20 24 29 34 40 48 57 68 77

Crystallization
When a hot supersaturated solution is cooled, it throws excess solute as solid. As a result,
crystals are formed. Crystals are the solid substances having a fixed geometrical shape,
smooth surfaces and sharp edges.
Crystals have a fixed melting point. The process of getting crystals by cooling down a hot
supersaturated solution is called crystallization. This process is applied to purify solid
substances.
Fig.
10.5
Crystals of copper sulphate Crystals of sugar
Crystallization of a certain solid substance depends on the solubility of the substance.
The substances whose solubility is less, crystallize faster than the solute having more
solubility, for example, at 20°C, the solubility of copper sulphate is 20 and that of sodium
chloride is 35.7. So copper sulphate crystallizes earlier than sodium chloride when their
saturated solution is cooled. We should cool down the solution for a long time to obtain
the crystals of sodium chloride.
Activity 5
• Take a beaker and keep 50ml of water into it.
• Add some copper sulphate and stir it with a glass rod.
• Dissolve some more copper sulphate in the water.
• Now heat the solution and add more copper sulphate to form a super-saturated
solution. Heat the solution till you see fine crystals of copper sulphate on the wall
of beaker.
• Now, take a small crystal of copper sulphate and tie it with a thread.
• Immerse the crystal into the solution and leave the solution undisturbed for 2-3
days.
• Observe the beaker after 3 days. You will see large crystals of copper sulphate.
This process is called crystallization.

China dish Copper China Copper
sulphate dish sulphate
solution crystals
Boiling
water
Wire gauze
Fig.
Burner Tripod Tripod

stand stand
10.6
Key Concepts
1. A solution is the homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
2. A solution consists of two components. They are solute and solvent.
3. A solute is a substance which gets dissolved in a solvent. For example, sugar, salt,
copper sulphate, magnesium chloride, etc.
4. A solvent is a substance which dissolves a solute into it. For example, water, alcohol,
ether, etc.
5. Dilute solution is the solution which contains relatively less amount of solute.
Similarly, concentrated solution is the solution which contains relatively more
amount of solute.
6. The solution which can dissolve some more solute at a certain temperature is called
unsaturated solution.
7. The solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a fixed temperature is
called saturated solution.
8. The saturated solution prepared at a higher temperature which throws excess
solute as a solid when cooled is called supersaturated solution.
9. We can identify the type of solution by using a crystal of the solute from which the
solution is made.
10. Solubility of a solute can be defined as the amount of solute (in gram) dissolved in
100 gram of a solvent at a certain temperature to form a saturated solution.
11. At 20°C, the solubility of sodium chloride is 35.7. It means that 35.7 gram of sodium
chloride is required by 100 gram of water at 20°C to form a saturated solution.
12. Different solutes have different solubility at a fixed temperature. Similarly, same
solute has different solubility at different temperature. Therefore, temperature is
mentioned while writing solubility of a substance.

13. The solubility of most solutes increases on increasing the temperature of the
solution. The reverse of this is also true.
14. Liquids expand more than solids and gases expand more than liquids. So the
solubility of gases decreases on increasing the temperature of solvent due to
expansion of gases.
15. Solubility curve is defined as the curve obtained by plotting the solubility of a solute
at different temperatures along Y-axis and corresponding temperature along X-axis.
16. Crystals are the solid substances having a fixed geometrical shape, smooth surfaces
and sharp edges.
17. The process of getting crystals by cooling down a hot supersaturated solution is
called crystallization. This process is applied to purify solid substances.

a. Which of the given substances is a solvent?
Sugar Water
Salt Copper sulphate
b. Which of the following is a solute?
Alcohol Water
Ether Common salt
c. The solution which cannot dissolve any more solute in a fixed temperature is
called...................
Homogeneous mixture Saturated solution
Unsaturated solution Supersaturated solution
d. At 25°C, 25g of a salt dissolves into 50 g of water. What is the solubility of the
salt?
25 50
75 75

e. Which of the following contains maximum solute?
Dilute solution Concentrated solution
Saturated solution Supersaturated solution

a. What is a solution? Give any two examples.
b. Define solute and solvent with any two examples of each.
c. What is unsaturated solution?
d. What is saturated solution?
e. What is supersaturated solution ? How is it prepared?
f. Define dilute and concentrated solution.
g. What is solubility?
h. Write down the formula to calculate solubility.
i. What is solubility curve?
j. What are crystals?
k. What is crystallization?
3. Write down the relationship between change in temperature and solubility.
4. Write any three applications of solubility curve.
5. Differentiate between.
a. Solute and Solvent
b. Dilute and Concentrated solution
c. Saturated solution and Unsaturated solution
d. Unsaturated solution and Supersaturated solution
6. Give reason.
a. The solubility increases on increasing the temperature.
b. Solubility has no unit.
c. Temperature is mentioned while writing solubility of a solute.
7. Write down the method of obtaining crystals of copper sulphate.
8. Study the give table and answer the following questions.

Temperature 20°C 40°C 60°C 80°C 100°C
Solubility of PbNO3 58 74 94 115 140
a. What is the relation between increase in temperature and solubility of lead
nitrate?
b. Plot the solubility curve on the basis of above data.
c. What is the solubility of lead nitrate at 30°C and 50°C?
d. How much gram of lead nitrate crystallizes out when the solution prepared at
80°C is cooled to 40°C?

a. When 6 gram of ammonium nitrate is dissolved in 25 gram of water and heated
upto 30°C, a saturated solution is formed. Calculate the solubility of ammonium
nitrate. [Ans : 24]
b. A saturated solution is formed by keeping 48 gram of a salt in 200 gram of water
at 25°C. Calculate the solubility of the salt. [Ans: 24]
c. The solubility of potassium nitrate is 40 at 30°C. Calculate the mass of water
required to form a saturated solution by dissolving 15 gram of potassium nitrate
at that temperature. [Ans: 37.5g]
d. The solubility of a salt at 60°C is 55. Calculate the amount of salt dissolved in 40
gram saturated solution of the salt at that temperature. [Ans: 14.2g]
e. How much amount of crystal is formed when 15 gram of a saturated solution
prepared at 30°C is cooled to 10°C. The solubility of that salt at 30°C is 95 and at
10° C is 30. [Ans : 3.85g]
1. What is a mixture ?
2. What is heterogeneous mixture?
3. Define homogeneous mixture with one example.
4. Define solvent.
5. Define unsaturated solution.
6. What is saturated solution?
7. What is supersaturated solution?
8. What is solubility?
9. What is a solubility curve?
10. Define dilute solution and concentrated solution.
11. What is a crystal?
12. Write down the formula to calculate the solubility.
13. What happens when a saturated solution prepared at 40°C is cooled down to 20°C?

14. Temperature is also mentioned while writing the solubility of a substance, why? If
concentration of a solution reduces and crystals appear when solute is added to the
solution at 40°C, name the type of solution.
15. Why is turbid water called a heterogeneous mixture ? Give reason. How is a saturated
solution made from an unsaturated solution without adding the solute ?
16. Solute separates as a solid when a saturated solution is cooled. Give reason. What
does it mean by the statement that the solubility of copper sulphate at 20°C is 21?
17. Write any two differences between unsaturated and saturated solution.

18. Why does a solute dissolve faster in a solvent having high temperature? Give reason.
What happens when supersaturated solution of sodium chloride is cooled?
19. Write any two differences between solvent and solute.
20. When a saturated solution at a high temperature is cooled, why does the solute
separate out as a solid?

21. Write any three utilities of solubility curve?
22. Describe in brief the utility of solution in our daily life. What happens when the
saturated solution of copper sulphate is heated?
23. How is the solubility of a solute calculated ? Explain.
24. Describe in brief the method of finding the solubility of common salt.
25. What happens when a crystal of copper sulphate is added separately in unsaturated,
saturated and supersaturated solution of copper sulphate?

26. At 20°C, the solubility of sodium chloride is 35. How much gram sodium chloride is
required at that temperature to make a saturated solution in 20 gram of water? More
amount of solute dissolves in hot water than in cold water, why?
27. How much solute separates as a solid when 30 gram of a saturated solution prepared
at 50°C is cooled upto 30°C? The solubility of the given solute is 35 at 50°C and 21 at
30°C. Less amount of gas dissolves in hot water, why?
28. Describe the method of making crystals of copper sulphate with a labelled figure.
29. The solubility of a salt is 36 at 35°C. How much salt is required to make a saturated
solution in 144 gram of water at that temperature ? Differentiate between solubility
and solubility curve.
30. Study the given solubility curve and answer the 65
following questions: 60
55
i. What is the solubility of sodium chloride at
50
25°C?
45
ii. What is the relationship between increase 40
in temperature and solubility? 35
iii. What happens when a saturated solution of 30
Solubility
sodium chloride at 50°C is cooled to 20°C ? 25

20
iv. What is the solubility of Ammonium
15
chloride at 24°C and 65°C from the
10
solubility curve?
5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature°C
UNIT
Some Gases
11
Before You Begin

Air is the mixture of different gases. The gases present in air are
nitrogen (78.08%), oxygen (20.95%), argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide
(0.03%) hydrogen (0.00005%), ozone (0.000004%) and other gases
(Ne, He, CH4, H2O). Various natural as well as artificial substances
are made of gases. The formation of plants, animals, fossil fuels, food
and drinks is impossible in the absence of gases. Our food as well as
fossil fuels require gases directly or indirectly. About 92.2% of human
body is made of four elements, viz. nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and
carbon. Among four elements, three are gases. These gases combine
with other elements and form a variety of substance. These gases
play a great role in the existence of living beings. In this unit, we will
study hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen gases with their laboratory
preparation, properties and uses.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Laboratory preparation
i. introduce some gases like hydrogen, oxygen and of hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen. nitrogen gases
ii. prepare hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen gases in • Physical properties, chemical
laboratory. properties and uses of
hydrogen, oxygen and
iii. explain physical properties, chemical properties and nitrogen gases
uses of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen gases.
• Industrial preparation of
hydrogen, oxygen and
nitrogen gases
combustion : the process of burning of a substance

nascent : highly reactive and newly formed
apparatus : the tools or other equipment that are needed for a particular activity
welding : the process of joining metals

1. Hydrogen gas
Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element of the solar system. This gas is found
in the sun and stars. But in earth hydrogen gas is found only about 0.00005%. Since,
hydrogen is very reactive gas so it is found interms of compound by reacting with other
elements. For example, acid, hydrocarbon, carbohydrate, etc.
Henry Cavendish in 1823 named this gas as "inflammable air" but later Lavoiser named
it as "hydrogen" as it forms water while burning. The meaning of hydrogen is "water
producer". Some facts about hydrogen are tabulated below:
Symbol Molecular Atomic Atomic Electronic
formula number weight configuration
H H2 1 1 1s1
Methods of Preparation of Hydrogen Gas

There are mainly three sources of hydrogen. They are acid, base and water. Hydrogen gas
can be prepared from these three sources. Here, we will discuss the preparation of
hydrogen gas in laboratory and from the electrolysis of water.
a. Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen

Gas Do You Know
Active metals like zinc, magnesium, etc. Use of pure zinc decreases the rate of
replace the hydrogen present in acid and hence reaction. 50 impure zinc is used to prepare
hydrogen gas is formed. Hydrogen gas can be zinc in laboratory. The impurity present in
it helps to increase the rate of reaction.
prepared in the laboratory by the reaction of
impure zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) Zn Cl2 (aq) + H2
Dil HCl
Gas jar
Thistle Delivery tube
funnel H2
Cork
Beehive shelf
Woulf's
bottle Water
Fig.
Granulated
11.1 Zinc
Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen Gas
Procedure
Few pieces of zinc are taken in woulfe's bottle and the apparatus is set as shown in the
figure. Then dilute hydrochloric acid is poured gently through the thistle funnel fitted
in one opening of the bottle so that the zinc pieces immerse in the acid. Then chemical
reaction takes place between zinc and hydrochloric acid and hydrogen gas is evolved.
Precautions
i. The apparatus should be clean.
ii. Impure Zinc should be used.
iii. The apparatus should be made airtight.
iv. Dilute hydrochloric acid should be used because concentrated acid does not produce
hydrogen gas.
v. The stem end of the thistle funnel must be dipped into acid.
vi. The gas jar should be full of water, i.e. there should not be presence of air bubbles.
Test of hydrogen gas

How we know the gas prepared in laboratory is hydrogen gas? Think yourself. For this
purpose, keep the gas jar vertical slowly and take a burning match stick near the mouth
of the gas jar. If the gas burns with 'pop' sound, it proves that the gas is hydrogen gas as
other gases do not sound 'pop'.
b. Preparation of Hydrogen Gas From Electrolysis of Water

In industrial scale, hydrogen gas can be prepared from water. Water is found in abundant
form in the earth and presence of two molecules of hydrogen in water is the reason of
production of hydrogen gas for commercial purpose.
Hydrogen
Oxygen gas
gas
External
source emf
Oxygen Water Hydrogen
bubbles with bubbles
soluble
salt Battery
– +
Fig.
11.2 Anode Cathode

Production of hydrogen gas by electrolysis method
Water mixed with a little quantity of sulphuric acid is kept in a electrolytic cell with
passage of electricity which causes the decomposition of water into hydrogen ions and
oxygen ions. Hydrogen ions move towards the cathode and oxygen ions move towards
the anode and collected in the form of gas. Collected gas is passed through pipe and filled
in the cylinder.
2H2 O 2H2 + O2
We can prepare 100% pure hydrogen gas by this method, where electricity is cheap,
hydrogen gas can be manufactured by electrolysis of water.
Properties of Hydrogen gas

Physical properties
i. It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.
ii. It is almost insoluble in water.
iii. It does not show any reaction on the litmus paper. So it is a neutral gas.
iv. It liquefies at – 253°C and solidifies at – 259° C.
v. It is lighter than air.
Chemical Properties
i. Hydrogen gas burns in air or oxygen and forms water.
2H2 + O2 burn
2H2O
ii. At very high temperature, hydrogen gas reacts with non-metals and from different
compounds.
C + 2H2 burn
CH4
(Methane)
S + H2 burn
H 2S
(Hydrogen sulphide)
3. It reacts with metals like sodium, potassium, calcium, etc. to form hydrides.
burn
2Na + H2 2NaH
(Sodium hydride)
2K + H2 burn
2KH
(Potassium hydride)
Ca + H2 burn
CaH2
(Calcium hydride)
4. When hydrogen gas is passed through heated metallic oxides, they are reduced to
metal.
heat
Fe2 O3 + H2 3Fe + 4H2O
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O
Pb O + H2 Pb + H2O

This process is used to obtain metals from metallic oxides. This process is known as
reduction process. In this process, hydrogen removes the oxygen present in metal
oxide and forms water. So, it is called reduction reaction.
Uses of Hydrogen Gas

i. It is used to obtain metals from metallic oxides.
ii. It is used to produce ammonia gas.
iii. It is used in the manufacturing of vegetable ghee.
When hydrogen gas is passed into vegetable oil in the presence of heat and catalyst,
oil is converted into ghee, which is called vegetable ghee. This process is called
hydrogenation.
8 – 10 atm
vegetable oil + H2 ∼ 250°C vegetable ghee
iv. It is used as a fuel in rockets. Sufficient energy is released during the chemical reaction
between hydrogen and oxygen which helps in the projection of rocket.
v. A mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas burns to produce a very high temperature
at about 3000°C. It is called oxy-hydrogen flame. This flame is used in cutting and
welding of metals.
2. Oxygen Gas
Oxygen gas is one of the essential gases important to all living creatures on the earth. Oxygen
kills the harmful bacteria present inside our body. Oxygen makes up about 21% of atmosphere
(by volume). This gas is found in water, carbohydrate, limestone, silicate, wood, etc. in the
form of compound. About 49% of the compounds of earth's crust possess oxygen.
The oxygen gas was first prepared by a British Scientist Joseph Priestley in 1774 AD by
heating red oxide of mercury. Later Lavoisier named it oxygen. Lavoisier proved by an
experiment that oxygen gas constitutes about 1/5 part of the air.
Some facts about oxygen gas are tabulated below:

Symbol Molecular Atomic Atomic weight Electronic
formula number Configuration
O O2 8 16 1s²2s²2p4
Methods of Preparation of Oxygen Gas

1. Laboratory Preparation of Oxygen Gas
a. By Heating
Oxygen is prepared by heating compounds rich in oxygen. In the laboratory, oxygen gas
is prepared by heating potassium chlorate (KClO3) with Manganese dioxide (MnO2),
Here, manganese dioxide acts as a catalyst, which increases the rate of chemical reaction.
MnO2
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
Procedure
The mixture of potassium chlorate (KClO3) and manganese dioxide (MnO2) in the ratio
of 4 : 1 is put in a hard glass test - tube and the rest of the apparatus is fitted as shown
in the figure. Oxygen evolves when the mixture in a hard glass test-tube is heated at the
temperature of 250°C. The oxygen thus produced is collected in the jar by downward
displacement of water.
Hard glass test tube

Cork
Potassium chlorate
+ Oxygen gas
Manganese dioxide
Delivery tube Gas jar
Fig.
Stand Water trough

Bunsen burner
Beehive shelf
11.3
Preparation of oxygen gas (by heating)
Precautions
i. The hard glass test tube should be inclined as shown in figure.
ii. The apparatus should be made airtight.
iii. The gas jar should be full of water or there should not be presence of air bubbles.
b. Without Using Heat

In the laboratory, oxygen gas can be prepared form the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and
manganese dioxide (MnO2) without using heat. In this process, manganese dioxide is
used as a catalyst.
MnO
2H2O2 2
H2O + O2
Procedure
Take a little of manganese dioxide and water in a conical flask and set the apparatus as
shown in figure. Pour hydrogen peroxide slowly in the flask through the dropping thistle
funnel. Oxygen gas is produced immediately when hydrogen peroxide comes in contact
with manganese dioxide.
Hydrogen peroxide
Delivery tube
Stopper
Oxygen gas
Cork
Gas jar
Conical flask
Fig.
Water
Mixture of H2O2 + MnO2 Beehive shelf Water trough
11.4
Preparation of oxygen (without heating)
Precautions
i. The apparatus should be made airtight.
ii. The top of thistle funnel should be immersed in hydrogen peroxide.
iii. Pure manganese dioxide should be used.
Test of Oxygen
How we know the gas prepared in laboratory is oxygen? Think yourself. When a burning
matchstick is put near the mouth of the gas jar containing oxygen gas, it burns more
brightly. This is because oxygen gas is a supporter of burning.
Manufacture of Oxygen gas

Oxygen is found in abundant from in water and air. So, manufacture of oxygen is possible
from these two sources.
a. From electrolysis of water

Oxygen gas can be manufactured by the electrolysis of water.
2H2 O 2H2 + O2
b. From liquid air

The air can be changed into liquid state with a high pressure after cooling. In liquid air
there is mostly nitrogen and then oxygen. The boiling point of liquid nitrogen is (– 190°C)
and that of liquid oxygen is (– 183°C).
So, when liquid air is heated nitrogen is evolved in first section and oxygen still remains in
liquid state. This oxygen in liquid state is heated at – 183°C and liquid oxygen is changed
into gas. The oxygen and nitrogen gases evolved are collected in separate cylinders. In this
way, manufacture of oxygen is possible from liquid air. This method helps to manufacture
both oxygen and nitrogen gases.
Properties of Oxygen gas
a. Physical properties
i. Oxygen is colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.
ii. Oxygen is slightly heavier than air.
iii. It is slightly soluble in water.
iv. It is neutral. So, it has no effect on indicator.
v. It can be liquefied at – 183°C and solidified at – 219°C.

b. Chemical properties
1. Metals form their oxides when burn with oxygen. But gold (Au) and platinum (Pt) do
not form their oxides.
4Na + O2 burn 2Na2O
(Sodium oxide)
4K + O2 burn 2K2 O
(Potassium oxide)
2Ca + O2 burn 2CaO
(Calcium oxide)
2. Non-metals form their oxides when burn with oxygen.
2H2 + O2 burn 2H2O (water)
C + O2 burn CO2 (Carbon dioxide)
S + O2 SO2 (Sulphur dioxide)
3. All hydrocarbons burn with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy.
CH4 + 2O2 heat CO2 + 2H2O + energy
C2H4 + 3O2 heat 2CO2 + H2O + energy
4. In the process of digestion of food, the food like carbohydrates is first changed into
glucose and is then oxidized by oxygen and energy is liberated.
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Uses of Oxygen gas

1. Energy is released due to reaction between oxygen and carbohydrate. This energy is
used to conduct life process.
2. It is used for welding purpose with the help of oxy-acetylene flame or oxy-hydrogen
flame.
3. Patient who suffer from breathing trouble or Pneumonia are given oxygen to activate
their breathing in hospitals.
4. People working at deep mines also use oxygen cylinders if there is less oxygen in the
air.
5. It is used for manufacturing of very important industrial chemicals like sulphuric
acid, nitric acid, etc.
6. Liquid oxygen is used in rockets for burning fuel.

3. Nitrogen Gas
Generally, nitrogen gas does not react with other elements or compounds. Comparably,
it is an inert gas. But Nitrogen gas is an essential constituent of animal and plant life. It
is found in the protein, enzymes, R.N.A, D.N.A., etc. of animals and plants. It constitutes
about 79% (by volume) of atmosphere. In combined state, it is found in the form of
ammonia, ammonium salts, etc.
Daniel Rutherford discovered Nitrogen in 1772. In 1790, Chaptal named it as "Nitrogen."
Some facts about Nitrogen
Symbol Molecular Atomic number Atomic weight Electronic

formula configuration
N N2 7 14 1s², 2s² 2p³
Methods of Preparation of Nitrogen Gas

Nitrogen gas can be prepared by various methods such as by burning phosphorus in air,
from liquid air, by heating the mixture of sodium nitrate and ammonium chloride, etc.
In this chapter, we will discuss the laboratory preparation and industrial manufacture of
nitrogen gas.
a. Laboratory preparation of Nitrogen gas

The mixture of sodium nitrite (NaNO2) and ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) is heated
to prepare nitrogen gas in the laboratory.
NaNO2 + NH4Cl burn N2 + NaCl + H2O
Thistle funnel Delivery tube
Stand
Round bottom
flask
Ammonium Nitrogen gas
chloride +
Gas gar
Sodium nitrite
(NH4Cl+NaNO2) Water
Tripod stand
Fig.
Water trough
Burner
Beehive shelf
11.5
Laboratory preparation of Nitrogen gas
Method
The mixture of 5gm of sodium nitrite and 4 gm of ammonium chloride mixed in a clean
round bottom flask. Then 50ml of water is added in that mixture to make the solution of

sodium nitrite and ammonium chloride. The rest of the apparatus is set up as shown in
the figure. On heating the solution gently, nitrogen gas is evolved which is collected in the
gas jar by downward displacement of water.
Precautions
1. The solution should be prepared before heating as the solid ammonium chloride is
volatile even at low temperature.
2. The apparatus should be air tight.
3. The solution should be heated slowly.
Test of nitrogen gas

When a burning magnesium ribbon is inserted into the gas jar of nitrogen, it burns in
nitrogen gas forming yellowish powder. If there is smell of ammonia when few drops of
water are added, it proves the gas collected in the gas jar is nitrogen.
b. Manufacture of Nitrogen Gas

From liquid Air
The air can be changed into liquid state with a high pressure after cooling. In liquid air
there is mostly nitrogen and then oxygen. The boiling point of liquid nitrogen is (– 196°C)
and that of liquid oxygen is (– 183°C).
So, when liquid air is heated, nitrogen is evolved in first section and oxygen still remains in
liquid state. This oxygen in liquid state is heated at – 183°C and liquid oxygen is changed
into gas. The oxygen and nitrogen gases evolved are collected in separate cylinders. In this
way, manufacture of oxygen is possible from liquid air. This method helps to manufacture
both oxygen and nitrogen gases.
Properties of Nitrogen Gas

a. Physical Properties
i. It is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas.
ii. It is slightly lighter than air.
iii. It is slightly soluble in water.
iv. It is neutral . It does not have any effect on indicator.
v. It is non-combustible gas and does not support combustion.
vi. It can be liquefied at – 196°C and solidified at – 210° C.
b. Chemical Properties
1. At a very high temperature (2000° C – 3000°C) of nitrogen and oxygen combine to
form nitric oxide.
N2 + O2 electric arc 2NO (Nitric oxide)

2. When the mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen is heated with catalyst (Fe/Mo) at 450° C
and 500 Atm. pressure, ammonia is formed.
N + 3H 455°C ∼ 500Atm 2NH (ammonia gas)
2 2 3
3. Some of the active metals like magnesium, aluminium, calcium, etc. continue to burn
in atmosphere of nitrogen forming their respective nitrides.
3Mg + N burn Mg N 2 3 2

(magnesium nitride) Do You Know
Nitrogen gas creates pressure inside the
3Ca + N2 burn Ca3N2
bulb which prevents the filament from

(calcium nitride) burning. So, it is filled inside electric bulb.
2Al + N2 burn 2AlN (Aluminum nitride)
Uses of Nitrogen Gas

1. It is used for manufacturing of ammonia, nitric acid, cyanides, nitrides, etc.
2. Being inactive, it is used in filling electric bulbs and high temperature thermometers.
3. The temperature of liquid nitrogen is – 196.5°C. So, it is used as refrigerant.
4. It is used in filling air space of compounds to retain their flavour and colour better.
Key Concepts
1. Water is formed when hydrogen burns in presence of oxygen.
2. Hydrogen gas is used to make vegetable ghee which is obtained as a result of
chemical reaction between vegetable oil and hydrogen. This process is called
hydrogenation.
3. Hydrogen gas burns with 'pop' sound.
4. Manufacture of oxygen is possible from liquid air.
5. Oxygen gas is used in artificial respiration, while diving in deep oceans, while
climbing high peaks.
6. Oxy-acetylen flame and oxy-hydrogen flame are used for cutting metals and
welding purpose.
7. Liquid oxygen is used as fuel in missile and rocket.
8. Nitrogen gas is prepared by heating the mixture of sodium nitrite and ammonium
chloride.
9. Nitrogen gas is used in the production of ammonia, nitric acid and nitroglycerin.
10. Nitrogen gas is used in electric bulbs as it does not react with oxygen and prevents
burning.

a. Which of the following gas is completely insoluble in water?
Nitrogen Hydrogen
Ammonia Oxygen
b. What is the process of making vegetable ghee from vegetable oil?
hydrogenation reduction
oxidation carbonation
c. Which of the following is heated for the production of oxygen gas
KClO3 CaCO3
H2O2 Fe2O3
d. Which compound is formed when magnesium burns with nitrogen?
Magnesium nitrate Magnesium nitrite
Magnesium oxide Magnesium nitride

a. Describe the method of laboratory preparation of hydrogen with a labelled
diagram.
b. What are the precautions during laboratory preparation of hydrogen gas?
c. What happens when hydrogen react with water? Write with chemical equation.
d. What is hydrogenation? Write its importance in our daily life.
e. Write any four uses of hydrogen gas.
f. Write with balanced chemical equation when hydrogen reacts with .
i. Sodium ii. Oxygen iii. Nitrogen iv. Ferric oxide
g. Write any two physical and two chemical properties of hydrogen gas.
h. Describe the method of laboratory preparation of oxygen gas by using heat. Also,
draw a well labelled figure.
i. Describe the method of laboratory preparation of oxygen gas without using heat.
Also, draw a well labelled figure.
j. Describe in brief the industrial preparation of oxygen gas.
k. Write any four physical properties of oxygen gas.
l. How can you prove that the gas inside the jar is oxygen gas?
m. What happens when metals and non-metals burn with oxygen? Write with
example.
n. Write any four main uses of oxygen gas.
o. Describe with a neat and well labelled diagram of the laboratory preparation of
nitrogen gas.
p. How is nitrogen gas tested? Write.
q. Write the balanced chemical equation when oxygen gas reacts with nitrogen.
r. What are the physical properties of nitrogen gas? Write any four uses of nitrogen
gas.
s. How is nitrogen gas prepared in industries? Describe in brief.
3. Complete and balance the given chemical equations.

a. 2H2 + .............. 2H2O
b. CH4 .............. CO + H2
c. Na + H2 burn ................
d. .................. heat KCl + 3O2
e. H2 O2 MnO2 H2 O + ..................
f. ............... + O2 burn CO2 + 2H2O + energy
g. C6H12 O6 + O2 biocatalyst
............. + ........... energy
h. ............. burn H2 + O 2
i. K + O2 ..................
j. NaNO2 + ............. heat NaCl + N2 + ..............
k. 3Mg + N2 burn ........................
l. S + O2 ......................

1. What is air?
2. What is the percentage of nitrogen and oxygen in air?
3. Why is hydrogen called the simplest element?
4. Write any two physical properties of hydrogen gas.
5. What is hydrogenation ?
6. Name the scientist who discovered hydrogen gas.
7. What is a catalyst?
8. Write down the melting point and boiling point of hydrogen.
9. Write any two physical properties of oxygen gas.
10. Write down any two physical properties of nitrogen.
11. Name the scientist who discovered oxygen gas.
12. Write down the molecular formula of niter and salt petre.

13. How is hydrogen gas tested? Why is hydrogen filled in balloons? Write.
14. Hydrogen gas is not found freely in nature, why? Why do active metals displace
hydrogen from acids ?
15. Why is nitrogen gas called azota ? Why do mountain climbers take oxygen cylinder?
16. Nitrogen gas is filled inside the electric bulb. Why? Why is impure zinc used for
preparing hydrogen gas in laboratory?
17. Nitrogen gas is filled in the fuel tanks of aircrafts. Why? Why is hydrogen gas used
for welding ?
18. While preparing oxygen gas, the delivery tube is separated from water trough before
heating is stopped. Why?
19. Nitrogen gas is important for green plants. Why?

20. How is urea prepared by using hydrogen gas? Write. Write any three uses of nitrogen
gas.
21. How is hydrogen gas manufactured in industries? Write.
22. Write any three uses of hydrogen.
23. How is nitrogen extracted from air ? Describe in brief.
24. Write down any three uses of oxygen gas.
25. How is chemical fertilizer prepared from nitrogen ? Write in brief. What is oxyhydrogen
flame? Why is it used?

26. Describe the method of laboratory preparation of hydrogen gas with a labelled
diagram.
27. Describe the method of laboratory preparation of oxygen gas by using heat. Also,
draw a well labelled figure.
28. Answer the following questions on the basis of the given figure:
i. Which gas is Hard glass test tube
Cork
being collected in Potassium chlorate
+ Oxygen gas
Manganese dioxide
the gas jar ?
Delivery tube Gas jar
ii. What will happen
if this gas is Stand Water trough
Bunsen burner
heated with Beehive shelf
phosphorus ?
Write with chemical equation.
iii. Describe the role of Manganese dioxide in the above process.
29. Answer the following questions on the basis of given figure.
i. Which gas is being collected Hydrogen peroxide
Delivery tube
in the gas jar ? Stopper
Oxygen gas
ii. Write down the role of Cork
Gas jar
MnO2 in this process, Conical flask
iii. Write down the balanced Mixture of H2O2 + MnO2 Beehive shelf
Water
Water trough
chemical equation of the
preparation of this gas.
30. Study the given figure and answer the following questions:
i. Which gas is being Delivery tube
collected in the gas jar ? Stand
Thistle funnel
ii. Write down the balanced

chemical equation of the
Round bottom
reaction that takes place in flask
Ammonium Nitrogen gas
the above process, chloride +
Sodium nitrite
Gas gar
(NH4Cl+NaNO2) Water
iii. What will happen when Tripod stand
Water trough
Burner
this gas is heated with Beehive shelf
oxygen? Write with

chemical equation.

UNIT
Metal
12
Before You Begin

A variety of substances are found around us. These substances are
formed by different types of matter. For example, gold, copper,
wood, plastic, paper, stone, etc. These substances may be element or
compound. Elements are the pure substances made up of only one
type of atoms. Compounds are the substances formed by combination
of two or more elements in a fixed proportion by weight. Elements
are divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids on the basis of
their characteristics. Metals are electropositive elements which can
conduct heat and electricity. Gold, copper, silver, iron, aluminium,
zinc, magnesium, sodium, mercury, etc. are some examples of metals.
In this unit, we will study about metals, differences between metals
and non-metals and role of some metals in human body in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to metals
i. introduce metals and non-metals with examples. • Physical and chemical
ii. differentiate between metals and non-metals. properties of metals
iii. explain the properties of metals and non-metals. • Non-metals and alloys
iv. introduce alloys and metalloids. • Metalloids
v. explain the role of metals in living beings [zinc as • Role of metals in organisms
enzyme, significance of sodium and potassium ions, • Harmful effects of mercury
negative impacts of mercury (Hg) and lead (Pb) in and lead
human body].
metals : the electropositive elements which can conduct heat and electricity
metalloids : the substances having properties of both metals and non-metals
lustre : the shining quality of a surface
alloy : a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or metals and non-metals
lustrous : having shiny nature
malleability : the property of a substance due to which it can be beaten into a thin sheet
ductility : the property of a substance due to which it can be drawn into a wire
conductivity : the property of a substance due to which it can conduct heat and electricity

Metals
Metals are those substances which are hard, malleable, ductile and good conductors of
heat and electricity. For example, iron, copper, aluminium, gold, silver, etc. They are
shiny (lustrous) and produce tinkling sound when hammered. All solids exist in solid
state except mercury. We use metals like iron, aluminium, copper, silver, gold, etc. in our
daily life. Metals are used for making cooking utensils, construction materials, vehicles,
ornaments, furniture, electric wires, weapons, etc.
Fig.
12.1
Cooking utensils made of Cooking utensils made of Cooking utensils made of
iron copper aluminium
Properties of Metals
1. Most metals are found in solid state except mercury.
2. Most metals are malleable, i.e. they can be beaten into thin sheets.
3. Most metals are ductile, i.e. a thin and long wire can be made from metals.
4. Metals are lustrous, i.e. having shiny nature.
5. Metals are good conductor of heat and electricity.
6. They produce tinkling sound on hitting.
7. Most metals are hard except lithium, sodium and potassium.
Activity 1
Take a piece of wood, a piece of copper, a piece of coal, sulphur, an iron nail, etc.
Press each of them one by one hard or soft. Try to break them and write down the
result in the table.
Can be Cannot be
Substances Hard Soft
broken broken
1. Iron nail √ × × √
2. Coal
3. A piece of copper
4. Sulphur
5. Wood

Activity 2
Take a sheet of copper, gold ornament, coal, sulphur, paper, a sheet of zinc, etc.
Observe whether they are shiny or not.
Fill in the table after your observation.
Substances Shines Does not shine

1. A sheet of copper √ √
2. Coal
3.
4.
5.
Activity 3
Make a list of substances that can be used to make a long wire.
The property of a metal be virtue of which it can be drawn into a long wire is called
ductility. Most metals are ductile because they can be drawn into long wires.
Metals can be stretched slowly to make wire. When metals are stretched the positively
charged ions and electrons in required amount are stretched slowly. As a result, the metal
changes into a wire. This property of metals in called ductility.
The interatomic force of attraction is more in metals. So, they are hard and strong. As
metals are hard and strong, they have high melting point and boiling point.
The melting point and boiling point of some common metals is given below.
S.N. Metals Melting point Boiling point

1. Potassium (K) 63.5°C 759°C
2. Sodium (Na) 97.79°C 882.94°C
3. Magnesium (Mg) 650°C 1107°C
4. Aluminium (Al) 660°C 2467°C
5. Iron (Fe) 1535°C 2750°C
6. Copper (Cu) 1083°C 2567°C
Above table shows that the melting point of potassium and sodium is very less as
compared to that of other metals.
Chemical Properties of Metals

1. Metals react with oxygen and produce corresponding oxides.
When metals burn in oxygen, they form metal oxides.
Mg + O burn 2MgO (Magnesium oxide)
2

Al + O2 Al2O3 (Aluminium oxide)
Ca + O2 2CaO (Calcium oxide)
Cu + O2 2CuO (Copper oxide)
2. Active metals react with acids and form corresponding salt and hydrogen gas.
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2
2Fe + 6HCl 2FeCl3 + 3H2
2Al + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2
Mg + H2SO4 MgSO4 + H2
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
Ca + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2
3. Some active metals like Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, etc. react with hydrogen and
form unstable hydrides. For example:
Na + H burn 2NaH
2
K + H2 burn 2KH
Ca + H burn CaH
2 2
Activity 4
Take a beaker and make 50 ml of concentrated solution of copper sulphate.
Take another beaker and make 50 ml of concentrated solution of ferrous sulphate.
Take an iron nail, tie it with a thread and immerse it in the solution of copper
sulphate.
Take a piece of copper, tie it with a thread and immerse it in the solution of ferrous
sulphate.
Observe the iron nail and piece of copper after five minutes.
What do your observe?
Non-Metals
Non-metals are those substances which are generally soft, non-malleable, non-ductile and
bad conductors of heat and electricity. They exist in all three states, viz. solid, liquid and
gas. Carbon, iodine, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, etc. are examples of non-metals.
We use many non-metals in our daily life. Non-metals are used in construction works, to
make containers, utensils, medicines, etc.

Fig.
12.2
Carbon Phosphorus Sulphur
Properties of Non-metals
1. Non-metals are found in all three states, i.e. Do You Know
solid, liquid and gas.
All non-metals are bad conductor of
2. They are non-malleable. heat and electricity except graphite.
3. They are non-ductile. Metals are sonorous and non-metals
4. They are non-lustrous except iodine. are non-sonorous.
5. They are non-conductors of heat and
electricity except graphite.
6. They do not produce tinkling sound on hitting.
7. Non-metals are generally soft.
Activity 5
Collect various materials found at your home like metal wires, coins,
spoon, brick, pencil, lead of pencil, plastics, iron nail, etc.
Study the characteristics of these substances like malleability, ductility,
conductivity, etc.
Classify them in terms of metal and non-metals.
Differences between Metals and Non-metals

Metals Non-metals
1. Metals are good conductors of heat 1. Non-metals are bad conductors of heat
and electricity. and electricity.
2. They are malleable. 2. They are non-malleable.
3. They are ductile. 3. They are non-ductile.
4. They are lustrous. 4. They are non-lustrous.
5. Most metals are hard. 5. Most metals are soft.
6. They are sonorous. 6. They are non-sonorous.

Experiment: 1
To demonstrate that metals are good conductor and non-metals are bad conductor of
heat.
Requirements : Bunsen burner, spirit lamp or a candle, match box, an iron rod, a wooden
stick
Procedure
• Take an iron rod and a wooden stick of the same shape and size.
• Heat the one end of iron rod with a burner/ spirit lamp/ candle for a few minutes and
catch the other end of the rod. Repeat the same process for wooden stick.
Observation : The outer end of the iron rod is felt hot when heated for a few minutes
but the outer end of wooden stick is not felt hot. Iron is good conductor
of heat. So when one end of iron rod is heated for a while its another
end is felt hot due to conduction of heat. But wood is bad conductor of
heat, it does not conduct heat from one end to another. So another end
of wooden stick is not felt hot.
Wooden stick Iron rod

Fig.
12.3
Conclusion : From this experiment, it can be concluded that metals are good conductor
and non-metals are bad conductor of heat.
Experiment: 2
To demonstrate that metals are good conductor and non-metals are bad conductor of
electricity.
Requirements : Battery, electric bulb, copper wire, coin, a piece of wood, rubber, a piece
of plastic, a piece of blade
Procedure
• Take a battery, an electric bulb and pieces of copper wire
• Assemble an open circuit as shown in the figure.
• Leave the gap PQ in the circuit.
• Place a coin, to connect the ends of wire PQ. What do you observe? Does the bulb
glow? Why?

• Remove the coin and repeat this activity by using a piece of wood, rubber, a piece of
plastic, a piece of blade, etc. one by one.
Bulb glows Bulb does not glow

P Q P Q
Coin (Conductor) Wood (insulator)
Fig.
12.4 Battery
Observation : When the circuit is completed by using metal objects (coin, piece of
copper wire, coin, iron, etc.), the bulb glows but the bulb does not glow
when circuit is completed with non-metals (wood, rubber, plastic,
etc.). It shows that metals are good conductors and non-metals are bad
conductors of electricity.
Conclusion : From this experiment, it can be concluded that metals are good conductor
and non-metals are bad conductor of electricity.
Experiment: 3
To demonstrate that metals are malleable and non-metals are non-malleable.
Requirements : Hammer, a thick copper wire, a thick iron wire, a piece of brick, a piece
of stone
Procedure
• Take a thick wire of iron and hit it several times with a hammer. Now, take a piece of
brick and hammer it. What do you observe?
• Repeat this activity with a thick wire of copper and a piece of stone. What do you
observe?
Observation : Copper wire and iron wire become flat on hammering but they do not
break down into pieces. It shows that metals are malleable. On other
hand, brick and stone break down into many small pieces on hammering.
It shows that non-metals are non-malleable.
Conclusion : From this experiment, it can be concluded that metals are malleable and
non-metals are non-malleable.

Experiment: 4
To demonstrate that metals are lustrous and non-metals are non-lustrous.
Requirements : steel plate, wooden board, cardboard paper,
Procedure
• Take a steel plate and reflect the sunlight using the plate.
• Repeat this activity with wooden board and cardboard paper one by one. What do
you observe? Which object appears shiny? Why?
Observation : Steel plate appears shiny and reflects light. But the wooden board and
cardboard paper do not reflect light. It shows that steel plate is lustrous
but wooden board and cardboard are non-lustrous.
Experiment: 5
To demonstrate that metals are sonorous and non-metals are non-sonorous.
Requirements : A hammer, a bell, steel plate, wooden block, brick
Procedure
• Take a hammer and hit a bell, steel plate, wooden block, brick one by one.
• Observe which object produces tinkling sound while hammering. Is there any
difference between the sound produced by metals and non-metals when they are
hammered? What do you observe?
Observation : The metal articles (bell, steel plate) produce tinkling sound and non-
metals (wooden block, brick) do not produce tinkling sound on
hammering. It shows that metals are sonorous and non-metals are non-
sonorous.
Conclusion From this experiment, it can be concluded that metals are sonorous and non-
metals are non-sonorous.
Alloy
An alloy is the homogeneous mixture of two more metals or metals and non-metals. Alloys
are formed by mixing molten mass of two or more metals or metals and non-metals and
cooling the product. The alloy which is formed by mixing a metal and mercury is called
amalgam. Examples:
Alloy Components
1. Brass Copper (70%) and Zinc (30%)
2. Stainless steel Iron (89.4%), Chromium (10%), Manganese (0.35%) and
carbon (0.25%)

3. Bronze Copper (88%) and Tin (12%)
4. Artificial gold Copper (90%) and Aluminium (10%)
5. Bell metal Copper (80%) and Tin (20%)
Fig.
12.5
Brass Rold gold Stainless steel
Properties of alloys
i. They are stronger and harder than their components.
ii. The are good conductor of heat and electricity.
iv. They are more brittle than their components.
iv. Their melting point is lower than that of their components.
Metalloids
Metalloids are the elements having properties of both metals and non-metals, e.g. silicon,
arsenic, germanium, etc. Metalloids are semi-conductors.
Properties of metalloids
i. They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
ii. They are not malleable and ductile.
iii. They are lustrous.
iv. They form alloys.
Role of Metals in Organisms

Different types of metals and non-metals are found in human body. Human body consists
of metals like Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, etc. Similarly, non-metals like C, H, N, O, P, S,
etc. are found in human body. These metals and non-metals are found in the form of
different compounds. These metals and non-metals are essential to form protein, nucleic
acid, lipids, etc. These elements are called biological inorganic compounds. The presence
of iron in blood was known to human beings in the 17th century. In human body, metals
like Na, Mg, K and Ca are found in more amount and metals like Mn, Co, Cu, Fe, Zn, Mo,
etc. are found less in amount in trace amount in human body.

Zinc in Enzyme
In the body of living organisms, zinc is found very less in amount. But it is a very important
metal for living beings. Zinc is found in about 300 enzymes of human body. In the body of
adult human beings, about 2-3 gram of zinc is found. Zinc is found in cells, tissues, bone,
cytoplasm, etc. About 90% of zinc present in the body is found only in muscles and bones.
Similarly, semen and prostate gland contain high concentration of zinc. Similarly, retina
of eye also contains zinc. The amount of zinc decreases along with age which results in
blurred vision.
Role of zinc in human body

In human body, zinc is essential:
1. to increase immunity against diseases.
2. to prevent in the infection of diarrhoea, pneumonia, etc.
3. for the development of embryo.
4. for increasing height and weight of small children.
5. for development of bones.
6. to increase the fertility of males.
7. to regulate menstrual cycle in females.
8. to treat diseases like psoriasis and neurodermitis.
9. to taste and smell food items.
10. to treat anorexia.
Importance of Sodium and Potassium ions

In human body, sodium and potassium ions are found in the form of ions, i.e. Na+ and K+.
Those ions are very important for our body. These ions are found inside and outside the
cells. Nervous system can work only in the presence of charged ions. In our body, various
metabolic activities occur due to exchange of sodium and potassium ions.
Sodium-potassium pump is a very important process for human body. In this process,
when sodium ions enter the cells, potassium ions leave the cells. This process occurs
simultaneously. Exchange of information between brain and neurons occur due to
sodium-potassium pump. This process is essential for regulating body temperature and
heart beat. It is also essential to keep muscles fit and to control pH inside cells.
If there is irregularity in sodium potassium pump, we suffer from paralysis, migraine,
muscle spasm, etc. Therefore, proper balance of sodium and potassium ions in the body
is essential to live a healthy life.

Harmful Effects of Lead
Lead is a harmful element for human body. Like other useful metals, lead also spreads
throughout the body and affects almost all organs. The adverse effects seen in human
body due to entry of lead are given below:
i. Headache
ii. Abdominal pain
Do You Know
iii. Anaemia
Lead affects the brain of children
iv. Change in behaviour adversely. It also affects the absorption of
v. Lack of brain development calcium by bones.
vi. Weakening of bones
Harmful Effects of Mercury

Mercury is a poisonous metal for human body. When a single drop of mercury enters
our body it may block blood vessels and causes death of the victim. The compounds of
mercury are very harmful for our body. They also affect the foetus by entering through
placenta. It affects the physical and mental development of foetus. The harmful affects of
mercury in human body are given below:
i. Mercury affects the brain.
ii. It weakens the ability to speak, hear and see things.
iii. It affects the lungs and kidneys. Do You Know
iv. It affects the physical and mental
The harmful affect of mercury in human
development of foetus adversely. body is called hydrargia or mercurialism.
Key Concepts
1. Metals are those substances which are hard, malleable, ductile and good conductors
of heat and electricity. For example, iron, copper, aluminium, gold, silver, etc.
2. Metals are used for making cooking utensils, construction materials, vehicles,
ornaments, furniture, electric wires, weapons, etc.
3. Most metals are malleable, i.e. they can be beaten into thin sheets.
4. Most metals are ductile, i.e. a thin and long wire can be made from metals.
5. Metals are good conductor of heat and electricity.
6. The property of a metal be virtue of which it can be drawn into a long wire is called
ductility.
7. When metals are stretched the positively charged ions and electrons in required
amount are stretched slowly. As a result, the metal changes into a wire.
8. Non-metals are those substances which are generally soft, non-malleable, non-
ductile and bad conductors of heat and electricity.
9. We use many non-metals in our daily life. Non-metals are used in construction
works, to make containers, utensils, medicines, etc.
10. Non-metals are found in all three states, i.e. solid, liquid and gas.
11. Different types of metals and non-metals are found in human body. Human body
consists of metals like Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, etc. Similarly, non-metals alike C,
H, N, O, P, S, etc. are found in human body.
12. In the body of living organisms, Zinc is found very less in amount. But it is a very
important metal for living beings.
13. Retina of eye also contains zinc. The amount of zinc decreases along with age which
results in blurred vision.
14. In human body, sodium and potassium ions are found in the form of ions, i.e. Na+
and K+. Those ions are very important for our body.
15. In our body, various metabolic activities occur due to exchange of sodium and
potassium ions.
16. Sodium-potassium pump is a very important process for human body. In this
process, when sodium ions enter the cells, potassium ions leave the cells. This
process occurs simultaneously.
17. If there is irregularity in sodium potassium pump, we suffer from paralysis,
migraine, muscle spasm, etc.
18. Lead is a harmful element for human body. Like other useful metals, lead also
spreads throughout the body and affects almost all organs.
19. Lead affects the brain of children adversely. It also affects the absorption of calcium
by bones.
20. Mercury is a poisonous metal for human body. When a single drop of mercury
enters our body it may block blood vessels and causes death of the victim.
21. Mercury affects the brain. It weakens the ability to speak, hear and see things. It
affects the lungs and kidneys.
22. The harmful affect of mercury in human body is called hydrargia or mercurialism.

a. Which of the following elements is a metal?
oxygen iron
nitrogen carbon
b. Which of the given metal has very low melting point?
potassium iron
copper aluminium

c. What is the boiling point of magnesium?
650°C 1107°C
1083°C 2567°C
d. Anorexia is caused due to lack of .................. in human body.
calcium potassium
zinc copper
e. Which of the given metals is harmful for human body?
sodium potassium
iron mercury

a. Define metals. Write three examples of metals.
b. Write down the general properties of metals.
c. Define the following terms.
i. Conductivity
ii. Malleability
iii. Ductility
d. Define non-metals with any four examples.
e. Write any two chemical properties of metals.
f. Write any four general properties of non-metals.
g. Define alloys with any two examples.
h. Name any five metals and five non-metals that are found in human body.
i. Name any two metals having low melting point and two metals having high
melting point.
j. What is meant by sodium-potassium pump? Why is it essential for human body?
k. Name any two diseases that are caused due to lack of zinc in our body.
l. What is the poisonous effect of mercury in human body called?
3. Write any four differences between metals and non-metals.

4. Describe an experiment to prove that metals are good conductors and non-metals
are bad-conductors of heat.

5. Describe in brief the role of metals in organisms.
6. Write down the role of zinc in human body.
7. Why are sodium and potassium ions important for human body?
8. List the harmful effects caused due to lead and mercury in human body.
9. Copper is called a metal but carbon is called a non-metal, why?
10. Why is brass called an alloy? Give reason.
1. What are metals ?
2. Name any two soft metals. ?
3. What are non-metals ?
4. What do you mean by metalloids ?
5. What do you mean by ductility?
6. Name a metal and a non-metal having more density.
7. Write any two physical properties of metals.
8. Name any two metals which can be changed into sheets on beating.
9. Name any two metals which cannot be drawn into wire.
10. Write down the melting point of the given metals:
i. sodium ii. iron
iii. copper iv. potassium
11. What happens when the solution of silver nitrate is electrolysed? Write.
12. Write down the boiling points of the given metals:
i. sodium ii. copper
iii. potassium iv. Iron
13. Name any two metals which are not ductile.

14. Why is the melting point of potassium very less than that of iron although both are
metals? Give reason.
15. Write any two differences between metal and non-metal.
16. Sulphur is called non-metal and Brass is called an alloy. Give reason.
17. Why is essential to balance in sodium and potassium pump ? Silicon is called a
metalloid. Give reason.
18. Zinc is a very essential element for human body, why ?
19. What is meant by sodium-potassium pump ?
20. Metals are very important in our daily life. Give reason.

21. List the harmful effects of mercury and lead in human body. Name a non-metal which
is good conductor of heat and electricity.
22. What happens when the solution of silver nitrate is electrolysed? Write ionic equation.
23. Write a short note on "Zinc in Enzyme." Name a non-metal that forms electropositive
ion.
24. 'Describe in brief the role of metals in human body.
25. Describe in brief the role of zinc in human body.

26. What is the reason behind that the melting and boiling point of iron is more than that
of sodium? Write any two differences between metalloids and alloys.
27. Complete the given chemical equations:
i. Mg + HCl .... ii. Na + HNO3 .....+ H2
iii. H2 + K ..... iv. K + ..... K2SO4 + H2
28. What happens when?
i. Sodium reacts with hydrochloric acid
ii. Potassium sulphate is electrolysed
iii. Copper sulphate is electrolysed
iv. Magnesium chloride is electrolysed
29. Describe in brief the role of sodium and potassium ions in the bodies of living beings.
30. Complete the given ionic equations. Differentiate between malleability and ductility.
i. NaCl ......... + Cr–
ii. CuSO4 Cu++ +

UNIT
Carbon and its
13 Compounds
Before You Begin

Carbon is the most essential element for existence of plants and
animals. The atomic number of carbon is 6 and its atomic weight is
12. The valence shell of carbon consists of four elements. Therefore,
carbon combines with elements like hydrogen, oxygen, etc. forming
covalent bond. The word carbon has been derived from the Latin word
'carbo' which means shoot or charcoal. Carbon is present in various
organic as well as inorganic compounds. Carbon is found in living
beings as well as non-living things. Carbon combines with hydrogen
and forms many hydrocarbons. In this unit, we will study about
sources and nature of carbon, allotropes of carbon and properties
of carbon. Similarly, we will study about organic compounds and
inorganic compound in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Structure, nature and sources
i. define hydrocarbons and explain their forms. of carbon
ii. state physical and chemical properties of carbon. • Physical and chemical
properties of carbon
iii. introduce allotropes of carbon.
• Diamond and graphite
iv. introduce inorganic and organic compounds and
differentiate between them. • Organic compounds and
organic compounds
hyrocarbon : the compounds made of hydrogen and carbon

organic : obtained from living beings
inorganic : obtained from minerals
allotropes : the different forms of an element having different physical properties and
similar chemical properties
diamond : hardest and purest form of carbon

Carbon and Its Compounds
The word carbon is derived from the Latin word 'carbo' which means charcoal or shoot.
Human beings were familiar with carbon in the form of charcoal and shoot since prehistoric
day. These are the types of carbon. Later human beings discovered that diamond and graphite
are made up of carbon only. These compounds can be obtained naturally. According to
scientists different carbon compounds has been discovered in last 20 years, whose use can
bring lots of change in the entire world.
Carbon is a non-metal which forms covalent bond with other four carbon atoms. Carbon
also forms covalent bond easily with other elements too. Due to this property of carbon
there are nearly ten million carbon compounds present in the world. In this unit, we will
discuss the properties and compounds of carbon.
Carbon in common materials

Carbon is the basis of construction of all living organisms. Different types of carbon atoms are
found throughout our body. Carbon is contained in animal and plant cell as a basic element.
Generally carbon is black in colour. If any substance burns giving softy flame or smoke
and the remnant of burning solid substance appear black. It proves there is carbon in that
solid substance.
Activity 1
Collect some materials like wood, sugar, ghee, edible oil, kerosene, tongs, spatula,
burner, match box and observe the following activities.
At first take a piece of wood with the help of tongs and heat it with a burner.
Take edible oil, ghee, kerosene in spatula and heat it with a burner and observe.
Take a little amount of sugar in a spoon and heat it with a burner. At first sugar melts
and turns into yellowish grupy mass. On further heating it turns into greenish mass
called caramel which on further heating gives black sugar charcol. It proves that
sugar contains carbon.
Carbon element is ranked at 6th place in the world in terms of most available elements.
It is the second element of human body.
Sources of Carbon
Carbon in terms of compound
In terms of element Carbon in terms of gas
Inorganic compounds organic compound
coal carbonates, carbohydrates, carbon dioxide,
coke bicarbonates, protein, carbon monoxide,
charcoal carbides (like CaC2), petrol, hydrocarbon gases
diamond minerals, stones, etc. vitamins, (like methane, ethane,
graphite medicines, LPG, etc.)
graphene silk, soap, paper,
etc.

Nature of Carbon
Carbon atom has four valence electrons. So, it has equal chance of gaining or losing electron
to obtain stable electronic configuration. Its valency is four. Carbon shares its electrons
with atoms of either same element or other elements to form covalent compounds. As it
can form four covalent bonds, its valency is called tetravelency.
A carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with hydrogen atoms by sharing electrons
and form a methane molecule. In fact, the number of carbon compounds alone is much
greater than the number of compounds formed by all other elements. The reason for the
existence of the large number of carbon compounds is that the carbon atoms can link
with one another by strong covalent bonds of long chains or rings of carbon atoms. The
property of carbon element due to which its atoms can join with one another to form a
long carbon chain is called catenation. Due to this property, there exists large number of
carbon compounds.
For example:
Covalent bond
C C C C C C C C C C
The branch of chemistry dealing with carbon and its compounds is known as organic
chemistry and that dealing with other than carbon is known as inorganic chemistry.
There are various forms of carbon because of its covalency. When an element in its different
forms, shows the same chemical properties but different physical properties, such forms
are known as allotropes and the phenomenon is called allotropy or allotropism.
Carbon allotropes
crystalline amorphous
diamond graphite fullerenes coal coke charcoal lamp black
Do You Know
Graphite is also called black lead.
Physical Properties of Carbon
1. Carbon is found in solid state. Diamond and graphite are crystalline but coal and
charcoal are found in amorphous form.
2. Carbon is insoluble in water.
3. At very high temperature carbon is directly converted into gaseous state from solid
state.
4. Carbon is black in colour but diamond is colourless and transparent.
5. Carbon has no shining property but diamond is shiny.
6. Carbon is bad conductor of heat and electricity but graphite is good conductor of heat
and electricity.
7. The density of carbon may vary from 1.5 to 3.5 depending on its different allotropes.
Diamond
It is the purest from of carbon and is the hardest natural substance known. It is non-
conductor of heat and electricity. The diamond crystals found in nature are octahedral and
the carbon atoms are strongly bound to each other which leads to its hardness. It is used
for cutting purposes like plastic, marble, etc. Diamond is transparent to X-ray. It does not
take part in chemical reaction but burns at temperature of 850°C. It is an expensive crystal.
Do You Know
In a diamond crystal, each carbon atom is combined
to four other carbon atoms by covalent bonds.
Hence all the four valence electrons of each carbon
atom are used up in the bond formation without
Fig.
leaving free electrons. As a result, diamond cannot
conduct heat and electricity. Therefore, diamond is
a bad conductor of heat and electricity. 13.1
Diamond
Graphite
In graphite, the atoms of carbon arrange themselves into hexagonal layer and each carbon
forms a covalent bond with three other carbons. These hexagonal layers are arranged in
two dimension. In a single piece of graphite the hexagons are arrange one over another.
So, one layer of graphite can slip easily over one another. Thus it is soft and slippery
and hence can be used as a lubricant. The lead of pencil is made of a mixture of graphite
and clay. Since, graphite is a good conductor of electricity and hence can be used as an
electrode.
Do You Know
In a graphite crystal, each carbon atom is connected
to only three other carbon atoms by covalent bonds.
The fourth valence electron of each carbon atom is
free to move. As a result, graphite can conduct heat
and electricity due to presence of free electrons.
Fig.
Therefore, graphite is a good conductor of heat and

electricity though it is a non-metal. 13.2
Graphite
Differences between Diamond and Graphite
Diamond Graphite
1. It is bad conductor of heat and 1. It is good conductor of heat and
electricity. electricity.
2. It is the hardest substance. 2. It is soft and slippery.
3. It is a transparent crystalline substance. 3. It is a dark grey opaque substance.
4. Its specific gravity is 3.52. 4. Its specific gravity is 2.2.

Chemical Properties of Carbon
1. Combustion : Carbon burns in air to form carbon dioxide but it forms carbon
monoxide if it burns in insufficient oxygen.
C + O2 burn in sufficient oxygen CO 2 + heat and light
C + O2 burn insufficient oxygen CO + heat and light
2. Reduction Property
a. When carbon is heated with oxides of less active metals, carbon dioxide is formed
separating the metals.
2ZnO + C 2Zn + CO2
2PbO + C 2Pb + CO2
b. Carbides can be obtained from the reaction between carbon and silica or calcium
oxide.
SiO2 + 3C Si C + 2CO
2Ca O + 6C 2Ca C2 + 2CO
3. Reaction with steam: When carbon is heated
Do You Know
vigorously with water vapour (∼1000°C) Silicon carbide (SiC) is man-made
carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases are substance. It is hard like diamond.
formed. The mixture of carbon monoxide
and hydrogen is called water gas. It is used as a source of heat.
C + H2 O ∼ 1000° C
CO + H2
(Vapour) (water gas)
Organic and Inorganic Compounds
Organic compounds
The compounds formed by the reaction of carbon with carbon with hydrogen or other
elements by forming covalent bond are called organic compounds. In organic compounds,
carbon forms covalent bond with other elements like oxygen, nitrogen, halogen, sulphur,
phosphorus, etc. However, the compounds like CO2, CaCO3, MgCO3, Ca(HCO3)2 etc. are
not organic compounds even they contain carbons.
Generally, organic compounds are made up of seven elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, halogen, sulphur and phosphorus. Some metals are also form covalent bond in
organic compounds. Methane, ethane, propane, butane, wax, petrol, kerosene, alcohol,
ether, glycerol, carbohydrate, acid, benzene, nephthalene, oil, etc. are the examples of
organic compounds.
Inorganic compounds
Inorganic compounds are formed by other 118 elements of the periodic table. But some
elements do not contain carbon. These compounds have electrovalent bonds or covalent
bonds or both. Examples: NaCl, CaCo3, H2SO4, MgCO3, etc.

Difference Between Organic and Inorganic Compounds
Parameter Organic compounds Inorganic compounds
1. State These are found in all three These are mostly found in solid
states, viz. solid, liquid and state but some are found in both
gas. liquid and gaseous states.
2. Colour and Mostly, they have colour and Mostly, they do not have color
smell smell (the smell of flowers as and smell. However, some metal
well as smell of citric fruits is compounds have colour as well
due to organic compounds). as ammonia and its compounds
have smell too.
3. Solubility They are generally insoluble They generally dissolve in water
in water but soluble in but do not dissolve in inorganic
organic liquids. (Oil is solvents. (Salt dissolves in water
insoluble in water but soluble but does not dissolve in ether.)
in ether). They generally do not burn on
4. Combustibility Most of them burn on heating. They have high boiling
heating. (e.g. petrol, oil, LPG, and melting points.
etc.)
5. Melting and They have low boiling and
boiling point melting point. Vaseline melts
at 37°C.
6. Ionization They do not ionize. They ionize.
7. Bonds They have covalent bonds. They have electrovalent bonds.

a. Which one of the following is colourless and transparent allotrope of carbon?
Diamond Charcoal
Graphite Coal
b. Which gas is evolved during chemical reaction between zinc oxide and carbon?
Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen dioxide Sulphur dioxide
c. Which of the following mixture of gas is called water gas?
CO2 + H2 CO2 + O2
CO + O2 CO + H2

d. Which one of the following is an inorganic compound?
Ethyl alcohol Acetic acid
Carbon dioxide Methane gas

a. Write any five sources of carbon. Also, write down any five physical properties of
carbon.
b. How do you prove that sugar contains carbon? Write in brief.
c. What do you mean by catenation? Describe with examples.
d. What is allotropy? Write any three allotropes of carbon.
e. Write any three properties of diamond.
f. Write any three properties of graphite.
a. Diamond and Graphite
b. Graphite and Charcoal
c. Diamond and Coal
d. Organic compound and Inorganic compound
e. Allotropes and Allotropism
4. Write any three chemical properties of carbon with balanced chemical equations.
5. What do you mean by organic and inorganic compounds? Write with examples.
6. Diamond cannot conduct electricity but graphite can, why?
7. Why do organic compounds not undergo electrolysis?
8. What happens when?
a. carbon is burnt in insufficient oxygen
b. carbon is burnt in sufficient oxygen
c. carbon is heated with less reactive metals
d. carbon is heated vigorously with water vapour
e. carbon reacts with lime
9. Complete the given chemical equations.

a. C + ................ CO
b. C + H2O ............... + H2

c. PbO + ............ 2Pb + .....................
d. CuO + C ................. + CO2
10. Name the type of bond found in organic compounds.

11. Name the type of bond found in inorganic compounds.
12. What is water gas? Why it is used?
1. Define organic chemistry.
2. Define organic compound.
3. What is a hydrocarbon?
4. What is catenation?
5. What is a saturated hydrocarbon?
6. Define unsaturated hydrocarbon.
7. Write down the position of carbon in the Modern periodic table.
8. What are the different sources of carbon found in nature?
9. Define allotropes and allotropism.
10. What is a crystalline substance?
11. Write any two properties of amorphous carbon.
12. Write any two properties of diamond.
13. Write any two properties of graphite.

14. Write any two differences between saturated hydrocarbon and unsaturated
hydrocarbon.
15. Diamond cannot conduct electricity but graphite can. Give reason.
16. Why is diamond called crystalline substance ? Generally, organic compounds burn
on heating. Give reason.
17. Alcohol is called an organic compound, but carbon dioxide is called an inorganic
compound, why ? Give reason.
18. Butane is called saturated hydrocarbon and butene is called unsaturated hydrocarbon,
why ?
19. Why is carbon kept in the group IVA of the periodic table? Give reason. Why is
methane called hydrocarbon?
20. Write any two differences between diamonds any graphite.

21. Write down the methods of naming hydrocarbons with an example.
22. What happens when carbon is burnt in air? Write with chemical equation. Write
down the position of carbon in the Modern periodic table.
23. How can you prove that sugar consists of carbon? Write in brief.
24. Write any three properties of graphite.
25. What happens when carbon is burnt in insufficient oxygen? Write with the chemical
equation.

26. Prepare a list of various sources of carbon in the form of element, compound and gas.
27. Write any two chemical properties of carbon with balanced chemical equation.
28. Define allotrope and prepare a list of various allotrope of carbon.

29. What happens in the following conditions? Write with chemical equation.
i. When carbon reacts with lead oxide
ii. When copper oxide reacts with carbon
30. Define isomerism and write down the possible isomers of pentane.

UNIT
Water
14
Before You Begin

Water (H2O) is a chemical substance formed by a combination of
hydrogen and oxygen. One molecule of water consists of two atoms of
hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Water is the most useful chemical
substance found in nature. About 71 percent of the earth is covered
with water.
Water exists in three different states. They are solid, liquid and
gas. In air, water remains in the form of vapour and cloud. In high
mountains, water remains in the form of ice or snow. In ponds, lakes,
rivers, oceans, etc., water is found in liquid state.
Underground water is another source of water. It is obtained from
well, tube well, etc. Water is used for bathing, washing, drinking,
cooking, irrigating , swimming, etc. It is also used in industries.
In this unit, we will study the sources, properties and uses of water.
Similarly, we will study types of water and methods of removing
hardness of water in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to water
i. introduce water. • sources of water
ii. describe the sources, properties and uses of water. • Properties of water
• Uses of water
iii. explain the methods of removing hardness of water
with chemical equations. • Hard water and soft water
• Methods of removing
hardness of water
glaciers : sources of water found in Himalayas

aquifer : a layer of rock or soil that can absorb and hold water
soft water : the water without soluble salts of calcium and magnesium
hard water : the water containing soluble salts of calcium and magnesium

Sources of water
We get water from river, stream, fountain, pond, lake, etc. for daily use. These are called
sources of water. We obtain water for various sources for drinking, bathing, washing,
irrigating, cleaning, etc. The different sources of water available on the earth are given below.
Sources of water on the earth
Water in sea/ocean Other sources of water
Snow or ice Surface water Underground water
Pond, lake River Wetlands

On the basis of availability, the sources of water on the earth are divided into following
two types.
1. Surface water resources 2. Ground water resources
1. Surface water resources

Seas or oceans contain about 97% of
water. But this water is not suitable for
daily use as it is rich in salt. However,
this water can be used for boating and
transportation. Similarly, it can be
utilized to generate hydroelectricity
from tides.
Fig.
Other sources of surface water available

on the earth are river, lake, pond,
stream, fountain, etc. We use water from 14.1
these sources for various purposes like Sea
cooking, drinking, bathing, washing, irrigating, etc. Similarly, we use water from these
sources to run factories and generate hydroelectricity.
Fig.
14.2
River Lake Fountain

2. Ground water resources
The water during rainfall is absorbed by Do You Know
soil and it is stored under the ground.
This water is called ground water. We
can draw this water by digging the earth.
The ground water thus collected consists
of porous rocks, sand and silt, which is
called aquifer. There is a large amount
of water in aquifers. They contain
hundreds time more water than that
of rivers, ponds, lakes, etc. The level of
underground water is called water table.
The underground water may contain
many impurities. So, it is not suitable for
direct consumption. Underground water
comes out through cracks in rocks in the
form of fountains, spouts, etc. We can
use this water for various purposes.
Ogallala aquifer is the largest aquifer
throughout the world. It touches eight states
of USA. The area of this aquifer is 4,50,000
km2.
Physical Properties of Water
1. Water exists in all three states, i.e. solid, liquid and gas.
2. It is transparent.
3. It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity.
4. Pure water is colourless, odourless and tasteless.
5. It is a universal solvent.
6. It freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C.
7. It is a neutral substance. Pure water is neither acidic nor basic in nature.
Activity 1
Take a leaf of Colocasia.
Put a few drops of water on the upper surface of leaf.
Observe the shape of water drops.
The drops of water appear as round shiny ball. It occurs due to more cohesive force
among the molecules of water and less adhesive force between the molecules of water
and these of Colocasia.

Chemical Properties of Water
1. Water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen gas when electolysed.
electrolysis
2H2O 2H2 + O2
2. Water reacts with carbon dioxide and forms carbonic acid.
H2O + CO2 H2CO3
3. Water reacts with very active metals like lithium (Li), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), etc.
and produces metal hydroxide (alkali) and hydrogen gas.
Ca + H2O Ca(OH)2 + H2
2Na + H2O 2NaOH + H2
2Li + H2O 2LiOH + H2
4. Water dissolves acid, base and salt and decomposes them into their ions.
+H2O
HCl H+ + Cl–
+H2O
H2SO4 2H+ + SO4– –
+H2O
NaOH Na+ + OH–
+H2O
KOH K+ + OH–
+H2O
NaCl Na+ + Cl–
+H2O
KCl K+ + Cl–
5. Pure water does not conduct electricity but solution of water with acid, base or salt
conducts electricity.
Solvent Properties of Water

A variety of substances dissolve in water. So water is called a universal solvent. Acids,
alkalis, salts and other compounds like sugar, glycerol, urea, etc. dissolve in water. Most
electrovalent compounds or ionic compounds like Calcium chloride (CaCl2), Potassium
chloride (KCl), Sodium nitrate (NaNO3), etc. dissolve in water. But compounds like
Barium sulphate (BaSO4), Calcium fluoride (CaF2), etc. do not dissolve in water.
Some covalent compounds like alcohol, glucose, urea, etc. also dissolve in water. But
covalent compounds like methane, carbon tetrachloride, etc. do not dissolve in water.
Water is widely used as a solvent.
Uses of Water
1. Water is used for generating hydroelectricity.
2. It is used for cooking, drinking, bathing, washing, etc.
3. Water is used for cooling the hot engines of vehicles.
4. Water is used for irrigating crops.
5. Water is used by green plants for photosynthesis.
6. Water is used in industries to produce various substances, to purify metals, to cut
minerals, etc.
7. Water is used for boating, swimming, rafting, etc.
8. Water is used for transportation.
9. Water is used to dilute acids.
10. Water is used to make solutions of various chemicals.
Types of Water
On the basis of absence or presence of chemicals dissolved in it, water is of two types, viz.
(a) soft water and (b) hard water.
a. Soft water
The water which does not contain chloride, sulphate
and bicarbonate salts of magnesium and calcium is
called soft water. It produces more lather with soap,
Fig.
e.g. distilled water and rain water.
14.3
b. Hard water
The water which contains chloride, sulphate and
bicarbonate salts of magnesium and calcium is called
hard water. It produces less lather with soap. So hard
Fig.
water is not suitable for washing clothes. Spout water

and water of wells, rivers, oceans, etc. is hard.
14.4
Differences between Soft water and Hard water
Soft water Hard water
1. It does not contain soluble salts of 1. In contains soluble salts (chloride,
magnesium and calcium. sulphate and bicarbonate) of
magnesium and calcium.
2. It produces more lather with soap. 2. It produces less lather with soap.
Types of hardness of water

On the basis of salts dissolved in it, hardness of water is of two types, viz. (a) temporary
hardness and (b) permanent hardness.

a. Temporary hardness
The hardness of water due to dissolved bicarbonate salts of magnesium and calcium is
called temporary hardness of water. Temporary hard water is tasty and makes bones
healthy.
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling hard water or treating it with lime-water.
i. By boiling water
When temporary hard water is boiled, the soluble bicarbonate salts of magnesium and
calcium decompose into water insoluble carbonate salts, and settle down at the bottom of
the container. These salts can be separated by filtration.
heat
Magnesium bicarbonate Magnesium carbonate + Water + Carbon dioxide
Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3 + H2O + CO2

heat
Calcium bicarbonate Calcium carbonate + Water + Carbon dioxide
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
i. By treating with lime-water or Clark's method

When temporary hard water is treated with lime-water or calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2],
a chemical reaction takes place. As a result, insoluble calcium carbonate is formed which
makes water soft. This method is also called Clark's method.
Magnesium Calcium Calcium Magnesium

+ + Water +
bicarbonate hydroxide carbonate hydroxide
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O + Mg(OH)2
Calcium Calcium Calcium

+ + Water
bicarbonate hydroxide carbonate
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + H2O
b. Permanent hardness
The hardness of water due to presence of chloride and sulphate salts of magnesium and
calcium is called permanent hardness of water.
The permanent hardness of water can be removed by treating hard water with washing
soda and permutit process.

i. By treating permanent hard water with washing soda
When permanent hard water is treated with washing soda or sodium carbonate, the salts
present in it change into carbonates and water becomes soft.
Magnesium Sodium Magnesium Sodium

+ +
chloride carbonate carbonate chloride
MgCl2 + Na2CO3 MgCO3 + NaCl
Magnesium Sodium Magnesium Sodium

+ +
sulphate carbonate carbonate sulphate
MgSO4 + Na2CO3 MgCO3 + Na2SO4
Calcium Sodium Calcium Sodium

+ +
chloride carbonate carbonate chloride
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl
Calcium Sodium Calcium Sodium

+ +
sulphate carbonate carbonate sulphate
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4
ii. By permutit process

In this process, the permanent hard water is passed through sodium zeolite (Na2–Z) or
Sodium aluminosilicate (Na2Al2SiO8). As a result, the calcium and magnesium ions of
hard water are replaced by sodium ions of permutit and water becomes soft.
Hard water Sodium chloride
Soft water
Zeolite
Column
Fig.
Fine gravel
14.5
Permutit process

Differences between Temporary hard water and Permanent hard water
Temporary hard water Permanent hard water
1. It contains soluble bicarbonate salts of 1. It contains soluble chloride and
magnesium and calcium. sulphate salts of calcium and
magnesium.
2. Temporary hardness can be removed 2. Permanent hardness can be removed
by boiling water or treating it with by treating water with washing soda
lime water. or by permutit method.
Activity 2
Collect sample of water from different sources and keep them in separate test tubes.
Keep a few drops of liquid soap or shampoo in each test tube and stir them with
glass rod.
Observe which sample produces more lather.
Identify soft water and hard water from the collected sample of water.
Activity 3
Take a beaker and put some water into it.
Put some magnesium bicarbonate or calcium carbonate into the beaker and stir it
with a glass rod.
Now, put a few drops of liquid soap or shampoo and stir it. Does it produce lather
easily? The water does not produce lather easily. It shows that the water is hard and
the hardness is temporary.
Now, boil the water for a few minutes. Put a few drops of shampoo or liquid soap
and stir it with a glass rod.
The water produces lather with soap or shampoo after boiling.
It proves that temporary hardness of water can be removed by boiling.
Activity 4
Take a beaker with some water in it.
Put some calcium chloride or calcium sulphate into water and stir it with a glass
rod.
Put a few drops of liquid soap or shampoo and stir with a glass rod. The water
does not produce lather easily. It shows that the water is hard and the hardness is
permanent.
Now, put some sodium carbonate (washing soda) into the water and stir it with a
glass rod.
Now, put a few drops of liquid soap and shampoo in the beaker and stir it with a
glass rod.
The water produces lather easily. It shows that permanent hardness of water can be
removed by adding washing soda (Na2CO3).
Key Concepts
1. Water (H2O) is a chemical substance formed by a combination of hydrogen and
oxygen.
2. Water exists in three different states. They are solid, liquid and gas. In air, water
remains in the form of vapour and cloud. In high mountains, water remains in the
form of ice or snow. In ponds, lakes, rivers, oceans, etc., water is found in liquid
state.
3. We get water from river, stream, fountain, pond, lake, etc. for daily use. These are
called sources of water.
4. Seas or oceans contain about 97% of water. But this water is not suitable for daily
use as it is rich in salt.
5. We use water from these sources for various purposes like cooking, drinking,
bathing, washing, irrigating, etc. Similarly, we use water from these sources to run
factories and generate hydroelectricity.
6. The ground water consists of porous rocks, sand and silt, which is called aquifer.
There is a large amount of water in aquifers.
7. The underground water may contain many impurities. So, it is not suitable for
direct consumption.
8. Pure water is colourless, odourless and tasteless.
9. Water freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C.
10. Water reacts with very active metals like lithium (Li), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca),
etc. and produces metal hydroxide (alkali) and hydrogen gas.
11. Pure water does not conduct electricity but solution of water with acid, base or salt
conducts electricity.
12. A variety of substances dissolve in water. So water is called a universal solvent.
13. Some covalent compounds like alcohol, glucose, urea, etc. dissolve in water.
14. Water is used in industries to produce various substances, to purify metals, to cut
minerals, etc.
15. On the basis of absence or presence of chemicals dissolved in it, water is of two
types, viz. (a) soft water and (b) hard water.
16. The water which does not contain chloride, sulphate and bicarbonate salts of
magnesium and calcium is called soft water.
17. The water which contains chloride, sulphate and bicarbonate salts of magnesium
and calcium is called hard water.
18. Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling hard water or treating it with lime-
water.
19. The hardness of water due to presence of chloride and sulphate salts of magnesium
and calcium is called permanent hardness of water.
20. The permanent hardness of water can be removed by treating hard water with
washing soda and permutit process.
21. When permanent hard water is treated with washing soda or sodium carbonate, the
salts present in it change into carbonates and water becomes soft.

a. Which of the following sources of water is not suitable for daily use?
sea river
fountain underground water
b. What is the boiling point of water?
0°C 100°C
100°F 0°F
c. Which of the given compounds does not dissolve in water?
Sodium chloride Potassium nitrate
Barium sulphate Calcium chloride
d. Which of the given chemicals causes temporary hardness of water?
Calcium sulphate Calcium bicarbonate
Calcium chloride Magnesium sulphate

a. What are sources of water? Write their types.
b. Write a short note on surface water resources.
c. What is aquifer? Name the largest aquifer in the world.
d. Write down the physical properties of water.
e. Write any three chemical properties of water.
f. What is meant by cohesive property of water?
g. Name any four compounds that dissolve in water.
h. Write down the major uses of water.
i. What is meant by soft water?
j. What is meant by hard water?
k. What is meant by temporary hardness of water?
l. What is meant by permanent hardwater?

a. Surface water and underground water
b. Soft water and hard water
4. Why is sea water not suitable for drinking?
5. Write down the method of removing temporary hardness of water.
6. Describe the Clark's method for removing hardness of water.
7. What is permutit method? Explain with figure.
8. Describe the method to test whether the given sample of water is hard or soft.
1. Name any two sources of surface water.
2. Write any two physical properties of water.
3. Name any three ionic compounds that do not dissolve in water.
4. What is aquifer ?
5. What is "Water table" ?
6. What is "solvent property of water" ?
7. What is Clark's method ?
8. What is brine ?
9. What is temporary hardness of water ?
10. What is permanent hardness of water ?
11. Name any two covalent compounds that dissolve in water.
12. Write any two methods for removing permanent hardness of water.

13. Why is water called a universal solvent ? Give reason.
14. Write any two differences between hard water and soft water.
15. Write any two differences between temporary hardness and permanent hardness of
water.
16. Why does water appear as a ball on Colocasia leaf. Give reason.
17. Temporary hardness of water can be removed by using calcium hydroxide, why ?
Give reason.
18. Temporary and permanent hardness of water can be removed by permutit process,
why?
19. Water is very useful for living beings. Give reason.

20. How is the permanent hardness of water removed by using washing soda? Write with
chemical equations.
21. How does underground water come on the surface ? Write any two utilities surface
water sources.
22. What happens when sodium metal is kept in water? Write with a balanced chemical
equation.
23. Write down the utility of brine. Describe in brief the importance of water in our body.
24. Which method is used to remove temporary and permanent hardness of water? Write.

25. Write any two methods for removing permanent hardness of water.
26. Write any two differences between temporary and permanent hardness of water.
27. How is temporary hardness of water removed ? Write with chemical equations.
28. What is permutit method ? Write in brief with a neat and labelled figure.

UNIT
Chemical Fertilizers
15 used in Agriculture
Before You Begin

Farmers use fertilizers to increase the fertility of soil. Fertilizers are
essential for growth and development of root, stem, leaves, flowers
and fruits. Plants require various nutrient elements like nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, boron, magnesium, iron, zinc, etc. Among
them, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium, (K) are the most
essential nutrient elements for plants. The substances that are used
to increase the fertility of soil are called fertilizers. On the basis of
source, there are two types of fertilizers. They are organic or compost
fertilizers and inorganic or chemical fertilizers. In this unit, we will
study about types of fertilizers, organic and inorganic fertilizers,
NPK fertilizers in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to chemical
i. introduce chemical fertilizers and state their types fertilizers
with examples. • Types of fertilizers
ii. describe the uses of nitrogen, phosphorus and - organic fertilizer
potassium fertilizers.
- Inorganic fertilizer
iii. explain the effects in plants due to deficiency of
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. • Types and uses of nitrogenous
potassium and phosphorus
fertilizers
fertilizers : the substances that increase the fertility of soil

organic fertilizers : the fertilizers obtained by decaying parts of plants and animal wastes
inorganic fertilizer : the fertilizers obtained from minerals
NPK fertilizers : the fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium

Fertilizers
When we plant same types of crops in soil for a long time, the fertility of soil decreases.
Therefore, we use fertilizers in soil to increase the productivity of crops. The substances
which are added to the soil to increase the productivity is crops are called fertilizers.
Fertilizers contain various nutrient elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
sulphur, magnesium, iron, zinc, etc. These nutrient elements help in growth and
development of plants.
Types of Fertilizer
On the basis of source, there are two types of fertilizers. They are as follows:
1. Organic fertilizers or Compost manure
2. Inorganic fertilizers or Chemical fertilizers
1. Organic fertilizer or Compost manure

The organic manure produced by
decaying various parts of plants and
animal wastes is called compost manure.
It is added to the soil to increase the
fertility of the soil. Fertilizers are the
substances that increase the fertility
of soil. Compost manure is called an
Fig.
organic fertilizer because it is produced

by decaying parts of plants and animal 13.1
wastes. Organic fertilizer
Organic fertilizers are of two types. They are green manure and compost manure. Green
manure is produced by decaying various parts of plants whereas compost manure is
prepared by decaying parts of plants and animal wastes.
Some bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates and increase the fertility of soil.
Organic fertilizers do not contain all elements required for growth and development of
plants. So we should add chemical fertilizers to the soil to increase the productivity of crops.
Role of compost fertilizer

1. The plants grown by using compost
Do You Know
fertilizers grow well and produce good Organic fertilizers are prepared by using
fruits. dead and decaying parts of plants and
2. They preserve water content in the soil. animals. They do not affect the quality of
soil.
3. They do not cause environment
pollution.
4. They prevent leaching and soil erosion.
5. They do not increase or decrease acidity or alkalinity of soil.
6. They are biodegradable.
7. They do not have negative impacts on atmosphere.

Disadvantages of organic fertilizers
1. Organic fertilizers do not contain all nutrient elements essential for plants.
2. They do not dissolve completely in water. So all organic fertilizers are not absorbed
by plants.
3. They are difficult to store and transport.
Chemical fertilizers or Inorganic fertilizers

The chemical substances which are used
to increase the fertility of soil are called
chemical fertilizers. They are rich in
minerals that are essential for the growth
and development of plants.
Chemical fertilizers are prepared by
Fig.
using different chemicals or minerals.
Prolonged use of chemical fertilizers
affects the fertility and quality of soil. 13.2
Therefore, over use of chemical fertilizers Chemical fertilizer
should be avoided.
Green plants mainly require three types of chemicals, viz nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P)
and potassium (K). So chemical fertilizers are prepared by using nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium.
On the basis of presence of minerals,
chemical fertilizers are of three types. They
Do You Know
are: The fertilizer containing nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium is called NPK
i. Nitrogenous fertilizers fertilizer. It is called a complete fertilizer.
ii. Phosphorus fertilizers
iii. Potassium fertilizers
i. Nitrogenous fertilizers
The chemical fertilizers rich in nitrogen are called
nitrogenous fertilizers. They help in growth of
plants. They help in growth and development of
flowers, fruits and seeds. Urea (NH2 – CO – NH2),
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), ammonium sulphate
[(NH4)2SO4], are examples of nitrogeneous fertilizers.
Fig.
Nitrogen is essential for plants to:

i. help in fast growth of plants. 13.3
ii. synthesize chlorophyll.

iii. increase productivity of crops, fruits and vegetables.
iv. increase the amount of protein and protoplasm.
Due to deficiency of nitrogen in soil, plants become pale, flowers do not bloom properly, fruits
and seeds become small.
ii. Phosphorus fertilizers

The chemical fertilizers rich in phosphorus
are called phosphorus fertilizers. Ammonium
phosphate [(NH4)3PO4], calcium super phosphate
[Ca(H2PO4)2CaSO4], bone meal, etc. are examples
of phosphorus fertilizers. These fertilizers help
Fig.
in growth of roots, leaves and buds, ripening of
fruits and development of seeds. Due to deficiency
of phosphorus, roots of plants cannot develop and 13.4
cell division becomes passive.
iii. Potassium fertilizers

The chemical fertilizers rich in potassium are
called potassium fertilizers. Potassium chloride
(KCl), potassium sulphate (K2SO4), Potassium
nitrate (KNO3), Potassium carbonate (K2CO3),
etc. Potassium fertilizers help in photosynthesis,
formation of protein and cell division. In the
Fig.
absence of potassium in soil, the immunity of

plants decreases and leaves and buds of plants
wither. 13.5
Advantages of inorganic fertilizers

1. Inorganic fertilizers contain special types of nutrient elements essential for plants.
2. They dissolve in water. So, plants can absorb them easily along with water.
3. They can be stored and transported easily.
4. They increase the fertility of soil.
Disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers

1. Overuse of inorganic fertilizers pollutes the environment.
2. Long term use of inorganic fertilizers increases acidity or alkalinity of soil.
3. Long term use of chemical fertilizers degrade the quality of soil.

Differences between Inorganic fertilizers and organic fertilizers
Inorganic fertilizers Chemical fertilizers
1. They are obtained from chemical 1. They are obtained from dead and
substances or minerals. decaying parts of plants and animals.
2. They dissolve completely in water. 2. They do not dissolve completely in
water.
3. They contain special types of nutrients. 3. They do not contain special types of
nutrients.
4. They degrade the quality of soil. 4. They do not degrade the quality of soil.
Points to be considered while using chemical fertilizers

1. We should test acidity and alkalinity of soil before using chemical fertilizers.
2. We should not let chemical fertilizers reach the sources of water.
3. We should cover mouth and nose while using chemical fertilizers.
4. We should reduce the over use of chemical fertilizers.
5. We should store chemical fertilizers away from vicinity of children.
Impact of use of chemical fertilizers on environment

Though chemical fertilizers increase the productivity of crops, they also cause chemical
pollution. Overuse of chemical fertilizers has many negative impacts in the environment.
It pollutes soil, air and water. If the same chemical fertilizer is used continuously, the
fertility of the fertilizer present in the soil cannot be absorbed by plants, which is washed
by rain water. Ultimately the excess fertilizer reaches pond, river, sea, etc. It causes water
pollution. Aquatic plants grow well due to chemical fertilizers. They absorb the oxygen
present in water. It decreases oxygen content in water. As a result, aquatic animals like
fishes die due to lack of oxygen. When these animals decay in water, they also pollute the
water. It adversely affects water ecosystem.
Key Concepts
1. The substances which are added to the soil to increase the productivity is crops are
called fertilizers.
2. The organic manure produced by decaying various parts of plants and animal
wastes is called compost manure.
3. Compost manure is called an organic fertilizer because it is produced by decaying
parts of plants and animal wastes.
4. Organic fertilizers are of two types. They are green manure and compost manure.
5. The plants grown by using compost fertilizers grow well and produce good fruits.
6. The chemical substances which are used to increase the fertility of soil are called
chemical fertilizers.
7. Organic fertilizers are prepared by using dead and decaying parts of plants and
animals.

8. Green plants mainly require three types of chemicals, viz. nitrogen (N), phosphorus
(P) and potassium (K). So chemical fertilizers are prepared by using nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium.
9. The chemical fertilizers rich in nitrogen are called nitrogenous fertilizers. They help
in growth of plants. They help in growth and development of flowers, fruits and
seeds.
10. The chemical fertilizers rich in phosphorus are called phosphorus fertilizers.
Ammonium phosphate, calcium super phosphate, bone meal, etc. are examples of
phosphorus fertilizers.
11. The chemical fertilizers rich in potassium are called potassium fertilizers. Potassium
chloride, potassium sulphate, etc. Potassium fertilizers help in photosynthesis,
formation of protein and cell division.
12. We should test acidity and alkalinity of soil before using chemical fertilizers.

a. Which of the following is the source of compost manure?
Plants Animals
Minerals Plants and animals
b. Which of the given fertilizers does not degrade the quality of soil?
Organic fertilizer Inorganic fertilizer
Nitrogeneous fertilizer Potassium fertilizer
c. Which of the following is called a complete fertilizer?
NPK fertilizer Organic fertilizer
Potassium fertilizer Inorganic fertilizer
d. Which of the given fertilizers is essential for growth and development of roots?
Potassium chloride Calcium super phosphate
Ammonium nitrate Potassium sulphate

e. Withering of leaves and buds occur due to lack of .........................
Potassium fertilizers Phosphorus fertilizers
Nitrogenous fertilizers Organic fertilizers

a. What are fertilizers?
b. Name two types of fertilizers on the basis of source.
c. What are organic fertilizers?
d. How is compost manure prepared? Explain.
e. Mention any two advantages of compost manure.
f. Write down the disadvantages of organic fertilizers.
g. Define inorganic or chemical fertilizers with any three examples.
h. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of chemical fertilizers.
i. What are nitrogen fertilizers? Give any three examples.
j. What are phosphorus fertilizers? Write examples.
k. Define potassium fertilizers with any three examples.
l. Why are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium essential for plants?
m. What symptoms are seen in plants due to lack of:
i. nitrogen
ii. phosphorus
iii. potassium
3. Write any four points that should be considered while using chemical fertilizers.
4. Write any two differences between organic and inorganic fertilizers.
5. Describe in brief the effects of overuse of inorganic fertilizers in the environment.
1. What is fertilizer ?
2. What are two types of fertilizers? Write.
3. Give any two examples of nitrogenous fertilizers.
4. What is organic fertilizer ?
5. What is green organic fertilizer ?
6. What is inorganic fertilizer ?
7. What are nitrogenous fertilizers ?
8. Write any two disadvantages of chemical fertilizers.
9. What is meant by NPK fertilizers ?
10. List the effects seen in plants due to lack of phosphorus.
11. Write any two disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers.
12. List any two effects seen in plants due to lack of nitrogen.
13. What is animal organic fertilizer?

14. Write any two differences between organic fertilizers and chemical fertilizers.
15. Why is NPK fertilizer called complete fertilizer ? Give reason.
16. The use of organic fertilizers is considered better than the use of inorganic fertilizers,
why ?
17. We should add fertilizers to the soil time to time. Give reason.
18. Potassium chloride is called inorganic fertilizer ?
19. Differentiate between nitrogenous fertilizers and organic fertilizers.
20. Organic fertilizer is not called complete fertilizer. Give reason.

21. Write any three advantages of organic fertilizers.
22. Write any three advantages of inorganic fertilizers.
23. What effects in plants can be seen due to lack of potassium ? Write. Write down the
importance of nitrogen for plants.
24. How many types of organic fertilizers are there ? What are they ? Write any two
disadvantages of chemical fertilizers.

25. Write down the precautions while using chemical fertilizers. Differentiate between
potassium fertilizer and phosphorus fertilizer in two points.
26. Write a short note on 'Use of chemical fertilizers and its impact on environment."
27. Write down the importance of nitrogen for plants. Differentiate between green organic
fertilizer and chemical fertilizer in two points.
28. Describe in brief the importance of phosphorus for plants. Differentiate between
green organic fertilizer and animal organic fertilizer in two points.
29. Describe in brief the importance of potassium for plants. Differentiate between
nitrogenous fertilizer and phosphorus fertilizer in two points.

Biology
UNIT
Classification of Plants
16 and Animals
Before You Begin

We see a large number of living beings in our surroundings. Among
them, some are plants. Plants may be unicellular or multicellular and
flowering or non-flowering. Similarly, animals may be unicellular
or multicellular and invertebrates or vertebrates. The living beings
differ in shape, size, structure, colour, etc. They also differ in their
habitat, feeding habit, method of reproduction, evolution, etc. It is
almost impossible to study all the living beings. So, they are grouped
into various categories to make their study easier and faster. This
process is called classification. In this unit, we will study classification
of plants and animals and life cycle of mosquito in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Non-flowering and flowering
i. classify plants upto class, invertebrates upto phylum plants
and vertebrates upto class. • Classification of plants upto
sub-division and class
ii. explain the characteristics of plants and animals with
examples. • Classification of invertebrates
and vertebrates upto class
iii. describe the life cycle of mosquito with labelled
• Life cycle of mosquito
figures.
• Adverse effects of mosquito
iv. list the adverse effects of mosquito bite on human
• Mosquito control
beings.
classification : the grouping of living beings on the basis of similarities and differences
taxonomy : the biological science of classification
monocot : the flowering plants having only one cotyledon in their seed
dicot : the flowering plants having two cotyledons in their seed
bisexual : the organism having both male and female sex organs
unisexual : the organism having either male or female sex organs
GREEN Science (Biology) Book-9 253

Classification of Plants and Animals
Different types of plants and animals live on the earth. They differ in shape, size,
structure, appearance, etc. Living beings are grouped on the basis of their characteristics,
morphology (structure), feeding habit, method of reproduction and so on. The grouping
of living organisms on the basis of similarities and differences is called classification. It
makes the study of living organisms easy and systematic. Classification of plants and
animals helps us understand the relation among various groups organisms.
We have studied two kingdom system of classification in class 7. They are (i) Plant
kingdom and (ii) Animal kingdom.
In 1969 AD, an American Taxonomist Robert H. Whittaker introduced five kingdom
system of classification as follows:
1. Kingdom Monera
2. Kingdom Protista
3. Kingdom Fungi
4. Kingdom Plantae
5. Kingdom Animalia
A brief description of each kingdom of living beings is given below:
1. Kingdom Monera
Microscopic organisms having prokaryotic cell are kept in Kingdom Monera. The
organisms of this kingdom are unicellular having DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as
a nucleus. Their mode of nutrition may be autotrophic or parasitic. Living beings like
bacteria, blue-green algae, azotobacter are kept in Kingdom Monera.
Fig.
16.1
Bacteria Blue green algae Azotobacter
2. Kingdom Protista
Unicellular organisms having eukaryotic cells are kept in Kingdom Protista. They have a
well developed nucleus, i.e. nucleus having chromosomes, nucleolus, nuclear membrane
and nucleoplasm.
Kingdom Protista includes unicellular animals like amoeba, paramecium, euglena,
trypanosoma, trichomonas, plasmodium, etc.
254 GREEN Science (Biology) Book-9

Fig.
16.2
Amoeba Paramecium Euglena Trypanosoma
3. Kingdom Fungi
Unicellular and multicellular organisms without chlorophyll are kept in Kingdom Fungi.
Fungi have thalloid body. They do not have chlorophyll. So they cannot prepare their
own food by photosynthesis. They depend on dead and decaying organic matter to get
their food. Their reserved is glycogen. Their cell wall is made of the mixture of chitin
and cellulose. Non-green plants like mushroom, yeast, mucor, Penicillim, etc. belong to
Kingdom Fungi.
Fig.
16.3
Mushroom Yeast Mucor Pencicillium
4. Kingdom Plantae
Different types of non-flowering plants and flowering plants are kept in Kingdom Plantae.
They have chlorophyll. They may be unicellular or multicellular. They may or may not
contain root, stem and leaves.
5. Kingdom Animalia
Different types of multicellular invertebrates and vertebrates are kept in Kingdom Animalia.
Five kingdom system of classification is more appropriate and scientific than two kingdom
system of classification because of the following reasons.
i. Living beings have been classified into prokaryotes and eukaryotes on the basis of the
type of cell.
ii. Unicellular organisms are kept separately into Kingdom Monera and Kingdom
Protista.
iii. Plants with chlorophyll or without chlorophyll are kept in separate kingdoms.
Non-flowering plants (Cryptogams) and flowering plants (Phanerogams)

The plants which do not bear flowers are called non-flowering plants. They are also called
cryptogams. Spirogyra, chlamydomonas, moss, riccia, fern, etc. are non-flowering plants.
The plants which bear flowers and seeds are called flowering plants. They are more
developed than non-flowering plants. They have well developed root, stem and leaves.
Sunflower, mango, rose, sugrcane, pine, cycas, etc. are some examples of flowering plants.
Kingdom Plantae
Division
Algae Bryophyta Tracheophyta

e.g. Spirogyra, e.g. Moss, Liverworts, e.g. Fern, Cycas,
Chlamydomonas, etc. etc. Sugarcane, Apple, etc.
Sub-division
Pteridophyta Gymnosperms Angiosperms

e.g. Fern, Horsetail, etc. e.g. Cycas, Pinus, etc. e.g. Bamboo, Pea, etc.
Class
Monocotyledon Dicotyledon
e.g. Wheat, Maize, etc. e.g. Pea, Bean, etc.
On the basis of structure and development, Kingdom Plantae is divided into three
divisions. They are as follows:
1. Division Algae
2. Division Bryophyta
3. Division Tracheophyta
A brief description of each division of Kingdome Plantae is given below:
1. Division Algae
This sub-division consists of green thallophytes. They are found in water and moist places.
Fig.
16.4
Spirogyra Chlamydomonas Volvox
Characteristics
1. The plant body is a green thallus.
2. Chlorophyll is present. So they can prepare their own food by photosynthesis.
3. The cell wall is made of cellulose.

4. They may be unicellular (Chlamydomonas) or multicellular (Spirogyra)
5. The mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
6. They store food in the form of starch.
7. They reproduce asexually or sexually.
Examples: Chlamydomonas, spirogyra, volvox, etc.
Activity 1
Observe different types of algae and fungi in your locality. Collect them and study
their characteristics one by one.
Draw a neat and labelled figure of each.
2. Division Bryophyta
This division includes multicellular non-
Do You Know
flowering plants that grow on moist land Bryophytes grow on moist and they need
and need water to reproduce. water to reproduce. Therefore, bryophytes
are also called amphibian plants.
Fig.
16.5
Marchantia Riccia Moss
Characteristics
1. The plant body is multicellular which may be thalloid (e.g. liverworts) or leafy (moss).
2. Chlorophyll is present.
3. True root, stem and leaves are absent.
4. They are attached to the soil with the help of rhizoids.
5. Vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are absent.
6. Their mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
7. They need water for reproduction.
8. They show alternation of generations in their life cycle.
Examples: Marchantia (liverworts), Riccia, Moss, etc.
3. Division Tracheophyta
Well developed plants having vascular tissues are kept in division Tracheophyta. These
plants may be non-flowering or flowering. They have well developed root, stem and
leaves. They have well developed xylem and phloem tissues.

Fig.
16.6
Fern Cycas Pea plants Maize plants
Division Tracheophyta is further divided into three sub-divisions. They are as follows:
1. Sub-division Pteridophyta
2. Sub-division Gymnosperms
3. Sub-division Angiosperms
1. Sub-division Pteridophyta
This division consists of well developed cryptogams having feather-shaped leaves.
Pteridophytes are commonly found in moist, shady and cool places.
Fig.
16.7
Fern Lycopodium Horsetail
Characteristics
1. The plant body can be divided into rhizoids (root), rhizome (stem) and leaves.
2. Feather-shaped leaves are present.
3. Vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are present.
4. The mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
5. Flowers and seeds are absent.
6. They show alternation of generations in their life cycle.
Examples: Fern, Lycopodium, Horsetail (Equisetum), etc.
2. Sub-division Gymnosperms
This division consists of cone bearing plants having naked seeds. They are commonly
found in cold and dry places.

Fig.
16.8
Cycas Pine Pine cone
Characteristics
1. Seeds are naked.
2. Cones are present instead of true flowers.
3. Needle-shaped leaves are present.
4. They do not have fruits due to absence of ovary.
5. Male cones and female cones are separate.
Examples: Cycas, pine, cedar, juniper, etc.
3. Division Angiosperms
This division consists of the most developed flowering plants having fruits. They are
found on land and in water.
Fig.
16.9
Pea Maize Mango Rose
Characteristics
1. True flowers are present.
2. Seeds are enclosed inside the fruit.
3. They may be herbs, shrubs or trees.
4. Vascular tissues are well developed.
5. These plants may be small to very large in size.
6. Their mode of nutrition is autotrophic.
7. They bear fruits and seeds.
Examples: Maize, rose, apple, mustard, sugarcane, onion, garlic, orange, mango, sal,
sissoo, simal, etc.

On the basis of number of cotyledons in a seed, division Angiosperms is divided into two
classes. They are as follows:
1. Class Monocotyledons 2. Class Dicotyledons
1. Monocotyledons
This sub division includes flowering plants having only one cotyledon in their seeds.
Fig.
16.10
Maize Bamboo Sugarcane Onion
Characteristics
1. A seed contains only one cotyledon.
2. Fibrous root system is present.
3. Leaves are elongated having parallel venation.
4. Nodes and internodes are distinct.
5. The plant body consists of roots, stem and leaves.
6. Flowers, fruits and seeds are present.
Examples: Maize, sugarcane, bamboo, onion, garlic, grass, paddy, wheat, barley, etc.
2. Dicotyledons
This class includes well developed flowering plants having two cotyledons in their seeds.
Fig.
16.11
Beans Sunflower Mango Apple
Characteristics
1. A seed contains two cotyledons.
2. Tap root system is present.
3. Leaves are broad having reticulate venation.
4. Nodes and internodes are not distinct.
5. Vascular tissues are well developed.

6. Well developed flowers are present.
Examples: Rose, mango, apple, bean, pea, mustard, orange, lotus, sunflower, etc.
Differences between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

Gymnosperms Angiosperms
1. Cones are present. 1. Cones are absent.
2. Fruits are absent. 2. Fruits are present.
3. Seeds are naked. 3. Seeds are enclosed.
4. Leaves are pointed. 4. Leaves are flat and broad.
Differences between Monocot and Dicot

Monocot Dicot
1. A seed contains only one cotyledon. 1. A seed contains two cotyledons.
2. Fibrous root system is present. 2. Tap root system is present.
3. Leaves are elongated having parallel 3. Leaves are broad having reticulate
venation. venation.
Classification of Some Plants

a. Volvox b. Riccia
Kingdom : Plantae Kingdom : Plantae
Division : Algae Division : Bryophyta
Type : Volvox Type : Riccia
c. Fern d. Cycas
Division : Tracheophyta Division : Tracheophyta
Sub-division : Pteridophyta Sub-division : Gymnosperms
Type : Fern Type : Cycas
e. Sugarcane f. Mustard
Division : Tracheophyta Division : Tracheophyta
Sub-division : Angiosperms Sub-division : Angiosperms
Class : Monocotyledon Class : Dicotyledon
Type : Sugarcane Type : Mustard

Activity 3
Observe different types of flowering plants in your locality.
Study their morphology and classify them in terms of gymnosperms,
angiosperms, monocot and dicot and fill in the given table.
Flowering plants Gymnosperms Angiosperms
1. 1. 1.
2. 2. 2.
3. 3. 3.
4. 4. 4.
5. 5.
6. Monocot Dicot
7. 1. 1.
8. 2. 2.
9. 3. 3.
10. 4. 4.
5. 5.
Invertebrates
Animals like earthworm, mosquito, grasshopper, butterfly, dragonfly, honeybee,
cockroach, leech, snail, slug, etc. do not have backbone or vertebral column. These animals
are called invertebrates. They are primitive animals having less developed organs and
systems. Invertebrates are those animals which do not have backbone or vertebral column.
Examples: Amoeba, sponge, hydra, tapeworm, roundworm, earthworm, butterfly, snail,
starfish, etc.
Fig.
16.12
Tapeworm Butterfly Earthworm Snail
Characteristics of Invertebrates
1. Invertebrates do not have backbone or vertebral column.
2. Some of them are unicellular and the rests are multicellular.
3. Their organs and systems are less developed.
4. Their body may have a hard protective covering.
5. They are found in water, land and air.
Classification of Invertebrates
On the basis of structure and development, invertebrates are classified into eight phyla.
1. Porifera 2. Coelenterata
3. Platyhelminthes 4. Aschelminthes
5. Annelida 6. Arthropoda
7. Mollusca 8. Echinodermata
1. Phylum Porifera
Phylum Porifera consists of primitive multicellular animals having numerous pores in
their bodies. They are commonly known as sponges.
Habitat
Sponges are commonly found in water, i.e. fresh water and marine water. Their body
remains attached to the substratum with the help of basal disc.
Salient features
a. They have numerous pores on their bodies. The small pores are called ostia and large
pores are called oscula.
b. They are multicellular animals.
c. Their body remains attached to the surface of rocks, woods, etc. with the help of basal
disc.
d. They are diploblastic animals.
e. They don’t have head, eyes and legs.
f. Breathing takes place through the body surface.
Examples: Sycon, Spongilla, Euspongia, etc.
Fig.
16.13
Sycon Spongilla Euspongia

2. Phylum Coelenterata
Phylum Coelenterata consists of aquatic invertebrates having hollow body cavity called
coelenteron.
Habitat
Coelenterates are found in fresh water and marine water. They live in pond, lake and sea.
Salient features
a. Coelenterates have a coelenteron, i.e. hollow body cavity.
b. Mouth is present but anus is absent.
c. Mouth remains surrounded by tentacles.
d. Breathing takes place through general body surface.
e. They reproduce by budding or regeneration.
f. They are diploblastic animals.
g. Locomotion takes place with the help of tentacles.
Examples: Hydra, Sea anemone, Coral, etc.
Fig.
16.14
Hydra Sea anemone Coral
3. Phylum Platyhelminthes
Phylum Platyhelminthes consists of invertebrates having flat body. These animals are
commonly known as flatworms.
Habitat
Flatworms live as parasites of animals. They Do You Know
are found in the intestine or liver of cow, Parasites are organisms that take food and
buffalo, pig, human, dog, etc. shelter from their hosts, e.g. tape worm,
liver fluke, mosquito, etc.
Salient features The animals having male and female
a. Their body is flat which may be leaf- reproductive organs in the same body
like, ribbon-like or tape-like. are called bisexual animals, e.g. tape
b. Their body may be segmented (e.g. tape worm, liver fluke, etc.
worm) or unsegmented (e.g. Liver fluke). Host is an organism which provides
c. They are bisexual animals. food and shelter to a parasite.
d. They suck blood from their hosts with
the help of suckers.
e. They are triploblastic animals.
f. Suckers and hooks are present.
g. They reproduce asexually or sexually.
Examples: Tapeworm, Liver fluke, Planaria, etc.
Fig.
16.15
Tape worm Liver fluke Planaria
4. Phylum Aschelminthes or Nemathelminthes
Phylum Aschelminthes consists of invertebrates having round and unsegmented body.
They are commonly known as roundworms.
Habitat
Most of the roundworms live as parasites and some are free living. They are found in
the intestine of animals. They suck blood of their host. However, some roundworms are
found in soil.
Salient features
a. The body is round, cylindrical and unsegmented.
b. Mouth and anus both are present.
Do You Know
c. Both the ends of their body are pointed.
The organism having only one type of sex
d. They are unisexual animals. organs (male or female) in its body is called
e. Their body is bilaterally symmertrical. unisexual organism, e.g. round worm.
f. They reproduce sexually.

Examples: Roundowrm (Ascaris), Hookworm, Pinworm, etc.
Fig.
16.16
Roundworm (Ascaris) Hookworm Pinworm

5. Phylum Annelida
Phylum Annelida consists of invertebrates having many segmented rings in their bodies.
They are commonly known as annelids.
Habitat
They are found in water, soil and sand. Some of them are parasites (e.g. leech) and others
are free-living (e.g. earthworm).
Salient features Do You Know

a. Their body consists of numerous Leech sucks the blood of vertebrates
segmented rings. like human, cow, goat, etc. So, it is
b. Their body is elongated, cylindrical and called a parasite of vertebrates.
segmented. Earthworm is found in soil. It is a free
c. Their body is covered with soft and living animal.
moist skin (cuticle).
d. These animals may be unisexual or bisexual.

e. They breathe through skin.
f. They have nervous system, excretory system and circulatory system.
g. They are bilaterally symmetrical animals.
Examples: Earthworm, Leech, Sandworm, Nereis, etc.
Fig.
16.17
Earthworm Leech Sandworm
6. Phylum Arthropoda
Phylum Arthropoda consists of invertebrates having jointed legs. They are commonly
known as arthropods.
Habitats Do You Know

Arthropods are found on land, air and water. Thorax is the middle part of an insect's
They are cosmopolitan invertebrates. body to which the wings and legs are
attached.
Salient features
a. Arthropods have jointed legs.
b. Their body can be divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
c. They have wings and legs for movement.
d. Their body is protected with a hard cover.
e. They breathe through skin, gills or trachea.
f. Their head contains a pair of antennae and compound eyes.
g. Insects have two pairs of wings.
h. They are unisexual animals.
Examples: Crab, Butterfly, Prawn, Grasshopper, Ant, Honeybee, Moth, Spider, Scorpion,
etc.
Fig.
16.18
Crab Prawn Butterfly Centipede
7. Phylum Mollusca
Phylum Mollusca consists of invertebrate animals having soft and unsegmented body.
They are commonly called molluscs.
Habitat
Molluscs are found in water and moist soil.
Salient features
a. Molluscs have soft and unsegmented body.
b. Their body is generally covered with one or two hard shells.
c. They breathe through gills or lungs.
d. They have a distinct head which contains tentacles, eyes and mouth.
e. Their body is asymmetrical.
f. They are unisexual animals.
g. They have digestive system, circulatory system and nervous system.
h. Their hard shell or cover is made of calcium carbonate.
Examples: Snail, Slug, Unio, Octopus, etc.
Fig.
16.19
Snail Slug Unio Octopus
8. Phylum Echinodermata
Phylum Echinodermata consists of marine invertebrates having spiny skin. They are
commonly known as echinoderms.
Habitat
Echinoderms are found only in marine water.
Salient features
a. Echinoderms have spiny skin.
b. Their body may be star-shaped (e.g. Starfish), globular (e.g. Sea urchin) or cylindrical
(e.g. Sea cucumber).
c. Distinct head is absent.
d. They move with the help of tube feet.
e. They are triploblastic animals.
f. Their body is radially symmetrical.
g. They reproduce sexually.
h. Mouth is present on the lower surface of the body.
Examples: Starfish, Sea cucumber, Sea urchin, Brittle star, etc.
Fig.
16.20
Starfish Sea cucumber Sea urchin Brittle star
Vertebrates
We see a variety of animals in our surroundings like butterfly, frog, snake, lizard,
cockroach, grasshopper, snail, fish, bird, rabbit, rat, etc. Among them, frog, snake, lizard,
bird, rabbit and rat have backbones or vertebral columns. These animals are called
vertebrates. So, vertebrates can be defined as the animals having a backbone or vertebral
column. These animals have endoskeleton which forms the internal framework of the
body. The characteristics of vertebrates are given below:
a. They have a backbone or vertebral column.
b. They have bones in their bodies.
c. They may be cold-blooded or warm-blooded.
d. They have a well-developed blood circulatory system.
e. They have a well developed nervous system which consists of brain and spinal cord.

f. They move with the help of fins, limbs or wings.
Examples: Fish, Frog, Snake, Parrot, Bat, etc.
Fig.
16.21
Fish Frog Snake Parrot
Phylum Chordata
The animals having notochord are kept in phylum chordata. The animals having notcohord
are called chordates. They develop gills in embryonic stage. They have a tubular nerve
cord just above the notochord. Their skeleton is covered with muscle. They have closed
blood vascular system.
Examples of chordates: Balanoglossus, Amphioxus, fish, frog, toad, bird, elephant, tiger,
horse, human beings, snake, etc.
Phylum chordata is further divided into four sub-phyla. They are:
1. Sub-phylum Hemichordata
2. Sub-phylum Urochordata
3. Sub-phylum Cephalochordata
4. Sub-phylum Vertebrata
In this unit, we will study about sub-phylum vertebrata only.
Different types of vertebrates are kept in sub-phylum vertebrata. It is further divided into
five classes.
1. Class Pisces
2. Class Amphibia
3. Class Reptilia
4. Class Aves
5. Class Mammalia
1. Class Pisces
Different types of fishes are grouped in Class Pisces. Fishes are cold-blooded aquatic
vertebrates having fins and gills. They cannot live on land. Some fishes are very small and
some are very big.

Characteristics
a. The body of fishes can be divided into head, trunk and tail.
b. They breathe through gills in water.
c. They move with the help of fins.
d. They are cold-blooded animals.
e. Their body is covered with smooth, slippery and water-proof scales.
f. They lay eggs in water.
g. Their heart is two-chambered.
h. They are unisexual.
Examples: Rohu, Sea horse, Carp, Shark, etc.
Fig.
16.22
Rohu Sea horse Carp Shark
2. Class Amphibia
Different types of frogs, toads and salamanders are kept in Class Amphibia. These animals
can live in water as well as on land. The vertebrates that can live on land and in water are
called amphibians. They spend some part of life in water and rest on land.
Characteristics
a. The body of amphibians can be divided into head and trunk.
b. Their body is covered with smooth or rough skin.
c. Their skin is rich in glands.
d. They breathe through skin in water and through lungs on land.
e. They move with the help of limbs.
f. They are cold-blooded animals.
g. They lay eggs in water.
i. They have external fertilization.
j. They have three chambered heart.
Examples: Frog, Toad, Salamander, Hyla, etc.

Fig.
16.23
Frog Toad Salamander Hyla
Activity 1
Visit a nearby river or pond in your locality along with your science teacher.
Collect some fishes, frogs and their eggs.
Draw neat and labelled figures and write their salient features.
3. Class Reptilia
Different types of snakes, lizards and crocodiles are grouped in class Reptilia. These
animals crawl on ground. So, reptiles are crawling cold-blooded vertebrates. Most of
them live on land but some live in water. Reptiles are also called creepers or crawlers.
Characteristics
a. Reptiles creep or crawl on land.
b. Their body can be divided into head, neck, trunk and tail.
c. Their body is covered with hard and dry scales.
d. They move with the help of limbs but limbs are absent in snakes.
e. They breathe through lungs.
f. They lay eggs. The eggs have leathery shells.
g. Their heart is three-chambered.
i. They have internal fertilization.
Examples: Snake, Lizard, Tortoise, Crocodile, etc.
Fig.
16.24
Snake Lizard Tortoise Crocodile

4. Class Aves
Different types of birds are kept in Class Aves. Birds are the vertebrates that can fly in air.
They are found on land and in air.
Characteristics
a. Birds have feathers and wings. Fore limbs are modified into wings.
b. Their body can be divided into head, neck, trunk and tail.
c. They have very light bones and toothless beak.
d. They breathe through lungs.
e. They are warm-blooded animals.
f. They lay eggs.
g. They are unisexual animals.
h. They have air sacs in their bodies.
i. Their heart is four-chambered.
Examples: Crow, Hen, Sparrow, Peacock, Eagle, Penguin, Duck, Pigeon, Parrot, Kingfisher,
etc.
Fig.
16.25
Crow Sparrow Penguin Duck
5. Class Mammalia
Different types of vertebrates having mammary glands are grouped in Class Mammalia.
Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates that directly give birth to their young ones and
suckle them. Most mammals live on land but some live in water.
Characteristics Do You Know

a. Mammals directly give birth to their
Only mammals have mammary glands.
young ones and suckle them.
b. Mammary glands or milk producing Bats are flying mammals.
glands are present. Whale and dolphin are aquatic
c. Their body remains covered with hair. mammals.
d. They have a pair of external ears. Mammals have well developed brain.
e. Their body can be divided into head, Human beings are the most developed
neck, trunk and tail. mammals.
f. They breathe through lungs.

g. They are warm-blooded animals.
h. They move with the help of fins, limbs or wings.
Examples: Cow, Dog, Cat, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Bat, Dolphin, Whale, Lion, Zebra,
Monkey, Rabbit, Tiger, etc.
Fig.
16.26
Cow Elephant Dolphin Tiger
Project work
Observe different types of vertebrates in your locality.
Study their characteristics and write in your project work notebook.
Draw a neat and labelled figure of each.
Name the class of each of the vertebrates.
Kingdom Animalia
1. Phylum Porifera
2. Phylum Coelenterata
3. Phylum Platytelminthes
4. Phylum Nemathelminthes
5. Phylum Annelida
6. Phylum Arthropoda
7. Phylum Mollusca
8. Phylum Echinodermata
9. Phylum Chordata
Sub-phylum
Hemichordata Urochordata Cephalochordata Vertebrata
Class
Pisces Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia

Classification of some Animals
1. Sea anemone
Kingdom : Animalia
Fig.
Phylum : Coelenterata
Type : Sea anemone
16.26
2. Earthworm
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Annelida
Fig.
Type : Earthworm
3. Sea cucumber 16.27

Kingdom : Aninalia
Phylum : Echinodermata
Type : Sea cucumber
Fig.
4. Sea horse
16.28
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Sub-phylum : Vertebrata
Fig.
Class : Pisces
Type : Sea horse
16.29
5. Peacock
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Fig.
Class : Aves
Type : Peacock 16.30
6. Elephant
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Fig.
Class : Mammalia
Type : Elephant 16.31
Mosquito
Mosquitoes are harmful insects that belong to class Insecta of phylum Arthropoda. They
not only suck blood from humans and other vertebrates but also transmit various diseases
like malaria, filariasis, encephalitis, dengue, yellow fever, etc. from infected person to
another. Therefore, mosquitoes are considered harmful insects. Nearly about 3000 species
of mosquitoes are found throughout the world. Among them, about 100 species of
mosquitoes transmit various diseases. Culex, Anopheles and Aedes are the most common
species of mosquitoes found throughout tropical and sub-tropical regions. Now-a-days,
mosquitoes are found in high altitudes like Namchebazar of Solukhumbu district due to
effect of climate change.
Mosquitoes become active during night. So they are called nocturnal animals. They are found
in damp and marshy places of tropical and sub-tropical countries. Female mosquitoes suck
blood from humans and other vertebrates but male mosquitoes do not suck blood. They
live on nectar of plants. Because of blood-sucking habit, female mosquitoes are medically
important than males. Because female mosquitoes are the vectors of various diseases like
malaria, encephalitis, meningitis, dengue, yellow fever, filariasis, etc. Generally, mosquitoes
live in dark place and corners of room, bushes, etc. Mosquitoes lay eggs in water where they
complete their life cycle.
Fig.
16.32
Female Culex mosquito Female Anopheles mosquito Female Aedes mosquito
External Structure of Mosquito

The body of an adult mosquito can Thorax
be divided into three distinct parts.
They are head, thorax and abdomen.
The body is small, slender and about
3-4 mm long. The grayish-black Head
Abdomen
body of mosquito remains covered
with tiny scales.
Fig.
The head is small and spherical

in shape. It consists of a pair of 16.33
compound eyes, a pair of jointed
External structure of Mosquito
antennae and piercing and sucking
type of mouthparts. The mouthparts of mosquito consists of a needle-like proboscis
which is used for sucking blood.

The middle part of the body is called thorax. It can be divided into three parts, viz.
prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. Each part of thorax consists of a pair of long
jointed legs. The mesothorax consists of a pair thin, narrow and membranous wings. The
wings of female mosquitoes are larger than that of male mosquitoes. The metathorax
consists of a pair of rudimentary wings called halters or balancers which vibrate and
produce characteristic sound of mosquito.
Compound eye
Antennae
Labrum
Mandibles
Maxillae
Fig.
Hypopharynx Maxillary palpi

16.34 Labium
Mouth parts of mosquito
The abdomen of mosquito is small and cylindrical. It consists of nine segments. The ninth
abdominal segment contains anus.
Life cycle
Mosquitoes show complete metamorphosis in their life cycle. It means that the life cycle
of mosquito completes in four distinct stages. They are (i) Egg (ii) Larva (iii) Pupa and (iv)
Adult.
Larva
Eggs
Pupa
Fig.
16.35 Adult
Life cycle of Anopheles mosquito
Mosquitoes are found in gardens, crop-fields, near sewage, etc. but they need water to
reproduce. Out of four stages of the life cycle, first three stages, i.e. egg, larva and pupa
develop in water.
In mosquitoes, mating takes place in air while flying. The female mosquito takes a blood
meal after mating and then lays eggs in stagnant water of puddles, ditches, pools, etc.
1. Egg
After mating, a female mosquito lays eggs in water. Some mosquitoes lay eggs in clean
water and others lay in dirty water. A female Anopheles mosquito lays 40 - 100 eggs at a
time in clean resting water. The eggs contain lateral air floats and are laid separately. A
female Culex mosquito lays 200-400 eggs at a time in dirty water. The eggs are narrow
and elongated without air floats. The eggs of Culex mosquito are cigar-shaped. Which
remain attached together forming a raft. The raft floats on water like a boat.
Lateral air
floats
Fig.
Eggs laid singly on the A boat or barrel

Eggs laid in a cluster on water Cigar shaped
water surface shaped egg
surface egg
16.36
Eggs of Anopheles Larva of Culex
Differences between eggs of Anopheles and eggs of Culex mosquito

Eggs of Anopheles Eggs of Culex
1. They are boat-shaped. 1. They are cigar-shaped
2. They have lateral air floats. 2. They do not have lateral air floats.
3. They are laid separately. 3. They are laid in a group.
4. They are found in clean water. 4. They are found in dirty water.
2. Larva
Larva is the second stage of life cycle. On favourable condition, the egg hatches into a tiny
larva within 2 - 3 days. The larva is small and transparent. The larva of a mosquito moves
in water by wriggling movement. Therefore, it is called a wriggler.
The body of a larva can be divided into head, thorax and abdomen. The head consists of a
pair of compound eyes, a pair of antennae and chewing types of mouthparts. The thorax
of larva is wider than the head. It consists of three pairs of lateral tufts of hairs. Legs are
absent in thorax.

The abdomen of larva is Adult
elongated having nine-
segments. A respiratory siphon
is present on the 8th segment
and four tracheal gills are
attatched to the 9th segment.
Each abdominal segment bears Adult Eggs
a pair of bristles. emerges
When at rest, the larva of
Anopheles remains parallel
to the surface of water but the
larva of Culex hangs with its
head downwards at an angle of Larva
45° to the surface of water.
Fig.
The respiratory siphon of the Pupa

larva of Anopheles is shorter
than that of Culex. The larva of 16.37
mosquito moults 3-4 times. At Life cycle of Culex Mosquito
the last moult, the larva changes
into a pupa within two weeks.
Water Spiracle
surface
Breathing
siphon
Water surface
Compound eye
Feeding
brushes
Head
Head Hair tuft
Thorax Tracheal gills
Antenna Thorax
Fig.
Compound eye
16.38 Antenna
Larva of Anopheles Larva of Culex
Differences between larva of Anopheles and larva of Culex mosquito

Larva of Anopheles Larva of Culex
1. It is a surface feeder. 1. It is a bottom feeder.
2. Its respiratory siphon is shorter and 2. Its respiratory siphon is longer and
wider. narrower.
3. While resting, it remains parallel to the 3. While resting, it makes an angle of
surface of water. 45° to the surface of water.

3. Pupa
Pupa is the third stage of the life cycle. On favourable condition, each larva developes into
a comma-shaped pupa withing two weeks. The body of a pupa can be divided into two
parts, viz. cephalothorax and abdomen. The cephalothorax is the fused form of head and
thorax. It consists of a pair of compound eyes, a pair of antennae and a pair of respiratory
trumpets. The abdomen is nine segmented and the last abdominal segment consists of a
pair of large swimming paddles.
Unlike other insects' pupae, the pupa of a mosquito is quite active. It swims actively
in water. The pupa does not eat as there is no mouth but breathes through respiratory
trumpets. The pupa changes into an imago within 2 – 7 days on favourable condition.
Respiratory trumpet Respiratory trumpet Water surface
Water surface
Cephalothorax
Cephalothorax
Antenna
Antenna
Compound eye
Compound eye
Fig.
16.39
Pupa of Anopheles Pupa of Culex
Differences between pupa of Anopheles and Pupa of Culex

Pupa of Anopheles Pupa of Culex
1. It is green in colour. 1. It is colourless.
2. Its head is small. 2. Its head is large.
3. Respiratory siphons are shorter. 3. Respiratory siphons are longer.
4. Imago
On favourable condition, each pupa changes into an imago within 2 - 7 days. A newly
emerged adult is called an imago. The imago emerges out by tearing the puparium, i.e.
cover of pupa. The imago dries its wings for sometime before flying.
Fig.
16.40
Adult of Anopheles Adult of Culex
In this way, the life cycle of mosquito is completed.
Differences between adult of Anopheles and adult of Culex mosquito

Adult of Anopheles Adult of Culex
1. It makes an acute angle to the surface 1. It remains parallel to the surface of
while resting. water while resting.
2. Palpi are shorter than proboscis. 2. Palpi and proboscis both are equal in
length.
3. Wings are transparent. 3. Wings are spotted.
4. It cannot fly for long. 4. It can fly for long.
Disadvantages of Mosquitoes
Mosquitoes are harmful insects for human beings and other animals. Because they bite
and transmit various diseases like malaria, yellow fever, dengue, meningitis, filariasis,
encephalitis etc. Some common diseases transmitted by mosquitoes with their causative
agent are given below:
Diseases Types of mosquito Causative agent

1. Malaria Female Anopheles Plasmodium
2. Yellow fever Female Aedes Virus
3. Filariasis Female Culex Wuchereria bancrofti
4. Encephalitis Female Culex Virus
Female Aedes
5. Dengue Female Culex Virus
Female Aedes
Malaria
Malaria is the most common disease transmitted by mosquito. It is transmitted by female
Anopheles mosquito and caused by a protozoan parasite called Plasmodium. This disease
is common in tropical and sub-tropical regions.
When a female Anopheles mosquito bites a person suffering from malaria, it sucks
numerous Plasmodium parasites along with blood. These parasites complete a part of
their life cycle in the body wall of mosquito and finally come in the salivary gland of
the mosquito. When the mosquito containing infective stages of Plasmodium in salivary
gland, bites a healthy person, the person acquires infection. Then these parasites enter
the liver through blood stream and complete a part of their life cycle and finally infect
red blood cells. The symptoms of malaria occur when Plasmodium parasites infect and
destroy red blood cells.

Prevention of infection
1. We should sleep inside the net to avoid mosquito bite.
2. We should spray insecticides to kill adult mosquitoes inside the houses.
3. We can drive mosquitoes away by burning mosquito coils.
4. We should fill the puddles, ditches, etc. with sand or soil to control the breeding of
mosquitoes.
5. We can kill mosquito larvae and pupae by spraying kerosene, paraffin etc. in the
surface of water containing mosquito larvae and pupae.
6. We should introduce larvivorous fishes like trout, Gambusia, Tilapia, etc. to control
mosquito larvae and pupae.
Key Concepts
1. The grouping of living organisms on the basis of similarities and differences is
called classification. It makes the study of living organisms easy and systematic.
2. Microscopic organisms having prokaryotic cell are kept in Kingdom Monera. The
organisms of this kingdom are unicellular having DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as
a nucleus.
3. Unicellular organisms having eukaryotic cells are kept in Kingdom Protista.
4. Kingdom Protista includes unicellular animals like amoeba, paramecium, euglena,
trypanosoma, trichomonas, etc.
5. Unicellular and multicellular organisms without chlorophyll are kept in Kingdom
Fungi.
6. Non-green plants like mushroom, yeast, mucor, Penicillim, etc. belong to Kingdom
Fungi.
7. Different types of non-flowering plants and flowering plants are kept in Kingdom
Plantae. They have chlorophyll.
8. The plants which do not bear flowers are called non-flowering plants. They are also
called cryptogams.
9. The plants which bear flowers and seeds are called flowering plants. They are more
developed than non-flowering plants.
10. Bryophytes grow on moist and they need water to reproduce. Therefore, bryophytes
are also called amphibian plants.
11. Well developed plants having vascular tissues are kept in division Tracheophyta.
These plants may be non-flowering or flowering.
12. Sub-division Pteridophyta consists of well developed cryptogams having feather-
shaped leaves.
13. Sub-division Gymnosperms consists of cone bearing plants having naked seeds.
14. Sub-division Angiosperms consists of the most developed flowering plants having
fruits. They are found on land and in water.
15. Class monocot includes flowering plants having only one cotyledon in their seeds.
16. Class dicot includes well developed flowering plants having two cotyledons in
their seeds.
17. Invertebrates are those animals which do not have backbone or vertebral column.
Examples: Amoeba, sponge, hydra, tapeworm, roundworm, earthworm, butterfly,
snail, starfish, etc.
18. Phylum Porifera consists of primitive multicellular animals having numerous pores
in their bodies.
19. Phylum Platyhelminthes consists of invertebrates having flat body. These animals
are commonly known as flatworms.
20. The animals having male and female reproductive organs in the same body are
called bisexual animals, e.g. tape worm, liver fluke, etc.
21. Phylum Aschelminthes consists of invertebrates having round and unsegmented
body. They are commonly known as roundworms.
22. Phylum Annelida consists of invertebrates having many segmented rings in their
bodies. They are commonly known as annelids.
23. Phylum Arthropoda consists of invertebrates having jointed legs. They are
commonly known as arthropods.
24. Phylum Mollusca consists of invertebrate animals having soft and unsegmented
body. They are commonly called molluscs.
25. Phylum Echinodermata consists of marine invertebrates having spiny skin. They
are commonly known as echinoderms.
26. Vertebrates can be defined as the animals having a backbone or vertebral column.
These animals have endoskeleton which forms the internal framework of the body.
27. The animals having notochord are kept in phylum chordata. The animals having
notochord are called chordates.
28. Fishes are cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates having fins and gills.
29. The vertebrates that can live on land and in water are called amphibians.
30. Reptiles are crawling cold-blooded vertebrates. Most of them live on land but some
live in water.
31. Birds are the warm-blooded vertebrates that can fly in air.
32. Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates that directly give birth to their young ones
and suckle them.
33. Mosquitoes are harmful insects that belong to class Insecta of phylum Arthropoda.
They not only suck blood from humans and other vertebrates but also transmit
various diseases like malaria, filariasis, encephalitis, dengue, yellow fever, etc. from
infected person to another. Therefore mosquitoes are considered harmful insects.
34. Mosquitoes become active during night. So they are called nocturnal animals. They
are found in damp and marshy places of tropical and sub-tropical countries.

35. The body of an adult mosquito can be divided into three distinct parts.
36. Mosquitoes show complete metamorphosis in their life cycle. It means that the life
cycle of mosquito completes in four distinct stages. They are (i) Egg (ii) Larva (iii)
Pupa and (iv) Adult.
37. Malaria is the most common disease transmitted by mosquitoes. It is transmitted by
female Anopheles mosquito and caused by a protozoan parasite Plasmodium.

a. Chlorophyll is absent in ....................................
spirogyra mushroom
moss fern
b. Which of the following plant belongs to sub-division gymnosperms?
cycas rose
lycopodium mustard
c. The animals having numerous pores in their bodies are kept in phylum .................
chordata arthropoda
porifera coelenterata
d. Which of the following animals belongs to class reptilia?
sea horse horse
crocodile peacock
e. The life cycle of mosquito completes in ............................. stages.
one two
three four

a. What is classification?
b. Name any two organisms that belong to Kingdom Monera.
c. Name the scientist who propounded five kingdom system of classification.
d. Write any three salient features of the plants that belong to division.
(i) Algae (ii) Bryophyta (iii) Tracheophyta
e. What are invertebrates ? Name eight phyla of invertebrates.
f. What are coelenterates? Write their three characteristics.
g. Write any three salient features of the animals that belong to phylum
i. Annelida ii. Arthropoda
iii. Mollusca iv. Chordata
h. What are vertebrates? Give any five examples.
i. Write any three salient features of the animals that belong to class:
i. Pisces ii. Reptilia iii. Mammalia
j. Where are mosquitoes found? Why are they considered harmful insects?
k. Name any three diseases transmitted by mosquitoes.
l. How is malaria transmitted from one person to another? Describe.
m. How can we control mosquitoes? Write any three points.
3. Classify the given organisms with any two salient features of each:
a. Moss b. Spirogyra c. Fern d. Pea
e. Cycas f. Bamboo g. Maize h. Bean
i. Apple j. Rohu k. Sea horse l. Lizard
m. Crow n. Bat o. Snake p. Dolphin
4. Differentiate between
a. Algae and Fungi
b. Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
c. Monocot and Dicot
d. Fish and Frog
e. Roundworm and Tapeworm
f. Bat and Bird
g. Larva of Culex and Larva of Anopheles
h. Adult Culex and Adult Anopheles
5. Give reason.
a. Fern and cycas are kept in division tracheophyta.
b. Fish is kept in phylum chordata.
c. Bat is kept in class mammalia.
d. Mosquitoes are considered harmful insects.
6. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing the life cycle of Anopheles mosquito.
1. What is classification ?
2. What is binomial system of nomenclature?
3. What types of plants are called thalloid?
4. What do you mean by rhizoids?
5. What types of plants are kept in the sub-division pteridophyta?
6. Which type of animals are called invertebrates ?
7. Which type of animals are kept in metazoa?
8. Write any two functions of tentacles found in hydra.
9. What type of animals are called hermaphrodite animals?
10. Write down two characteristics of the animals belonging to the phylum Chordata.
11. What are warm-blooded animals ?
12. What are mammals?
13. Which mosquito transmits malaria? Write.
14. Name a disease transmitted by the adult Anopheles.
15. What type of climate is suitable for mosquitoes? Write.

16. Why is Carolus Linnaeus considered as the father of taxonomy? Give reason.
17. Volvox is kept in the division Algae and moss is kept in division bryophyta, why ?
Give reason.
18. Fern is considered as the most developed plant among cryptogams, why ? Give any
two reasons.
19. Write any two differences between jelly fish and starfish.
20. The body of tapeworm is segmented but that of liverfluke is unsegmented. However,
both of them are kept in the same phylum. Give reason.
21. Sea horse is kept in class pisces and horse is kept in class mammalia, why ?
22. Write any two differences between bird and bat.
23. Female mosquito is considered more harmful than the male mosquito, why ?
24. Write any two differences between Culex and Anopheles mosquito.
25. Larvae of mosquito die when kerosene is sprayed on the surface of the pond containing
mosquito larvae, why?
26. It is more beneficial to know about the life cycle of a mosquito to control them, why?
27. Malaria can be controlled by controlling mosquitoes. Give suitable reason.

28. What is the advantage of classification of living beings? Write in any three points.
29. Write down two characteristics of the living beings belonging to kingdom Monera
with any two examples.
30. Write down two characteristics of the plants belonging to division bryophyta and
write any two examples
31. Write down two salient features of the plants belonging to division Gymnosperms
with any two examples
32. Name the phylum of the given animals. Also write a characteristic of each.
i. ii. iii.
33. How can we control mosquitoes? Write any three ways.

34. How can we control mosquitoes by filling puddles? What should be done to avoid
mosquito bite while working in farms?
35. Write any three methods to control mosquito larvae and pupae.
36. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing the life cycle of Culex mosquito.

37. Classify the animal shown in the figure and write any two characteristics.
i. ii.
38. Write any two differences between fish and frog on the basis of habitat and structure
of heart. Name the phylum of the animals having following features.
i. Having segmented body, hermaphrodite
ii. Moves with the help of tentacles, found in marine water
iii. Having sucker, flat and segmented body
iv. Soft body with a hard cover, having tentacles
39. What types of animals are called mammals ? Write down three characteristics of these
animals.
40. Classify given animals with a characteristic of each:
i. Snake ii. Fern
41. Name the class of the animals having given features. Also, give an example of each.
i. Breathe through gills, having scales
ii. Having external ears, give birth directly to young ones
iii. Having webbed feet, live on both land and in water
iv. Fly in air, lay eggs
42. What should be done to avoid mosquito bite ? Write any two methods. Differentiate
between Culex mosquito and Anopheles mosquito in any two points on the basis of
egg-laying habit and structure.
43. Describe the life cycle of Anopheles mosquito with a neat figure.

UNIT
Adaptation of
17 Organisms
Before You Begin

A fish can breathe in water. But when it is taken out of water, it dies.
The fish has gills adapted to breathe only in water. A fish cannot
breathe on land through gills and it dies. On the other hand, we can
breathe on land through lungs but cannot breathe inside water through
lungs. The lungs are not adapted to breathe in water. The ability of an
organism to adjust itself in its habitat is called adaptation. It includes
structural, functional and behavioural modifications which make
an organism better fitted in its habitat. The special characteristics of
an organism due to which the organism can adjust in its habitat are
called adaptational characteristics. Sharp and pointed claws in tiger,
feathers in birds, fleshy stem in cactus, webbed feet in frog, etc. are the
examples of adaptational characteristics. In this unit, we will study
adaptational characteristics of plants and animals, and microscopic
organisms like virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to adaptation
i. introduce adaptation with examples. • Adaptational characteristics of
ii. list different types of aquatic and terrestrial plants and animals
organisms. • Microscopic organisms
iii. explain the adaptational characteristics of plants and - Bacteria
animals with examples.
- Fungi
iv. introduce some microscopic organisms (viruses,
bacteria, fungi and protozoa) and list human diseases - Virus
caused by them.
- Protozoa
adaptation : the ability of an organism to adjust in its environment

xerophytes : the plants that grow in desert
hydrophytes : the plants that grow in water
viruses : the sub-microscopic particles that show properties of both living beings
and non-living things
fungi : non-green plants without chlorophyll

Adaptation
In our surroundings, different types of plants and animals are found. Some of them live
in water whereas others live on land. These organisms may be microscopic (like amoeba,
paramecium, bacteria, etc.) to very large in size (like trees, elephant, blue whale, etc.). All
kinds of plants and animals have special characteristics in their bodies due to which they
can adapt in their habitat. These characteristics are called adaptational characteristics.
Similarly, the ability of an organism to adjust itself in its habitat is called adaptation. A fish
can adapt in water but cannot adapt on land. On the other hand, a cow can adapt on land
but cannot adapt in water. If living beings cannot adapt in their habitat, they disappear. In
this unit, we will study about adaptational characteristics of plants and animals.
Aquatic adaptation
A variety of plants and animals live in water. The animals that live in water are called
aquatic animals. Examples, fish, dolphin, octopus, etc. The plants that live in water are
called aquatic plants. They are also called hydrophytes. Aquatic plants and animals have
ability to get food and respiratory gases from water.
Hydrophytes
The plants that live in water are called hydrophytes. They are divided into following
three types.
1. Floating hydrophytes
2. Submerged hydrophytes
3. Fixed and emergent hydrophytes
1. Floating hydrophytes
The hydrophytes that float freely in water are called floating hydrophytes. Their roots
are not attached to the soil.
Example : Lemna, Pistia, Wolfia, etc.
Fig.
17.1
Lemna Pistia Wolfia
2. Submerged hydrophytes
The hydrophytes that remain immersed in water are called submerged hydrohytes.
Their roots are attached to the soil.
Examples : Hydrilla, vallisneria, etc.
Fig.
17.2
Hydrilla Vallisneria
3. Fixed and emergent hydrophytes

Some hydropytes have roots fixed to the soil but their stem and leaves emerge out of
water. Such type of hydrophytes are called fixed and emergent hydrophytes. They
have developed roots attached to the soil.
Examples: Ranunculus, Sagittaria, Typha, Lotus, Rumex, etc.
Fig.
17.3
Ranunculus Sagittaria Typha Lotus
Adaptational Characteristics of Hydrophytes

1. Aquatic plants (hydrophytes) have very less developed root system. Some
hydrophytes do not have roots.
2. Hydrophytes have long, soft and spongy stem.
3. The body of hydrophytes remains covered with waxy substance. It prevents them
form decaying in water.
4. Floating hydrophytes have air filled sacs which help them to float in water.
5. The leaves of submerged hydrophytes (e.g. hydrilla) are narrow and thin.
6. The leaves of floating and emergent hydrophytes are broad and large.
7. Hydrophytes have less develop xylem and phloem tissues.

Aquatic animals
The animals that live in water are called aquatic animals. Fish, octopus, dolphin, shark,
eel, etc. are some common examples of aquatic animals.
Fig.
17.4
Fish Octopus Shark Dolphin
Adaptational characteristics of aquatic animals

1. Aquatic animals have boat-shaped or streamlined body which helps them to swim in
water.
2. Aquatic animals have pointed head, smooth body and powerful tail. These features
help them to swim easily in water.
3. The body of aquatic animals consists of air filled sacs which help them to float in
water.
Spiny dorsal fin Soft dorsal fin

Spinal cord Gallbladder Caudal fin
Swim bladder
Kidney
Brain
Lateral line
Gills
Heart Liver
Intestine Bladder Anal
Fig.
Esophagus fin
Pancreas Anus
Pelvic fin Stomach Reproductive
17.5 organ
Structure of a fish
4. Aquatic animals have ability to adjust body temperature according to the temperature
of their surroundings. So they can survive in cold and hot environment.
5. Aquatic animals have fins and tail to help them to swim in water they also help them
to change to direction in water.
6. Most aquatic animals have gills adapted to breathe in water.
7. The body of aquatic animals remains covered with water. proof scales or mucous coat
which prevents the body from decaying.

Terrestrial adaptation
Different types of plants and animals are found on land. The organisms that live on land
are called terrestrial organisms. They obtain food, respiratory gas (oxygen) and shelter
from land. Terrestrial organisms are divided into terrestrials plants and terrestrial animals.
Adaptational characteristics of terrestrial plants

The plants that live on land are called terrestrial plants. Mango, rose, apple, cactus, Aloe
vera etc. are some examples of terrestrial plants. The major adaptational characteristics of
terrestrial plants are given below:
1. Terrestrial plants have strong and well developed root system.
2. Climber plants like cucumber, gourd, pumpkin, etc. have tendrils, hooks and aerial
roots for support.
3. Mesophytes have well developed vascular tissues.
4. Xerophytes like cactus, aloe vera, opuntia, etc have long and well developed root
system adapted to absorb maximum water from the soil.
Fig.
17.6
Cactus Opuntia Aloe vera
5. Desert plants are stunted and having thick barks.
6. The leaves of xerophytes are reduced into thorns to reduce the loss of water through
transpiration.
7. Desert plants have thick and fleshy stem modified to store water.
Adaptational characteristics of terrestrial animals

The animals that live on land are called terrestrial animals. Cow, goat, tiger, lion, horse,
giraffe, monkey, squirrel, camel, etc. are some examples of terrestrial animals. Different
types of reptiles, birds and mammals live on land.
Fig.
17.7
Tiger Lion Horse

The major adaptational characteristics of terrestrial animals are given below:
1. The limbs of terrestrial animals are modified according to their habit and habitat.
They have long and strong legs adapted for walking, jumping, etc.
Some animals like zebra, horse, donkey, etc. have non-lobed hoof whereas animals
like cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, etc. have bilobed hoof.
Fig.
17.8
Zebra Cow
2. Birds are adapted for aerial mode
of life. They have streamlined body
adapted for reducing air resistance
while flying. Their fore limbs are
modified in the form of wings for
flying.
They have light bones and toothless
beak to reduce the body weight.
Fig.
Numerous air-sacs are found in the

body which help them to fly easily. 17.9
The beaks of birds are also modified Peacock
according to their feeding habit.
The beaks of birds are also modified according to their feeding habit.
Fig.
17.10
Beak of vulture Beak of duck Beak of woodpecker
Beak of a vulture is pointed and curved adapted for tearing flesh. Duck has a spoon-
shaped beak adapted fro searching insects. Woodpecker has a long and strong beak
adapted for boring into wood. Different types of birds gave different types of claws

modified according to their habit and habitat. For example, birds like eagle, hawk,
etc. have sharp and pointed claws adapted for grasping their prey. Ducks have
webbed feet adapted for swimming in water.
3. Desert animals (like camel) have special tissues

adapted for storing water. They have thick skin
to prevent loss of water through perspiration.
They have a hump on their back to store food
Fig.
in the form of fat.
17.11
Camel
4. Animals like house-wall-lizards have adhesive

pads on their digits. They are adapted to climb
on walls without falling downwards.
Fig.
17.12
Adhesive pads of housewall lizard
5. Climbing animals like monkeys have strong

muscles and limbs with long digits adapted for
Fig.
jumping, climbing and holding tree branches.

17.13
A monkey is climbing a tree
6. Burrowing animals like mole, rabbit, rat, etc. have pointed snout. They have strong
fore limbed with pointed digits adapted for making burrows.
Fig.
17.14
Mole Rabbit
Bacteria
Bacteria are the most primitive, unicellular and microscopic plant organisms. They are
the simplest living organisms. Bacteria are found in air, water, soil and inside the body of
plants and animals. They can be found in almost all parts of the earth.
Do You Know
In 1676 AD, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
discovered bacteria but the term
"bacteria" was coined by CG Ehrenberg
in 1828 AD.
The singular of bacteria is bacterium.
Fig.
Some bacteria can survive in boiling

water and some can survive in ice.
17.15
Bacteria
Most bacteria do not have chlorophyll and only a few have chlorophyll. It means most
bacteria are saprophytes and only a few are autotrophs.
Structure of Bacteria Capsule

Cell wall
Bacteria have a very simple Plasma membrane
cellular structure. The cell Cytoplasm
of bacteria consists of a non- Ribosomes
Plasmid
living cell wall and a thin Pili
living membrane called
plasma membrane.
The cell of a bacterium
Fig.
consists of protoplasm and Bacterial Flagellum

genetic material, i.e. DNA. Nucleoid (Circular DNA)
Some bacteria contain 17.16
flagella. Membrane bound Structure of bacterium
structures like mitochondria,
golgi bodies, etc. are absent in bacteria. The cell of bacteria is called prokaryotic cell as it
has a primitive nucleus.
Characteristics of Bacteria
1. They do not have a well developed nucleus.
2. Their size ranges from 0.5 to 5 micrometers.
3. A cell wall is present in them.
4. The mode of nutrition may be heterotrophic or autotrophic.
5. Most bacteria are immotile but some bacteria like spirilla and bacilli are motile.
6. They may live alone or in colonies.
7. They reproduce asexually by fission.

Types of Bacteria
There are four types of bacteria on the basis of shape. They are:
i. Spherical bacteria or coccus, e.g. Diplococci, etc.
ii. Spiral bacteria, e.g. spirillum, leptospira, etc.
iii. Rod-shaped bacteria or Bacillus, e.g. Escherichia coli
iv. Comma-shaped bacteria or Vibrio, e.g. Vibrio cholera
Fig.
17.17
Cocci bacteria Spirillum bacteria Bacilli bacteria Vibrio bacteria
Advantages of Bacteria
1. Some bacteria like Rhizobium increase the fertility of soil by regulating nitrogen
cycle.
2. Bacteria are used for making medicines like antibiotics.
3. Many bacteria help in digestion of food.
4. Bacteria act on dead bodies and decompose them which helps in recycling of materials
in the environment.
5. Bacteria are used in tanning of leather, curding of milk, cheese making and processing
of tobacco, coffee, etc.
Disadvantages of Bacteria Do You Know

1. Bacteria cause diseases in plants and Bacteria cause various diseases in
animals. human beings like typhoid, leprosy,
scrub typhus, pneumonia, dysentery,
2. Some bacteria like Pseudomonas decrease
tetanus, tuberculosis, etc.
the fertility of soil.
3. Bacteria spoil food, milk, vegetables, fruits, etc.
4. Some bacteria release toxins into food and cause food poisoning.
Viruses
Viruses are sub-microscopic, obligatory parasites that cause various diseases in plants
and animals. The word 'virus' has been derived from a Latin word 'venom' which
means poison or poisonous fluid. The size of viruses ranges from 25 nanometers to 250
nanometers. They are about 50 times smaller than bacteria. Viruses can only be seen under
an electron microscope.

Fig.
17.18
Flu virus Retro virus (HIV) TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus)
Viruses do not have nucleus and cytoplasm. It means that they do not have a cellular
structure. Some viruses contain DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and others contain RNA
(Ribonucleic acid). Viruses cause various diseases in plants and animals. Mosaic disease
of tobacco, cabbage, mustard; black ring spot of cabbage, leaf roll of tomato, etc. are the
viral diseases found in plants. Similarly, common cold, AIDS, rabies, polio, measles,
chicken pox, meningitis, etc. are the viral diseases common in human beings.
Viruses have different shapes like hexagonal, cylindrical, spherical, etc. The genetic
material, i.e. DNA or RNA of a virus remains surrounded by a coat of protein called
capsid. Viruses show the properties of both non-living things and living beings. Therefore,
they are kept in the borderline of living beings and non-living things.
Non-living properties of viruses

1. Viruses do not have a cellular structure.
2. They do not perform metabolic activities.
3. They can be crystallized like non-living things.
Living properties of viruses

1. Viruses contain genetic material, i.e. either DNA or RNA.
2. They reproduce in a large number inside the host cell.
3. They transmit hereditary characteristics to their offspring.
Types of viruses
On the basis of type of host, there are three types if viruses. They are:
1. Plant viruses 2. Animal viruses 3. Bacteriophages
1. Plant viruses
The viruses that attack plants are called plant viruses,
e.g. tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). It is a rod shaped
Fig.
RNA virus that attacks the leaves of tobacco.
17.19
TMV virus
2. Animal viruses
The viruses that attack animals are called animal
Fig.
viruses, e.g. retro virus (HIV), polio virus, flu virus,
paramyxo virus, rhino virus, etc.
17.20
Rhino virus
3. Bacteriophages
The virus that attacks bacteria is called bacteriophage
virus. It consists of two parts, i.e. head and tail. The
Fig.
head is hexagonal which remains covered with a
protein coat called capsid. The tail is cylindrical and
consists of tail fibres. 17.21
Bacteriophage
Modes of transmission of viruses
1. Through air, water and food
2. Direct contact with infected organism
3. Through droplets while coughing and sneezing
4. From infected mother to unborn/newly born baby
5. Through vectors like mosquito, houseflies, etc.
Differences between Viruses and Bacteria

Viruses Bacteria
1. They do not show metabolic activities. 1. They show metabolic activities.
2. They are acellular particles. 2. The are living cellular organisms.
3. Cell wall is absent. 3. Cell wall is present.
Fungi
Do You Know
Fungi are plants without chlorophyll. They
may be unicellular (yeast) or multicellular Fungi cannot prepare their own food
(mushroom). They cannot prepare their own due to absence of chlorophyll and
food. So, they depend on dead and decaying depend on dead and decaying organic
matter for food. Therefore, fungi are
organic matter. Mushroom, yeast, mucor, etc.
called saprophytes.
are examples of fungi.

Fig.
17.22
Mushroom Yeast Mucor
Characteristics of fungi
1. Fungi do not contain root, stem and leaves.
2. They contain eukaryotic cells which may contain many nuclei.
3. Their cell wall is made of fungus cellulose.
4. Chlorophyll is absent in them.
5. Their body is made of hyphae, i.e. mycelia or long filaments.
6. They may be unicellular or multicellular.
7. They reproduce asexually by budding, fragmentation and sporulation.
Advantages of fungi
1. Fungi act on dead and decaying bodies and help in recycling of materials.
2. Edible fungi like mushroom provide us nutritious food.
3. Some fungi like yeast are used in bakeries and wine industries.
4. Some fungi are used for making medicine, e.g. penicillin.
Disadvantages of fungi
1. Fungi cause various diseases in plants and animals.
2. They attack leather, foods and spoil them.
3. They cause skin infection, vaginal yeast infection, etc. in humans.
Control Measures of Bacterial Diseases

1. Antibitotics should be used in case of bacterial infection.
2. The use of infected seeds should be avoided.
3. The infected animal should be stored properly in cold.
4. Salts should be used to control the growth of fungi in fruits and vegetables.
5. Sugar can be used to control fungi.

Control Measures of Viruses
1. The infected organisms should be isolated.
2. The infected parts of plants with viruses should be burnt.
3. We should avoid the use of personal materials of the patient.
4. By proper immunization against viral infections should be done.
5. Insects should be killed to avoid transmission of viruses.
Differences between Bacteria and Fungi

Bacteria Fungi
1. They are unicellular. 1. The may be unicellular or multicellular.
2. They have prokaryotic cell. 2. They have eukaryotic cell.
3. Nuclear membrane is absent. 3. Nuclear membrane is present.
Protozoa
Protozoa are the most primitive animals. They are unicellular and microscopic. So we can
see the detailed stricture of protozoa only under the compound microscope. Amoeba,
paramecium, euglena, plasmodium, trichomonas, etc. are some examples of protozoa.
Fig.
17.23
Amoeba Paramecium Euglena Trichomonas
Some protozoa like amoeba, paramecium, euglena, etc. are harmless for human beings.
They do not cause any diseases.
Some protozoa like Plasmodium, Entamoeba, Giardia, Leishmania, Toxoplasma, etc.
cause various diseases in animals. So they are called harmful protozoa. The human
diseases causes by different types of protozoa are given below:
1. Malaria
2. Amoebiasis
3. Giardiasis
4. Babesiosis
5. Toxoplasmosis
6. Leishmaniasis
7. African sleeping sickness
Some protozoa live in the walls of intestine and others live in blood or body tissues. For
example, Entamoeba histolytica lives in the wall of intestine and plasmodium lives in blood.
Protozoa transmit from infected person to another by either of the following methods:
i. Through contaminated food and water
ii. By means of vectors like houseflies
iii. Through insect bite
iv. Direct contact with the patient
Control measures of protozoa

1. Consumption of contaminated food and water should be avoided.
2. We should avoid insect bite.
3. We should drink boiled water.
4. Personal hygiene should be maintained.
Key Concepts
1. All kinds of plants and animals have special characteristics in their bodies due to
which they can adapt in their habitat. These characteristics are called adaptational
characteristics. Similarly, the ability of an organism to adjust itself in its habitat is
called adaptation.
2. The animals that live in water are called aquatic animals. Examples, fish, dolphin,
octopus, etc. The plants that live in water are called aquatic plants. They are also
called hydrophytes.
3. The hydrophytes that float freely in water are called floating hydrophytes. Their
roots are not attached to the soil.
4. The hydrophytes that remain immersed in water are called submerged hydrohytes.
Their roots are attached to the soil.
5. Some hydropytes have roots fixed to the soil but their stem and leaves emerge out
of water. Such type of hydrophytes are called fixed and emergent hydrophytes.
6. Aquatic plants (hydrophytes) have very less developed root system. Some
hydrophytes do not have roots.
7. The body of hydrophytes remains covered with waxy substance. It prevents them
form decaying in water.
8. Aquatic animals have boat-shaped or streamlined body which helps them to swim
in water.
9. Aquatic animals have pointed head, smooth body and powerful tail. These features
help them to swim easily in water.
10. Aquatic animals have fins and tail to help them to swim in water they also help
them to change to direction in water.
11. The body of aquatic animals remains covered with water. proof scales or mucous
coat which prevents the body from decaying.
12. The organisms that live on land are called terrestrial organisms. They obtain food,
respiratory gas (oxygen) and shelter from land.
13. Xerophytes like cactus, aloe vera, oputia, etc have long and well developed root
system adapted to absorb maximum water from the soil.
14. The leaves of xerophytes are reduced into thorns to reduce the loss of water through
transpiration.
15. The limbs of terrestrial animals are modified according to their habit and habitat.
They have long and strong legs adapted for walking, jumping, etc.
16. Birds are adapted for aerial mode of life. They have streamlined body adapted for
reducing air resistance while flying.
17. Desert animals (like camel) have special tissues adapted for storing water. They
have thick skin to prevent loss of water through perspiration.
18. Climbing animals like monkey have strong muscles and limbs with long digits
adapted for jumping, climbing and holding tree branches.
19. Bacteria are the most primitive, unicellular and microscopic plant organisms. They
are the simplest living organisms.
20. Some bacteria like Rhizobium increase the fertility of soil by regulating nitrogen
cycle.
21. Bacteria are used in tanning of leather, curding of milk, cheese making and
processing of tobacco, coffee, etc.
22. Viruses are sub-microscopic, obligatory parasites that cause various diseases in
plants and animals.
23. Viruses have different shapes like hexagonal, cylindrical, spherical, etc. The genetic material,
i.e. DNA or RNA of a virus remains surrounded by a coat of protein called capsid.
24. The virus that attacks bacteria is called bacteriophage virus. It consists of two parts,
i.e. head and tail.
25. Fungi are plants without chlorophyll. They may be unicellular (yeast) or multicellular
(mushroom).
26. Protozoa are the most primitive animals. They are unicellular and microscopic.
27. Some protozoa like Plasmodium, Entamoeba, Giardia, Leishmania, Toxoplasma,
etc. cause various diseases in animals.

a. Which of the given plants have well developed root system?
louts cactus
hydrilla onion
b. Which of the given animals has adhesive pads on digits?
garden lizard tiger
monkey house wall lizard

c. Which of the given animals has a hump on its back?
rhinoceros buffalo
yak camel
d. Which of the following is a viral disease?
amoebiasis toxoplasmosis
malaria rabies

a. What is meant by adaptation? Why is it important for living beings?
b. Define adaptational characteristics with any five examples.
c. What are hydrophytes? Give any three examples.
d. Name three types of hydrophytes with any two examples of each.
e. Write any four adaptational characteristics of hydrophytes.
f. Write any four adaptational characteristics of aquatic animals.
g. How are fishes adapted in water? Write any three points.
h. Write down the major adaptational characteristics of terrestrial plants.
i. How do thick and fleshy leaves of Aloe vera help in adaptation?
j. Write down the major adaptational characteristics of terrestrial animals.
k. What are bacteria? Write down their importance.
l. How can we control bacterial diseases? Write any three measures to prevent
bacterial transmission.
m. What are fungi? Write down their importance.
n. Write down harmful activities and control measures of fungi.
o. What are viruses? Write down their types.
p. Write any five methods of transmission of viruses.
q. Write down the control measures of viruses.
r. What are protozoa ? Name any five diseases caused by protozoa.
a. Hydrophytes and xerophytes
b. Aquatic animals and terrestrial animals
c. Bacteria and viruses

4. Give reason.
a. The body of fishes is streamlined.
b. The stem of aquatic plants is covered with waxy coat.
c. Camel has a hump on its back.
d. Viruses are called obligatory parasites.
5. Bacteria are both useful and harmful for human beings. Justify this statement.
1. What is adaptation?
2. Write any two adaptational characteristics of the plant given in
the figure.
3. What is bacteriology ?
4. Where are bacteria found ?
5. Name two fungi which cause food poisoning.
(Ans: Rhizopus, mucor)
6. Write down the size of bacteria.
7. What is mycology ?
8. What are fungi ? Where are they found?
9. Name two enzymes which are used for making alcohol. (Ans: Invertage and Zymase)
10. Write any two characteristics of viruses.
11. What are protozoa? Where are they found?
12. What is a bacteriophage virus?
13. What are viruses ? Where are they found?

14. The roots of terrestrial plants are more developed. Give reason. 2
15. Write any two differences between lotus plant and cactus plant on the basis of
adaptational features.
16. The body of desert animals is covered with thick skin. Why?
17. House wall lizard can climb easily on walls but a rat cannot. Give reason.
18. Write any two differences between bacteria and viruses.
19. Viruses are called living beings as well as non-living things. Give reason.
20. Write any two differences between viruses and fungi.

21. How does spoon-shaped beak and webbed feet of a duck help in adaptation? Describe
in brief with figure.
22. What is the importance of adaptation for living beings? Write any two adaptational
characteristics of the plants found in mountainous region.
23. Write any three harmful activities of fungi.
24. Body structure and colour of animals help them in adaptation." Justify this statement
with an example.
25. Write any three importance of bacteria.

26. How do long beak and long legs of a crane help in adaptation? "Birds have light but
strong bones.” Describe this statement on the basis of adaptation.
27. Write any two adaptational characteristics of a camel required to live in a desert.
Write any two differences between leaves of submerged plants and freely floating
plants on the basis of adaptation.
28. Water storage pouch is found in desert animals, why? Write any two differences
between aquatic and terrestrial animals on the basis of A
adaptation. B
29. What preventive measures can be adopted against bacterial C
and viral diseases?
30. Name the virus shown in the given figure and label the part
A, B and C. Differentiate between plants found on moist
places and plants found in desert in any two points.
31. Describe the structure of a bactriophage virus with a neat and labelled figure.

UNIT
System
18
Before You Begin

The bodies of all living beings are made up of cells. Living beings
may be unicellular or multicellular. The unicellular organisms are
made up to only one cell, whereas multicellular organisms are made
up of so many cells. A cell is the basic, structural and functional unit
of life. In unicellular organisms, all the life processes occur within a
single cell. But multicellular organisms have various tissues, organs
and systems to carry out life processes. A tissue is a group of cells that
perform a certain function, e.g. blood, epithelial tissue, meristematic
tissue, xylem, phloem, etc. An organ is the group of tissues that
performs a certain function, e.g. eye, heart, kidney, flower, fruit, etc.
Similarly, the group of organs that perform a fixed function is called
a system, e.g. digestive system, circulatory system, etc. In a body,
there is a close relationship among cells, tissues, organs and systems.
In this unit, we will study about relation among cell, tissue, organ,
system and plant tissues in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Relation among cell, tissue,
i. introduce cell, tissue, organ and system and describe organ and system
interrelation among them. • Types of plant tissue
ii. state the types and location of plant tissues and • Location of plant tissue
explain them. • Skeletal system
iii. discuss human skeletal system. • Digestive system
• Respiratory system
iv. name the bones of human skeleton and classify them.
• Excretory system
v. introduce digestive system and explain it.
vi. describe respiratory and excretory system and
explain their importance.
cell : the basic, structural and function unit of life

tissue : the group of cell working together to perform a fixed function
xylem : the plant tissue that conducts, water and provides support to the plant
skeleton : the framework of a body made of bones

Interrelation among cell, tissue, organ and system
A cell is defined as the basic, structural functional unit of a life. A cell is made of life-
giving substance called cytoplasm which remains surrounded by cell membrane. Various
cell organelles and inclusions are found in a cell. A cell is capable of performing various
activities like respiration, digestion, excretion, reproduction, etc.
In multicellular organisms, a large number of cells work together to perform a certain
function. This group of cells is called tissue. A tissue can be defined as the group of cells
having a common origin and performing similar functions. In a tissue, the cells are more
or less alike in shape, size and performing the same function. Examples: epithelial tissue,
muscular tissue, blood, bones, meristematic tissue, etc. Plants and animals have different
types of tissues.
The group of tissues in animals or plants working together to perform a certain function
is called an organ. Eye, ear, nose, heart, lung, kidney, etc. are the organs of animals.
Similarly, flower, fruit, root, stem, leaf, etc. are the organs of plants. An organ has a
complex structure. The heart pumps blood to different parts of the body. The kidney
filters blood and throws waste products in the forms of urine. The liver is the organ in the
human body that performs various functions.
The group of organs working together to perform a specific function is called the system.
The circulatory system, respiratory system, urinary system, digestive system, etc. are
the examples of systems in the human body. There are nine system in human body. The
different organs work together in a system to perform a certain function. For example,
organs like nose, pharynx, wind pipe, lungs, etc. are found in the respiratory system.
Various systems and organs present in the system of our body are given below with their
functions:
S.N. System Organs Major functions

1. Skeletal system Bones and cartilage To form internal framework of
body, helps in locomotion
2. Muscular system Various types of To help in movement, to give
muscles shape
3. Digestive system Mouth, food pipe, Digestion and absorption
stomach, intestine
and glands
4. Respiratory system Nose, larynx, lungs To help in exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide
5. Blood circulatory Heart and blood To circulate blood to different
system vessels body parts
6. Excretory system Kidney, liver, urinary To excrete various waste
bladder products

7. Glandular system Various endocrine To secrete hormones and
and exocrine glands enzymes
8. Nervous system Brain, spinal cord To control various activities of

and nerves body
9. Reproductive system Testes, ovaries, penis, To help in sexual reproduction
vagina
Interrelationship among Cells, Tissues, Organs and Systems in the

Human Body
In the human body, there is a close relationship between cells, tissues, organs and systems.
The smallest unit of a human body are cells. Cells of the same origin combine together
and form a tissue. So, a tissue consists of many cells. Different tissues work together and
form an organ to perform a specific function. Various organs work together to perform a
certain function. This group of organs is called the system. Various systems work together
and form a body. It shows that there is a close relationship among cells, tissues, organ and
systems in a body.
Cell + Cell → Tissue
Tissue + Tissue → Organ
Organ + Organ → System
System + System → Body
\ Cells + Tissues + Organs + Systems → Body
Plant tissue
There are two types of plant tissues on the basis of location and function. They are:
1. Meristematic tissue 2. Permanent tissue
1. Meristematic tissue
The plant tissue in which cells are undifferentiated
and divide actively is called the meristematic Apical meristem
tissue. In this tissue, the cells are thin-walled and Lateral meristem
divide actively to from new cells. The cells of
this tissue are small with a distinct nucleus and
Fig.
dense cytoplasm. The cells are compactly packed Intercalary

without intercellular spaces. meristem
18.1
Meristematic tissues are of three types on the
Meristematic tissue
basis of location. They are:
i. Apical meristem ii. Lateral meristem iii. Intercalary meristem

i. Apical meristem
The meristematic tissue which is found in the tip of roots, stem and leaves is called the
apical meristem. It helps in an axial growth of plants.
ii. Lateral meristem

The meristematic tissue which is found along the side of stems and roots is called the
lateral meristem. It increases the girth (thickness) of the plant.
iii. Intercalary meristem

The meristematic tissue which is located at the base of a leaf and fruit is called the
intercalary meristem. It increases the length of internodes.
2. Permanent tissue
The plant tissue in which cells do not divide is called a permanent tissue. The cells present
in tissue may be living or dead. Similarly, their cell walls may be thick or thin.
On the basis of structure and function, permanent tissues are of three types. They are:
i. Simple tissue
ii. Complex tissue
iii. Special tissue
i. Simple tissue
The permanent tissue which is made up of similar type of cells to perform a common
function is called simple tissue. It is of three types.
a. Parenchyma
b. Collenchyma
c. Slerenchyma
a. Parenchyma
Simple permanent tissue having thin-walled
living cells is called parenchyma. This tissue
consits of intercellular space. In this tissue,
the shape of the cells a may be oval, spheircal
elongated etc.
Parenchyma is found in outer parts of root and
stem (cortex), mesophyll and inner parts of
Fig.
stem.
The parenchyma having chlorophyll is called 18.2
chlorenchyma. It helps in photosynthesis. Parenchyma
It also stores and distributes prepared food.
The parendyma containing air filled cells is called aerenchyma. It is mainly found in
hydrophytes. Aerenchyma helps hydrophytes to float in water, parenchyma also helps
plants to keep in turgid condition.
b. Collenchyma
Simple permanent tissue having elongated and thick-
walled cells is called collenchyma. The cells may or
may not contain intracellular space. The cells of this
tissue are thick-walled due to deposition of cellulose
and pectin. This tissue consists of living cells. The cells
of this tissue may contain chlorophyll.
Fig.
Collenchyma is found below the epidermis of stem,
pedicel of leaves, etc. This tissue provides elasticity, 18.3
flexibility and mechanical support to the plant. Collenchyma
c. Sclerenchyma
Simple permanent tissue containing very long dead
cells having thick wall is called sclerenchyma. The
cells of this tissue are tapering at both ends.
Sclerenchyma is found in hard parts of plants. This
tissue provides mechanical support to the plant. Fig.
18.4
ii. Complex tissue Sclerenchyma
Complex tissue is the permanent tissue having different types of cells working together to
perform closely related functions. This tissue is made up of living or deal cells. It consists
of vascular tissues to transport various substances from one part of plant to another.
Complex tissue is of two types.
a. Xylem
b. Phloem
a. Xylem
The complex tissue made up of Xylem
dead cells is called xylem tissue. Xylem fibres vessles
This tissue consists of four Tracheids
types of cells. They are trachea,
trachieds, wood fibre and wood Xylem
parenchyma. Out of four types parenchyma
Fig.
of cells, wood parenchyma

consists of living cells.
18.5
Xylem tissue
Xylem tissue is found in hard parts of root, stem and leaves. Xylem tissue transports
water and minerals from root to the different parts of plants. It also provides mechanical
support to the plant and stores food.
ii. Phloem
Parenchyma
Phloem is the complex tissue
cells
made up of living cells. It also
consists of four types of cells. Sieve tube
They are sieve tube, companion
cells, phloem parenchyma and
phloem fibres. Out of four types
of cells, only phloem parenchyma
consists of living cells. Companion
Phloem tissue is found in root, cell
stem and leaves of plants. It
stores and transports prepared Plasmodesmata
food from leaves to different
Fig.
parts of plants. It also provides

mechanical support to the plant 18.6
body. Pholoem tissue
Differences between Xylem and phloem

Xylem Phloem
1. Most of the cells are dead. 1. Most of the cells are living.
2. It transports water and minerals for 2. It transports prepared food from leaves
photosynthesis. to different parts of plants.
3. It consists of trachea, trachieds, wood 3. It consists of sieve tube, companion
parenchyma and wood fibre. cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem
fibres.
3. Special tissue
The permanent tissue which is modified for excretion and secretion is called special tissue.
It is mainly of two types. They are :
i. Laticiferous tissue
ii. Glandular tissue
i. Laticiferous tissue
The special tissue that secretes latex, i.e. milky secretion is called
Fig.
laticiferous tissue. It acts as storage tissue or as reservoir of waste

products. This type of tissue is found in papaya, grapefruit,
banyan, opium, etc. 18.7
Laticiferous plant
tissue
ii. Glandular tissue
The special tissue that secretes oil, mucilage, gum, resin, etc. is
called glandular tissue. It is found in pine, tulsi, citrus, lemon,
orange, pudina, etc.
Fig.
18.8
Laticiferous plant
tissue
Skeletal System of Human Body
The internal framework of
human body which is made
Skull
up of combination of bones
is skeleton and the system
Cervical vertebrate
formed by combination
of bones is called skeletal Clavicle
Sternum
system. Human body is
Humerus
made of 206 pieces of bones Ribs
of different shapes and sizes.
Bones are the hard part of
our body. They are made of Spinal vertebra
Pelvis Ulna
living cells called osteocytes.
Sacrum Radius
Bones become very hard due
to presence of calcium salts.
There is supply of blood
Phalanges
vessels and nerves in
osteocytes. In this unit, we Femur
will study about different
types of bones present in Petalla
human body and functions
Fibula
of skeletal system.
Tibia
There are different types of

Fig.
bones in human skeleton. The

bones may be long, short, flat Phalanges
and irregular. Similarly, ear 18.9
ossicles are the small bones Skeletal system of human body
present in our body. The
bones of limbs are long and the bones of fingers and toes are short. The bones of skull and
thorax are flat, whereas the bones of vertebral column are irregular in shape.

The human skeleton can be divided into following two types:
1. Axial skeleton 2. Appendicular skeleton
1. Axial skeleton
If consists of bones of skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage. It forms the central bony
core of human skeleton.
Axial skeleton consists of three groups of bones. They are:
i. Skull ii. Vertebral column
iii. Rib cage or thoracic cage
Frontal bone
i. Skull
Parietal bone
The skull forms the bony
framework of head region. Sphenoid bone
It is made of 22 flat and
Temporal bone
irregular bones. The
bones of skull can also be Occipital bone
divided into two regions,
viz. cranial bones and
facial bones.
Fig.
Ethmoid bone
18.10 Mandible
Cranial bones Side view of human skull

Cranial bones from the upper roof of the skull called cranium. It looks like a round box
of bones. The cranium is formed by eight flat bones. The cranium protects the brain and
eyes. The bones of cranium are interlocked together by forming fixed joints.
Bones of cranium
Name No. of bones
1. Frontal bone 1
2. Parietal bone 2
3. Temporal bone 2
4. Occipital bone 1
5. Sphenoid bone 1
6. Ethmoid bone 1
Total 8
1. Frontal bone : The bone of fore head is called frontal bone. It forms fore head and roof
of eyes and nose.
2. Parietal bones: There are two parietal bones in the upper parts of cranium. One is
located on the right and another on left side of the brain.

3. Temporal bones : Two temporal bones are located at the base of the cranium, one on
either side.
4. Occipital bone : It is a single bone located at the back of the skull. It is connected to
the vertebral column.
5. Sphenoid bone : It is a single bone located in front of temporal bone.
6. Ethmoid bone: It is a single bone located between two eyes. It forms the base of the
brain and roof of the nose and eyes.
Facial bones
The facial region consists of 14 irregular and flat bones. Facial bones include the bones of
jaws, palate, ears, nose and cheek.
Frontal bone
Nasal bone
Zygomatic bone
Maxilla
Mandible
Fig.
18.11
Anterior view of human skull
Bones of facial region
Name No. of bones
1. Maxilla (upper jaw) 2
2. Mandible (lower jaw) 1
3. Zygomatic bones 2
4. Nasal bones 2
5. Lacrimal bones 2
6. Vomer 1
7. Palatine 2
8. Inferior nasal conchae 2
Total 14
1. Maxilla: The upper jaw is formed by combination of two bones called maxilla. It
forms the roof of the mouth cavity.
2. Mandible : It is a single bone which forms the lower jaw, i.e. base of the mouth cavity.

3. Zygomatic : Zygomatic bones form the upper part of cheeks below the eyes.
4. Nasal : Two flat nasal bones form the bridge of the nose.
5. Lacrimal : Two lacrimal bones are located at the corner of eyes.
6. Vomer : It forms the base of the nasal passage.
7. Palatine : Two palatine bones form the palate, i.e. roof of the mouth cavity.
8. Inferior nasal conchae : Two nasal conchae are located one on either side of nostril.
Ear ossicles
Each middle ear consists of three small bones called ear ossicles. They are malleus, incus
are stapes. Ear ossicles are also called auditory ossicles. Stapes is the smallest bone of the
human body.
Malleus
Stapes Auditory nerve
Incus
Cochlea
Fig.
Tympanic membrane
Pinna
18.12 External auditory canal
Ear ossicles inside the ear
Cervical (7)
ii. Vertebral column

Vertebral column forms the bony pillar of the
trunk. It consists of 33 bones in children and 26 Thoracic (12)
bones in adults. The bones of vertebral column
are irregular in shape. The backbone connects the
trunk with head and limbs. It protects the spinal
cord and forms the axis of the trunk.
Lumbar (5)
Fig.
Sacrum (5, fused)

18.13 Coccyx (4, fused)
Vertebral column of human
Bones of vertebral column
Name No. of bones
1. Cervical vertebrae 7
2. Thoracic vertebrae 12
3. Lumbar vertebrae 5
4. Sacral vertebrae 5 (1 in adults)
5. Coccyx 4 (1 in adults)
Total 33 (26 in adults)
1. Cervical vertebrae
It consists of seven irregular bones. The first and second bone of cervical vertebrae are
called atlas and axis respectively. Atlas is connected to the skull. Cervical vertebrae are
located in the neck region.
2. Thoracic vertebrae
In thoracic region, there are 12 thoracic vertebrae. It forms the upper back side of the
trunk. Twelve pairs of ribs are attached to the thoracic vertebrae.
3. Lumbar vertebrae
Lumbar vertebrae is formed by 5 irregular bones. It is found in the waist region. It is
found in the waist region. It consists of large, strong and irregular bones.
4. Sacral vertebrae
It is formed by combination of five irregular bones. In adults, these bones fuse and form
only one bone. It is located between the hip bones.
5. Coccyx
The bone of tail region, i.e. coccyx is formed by four small bones. In adults, four bones
fuse and form a single bone. It is located at the lowermost part of the vertebral column.
iii. Thoracic cage Superior thoracic aperture

Vertebral column
The thoracic cage is Mediastinun
formed by 25 flat and Right pleural cavity Left pleural cavity
Rib I
irregular bones. There
are twelve pairs of Manubrium of sternum
semi-circular ribs which Sternal angle
remain attached to the
sternum at the front and
Body of sternum
to the vertebrae at the
back. Thoracic cage is
Ribs
also called a rib cage. The
Fig.
thoracic cage protects Xiphoid process

the heart, lungs, kidneys Diaphragm
Inferior thoracic aperture
and upper portion of 18.14
digestive system. Thorax of human
Bones of thoracic cage
Name No. of bones
1. True ribs 7 pairs = 14
2. False ribs 3 pairs = 6
3. Floating ribs 2 pairs = 4
4. Sternum 1
Total 25
First seven pairs of ribs are connected directly to the sternum. So, they are called true
ribs. Eighth, ninth and tenth pairs of ribs are connected indirectly to the sternum. So, they
are called true ribs. Eighth, ninth and tenth pairs of ribs are connected to the sternum
indirectly. So, they are called false ribs and 11th and 12th pairs of ribs are not connected to
the sternum. They are floating freely in the muscle. So, they are called floating ribs.
Activity 1
Visit a nearly butcher's shop and ask a small piece of bone.
Now, press the bone and find whether it is hard or soft.
Take a beaker and immerse the lower half of the bone into dilute hydrochloric acid.
Leave it for 1 day.
Remove the bone from the acid with foreceps and wash is properly.
Now, press the portion of the bone immersed into the acid.
What do you feel? What can you conclude from this activity?
2. Appendicular skeleton
It consists of the bones of right and left side of axial skeleton. The bones of shoulder
girdle, upper limbs, are grouped in appendicular skeleton.
Appendicular skeleton can be divided into two parts, viz. upper part and lower part.
The upper part of appendicular skeleton consists of bones of shoulder girdle and upper
limbs. Similarly, the lower parts of appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of pelvic
girdle and lower limbs.
Shoulder girdle or pectoral girdle

Shoulder girdle is made up of two scapula and two clavicle. Scapula is a triangular flat
bone and clavicle is a bow-shaped bone. Clavicle is attached to scapula and sternum.

Clavicle
Scapula
Humerus
Bones of upper limb
Elbow
Each upper limb consists of 30 pieces of bones. So both
upper limbs contain 60 pieces of bones. Radius
Thumb Ulna
Wrist
Fig.
Phalanges
18.15
Bones of shoulder girdle or pectoral girdle
Name No. of bones (either side) No. of bones (both sides)
1. Scapula 1 2
2. Clavicle 1 2
Total 2 4
Bones of upper limbs

1. Humerus 1 2
2. Radius 1 2
3. Ulna 1 2
4. Carpals 8 16
5. Metacarpals 5 10
6. Phalanges 14 28
Total 30 60
Humerus : It connects scapula to radius and ulna. This is the longest bone of human hand.
Radius and Ulna : Radius and ulna are two bones found between the elbow and wrist.
Radius is located towards the thumb and ulna is located towards the little finger.
Carpals : The wrist of human hand is made of eight small bones. These are called carpals.
These bones are arranged in two rows. Each row consists of four bones.
Metacarpals : They form the palm of human hand. They are five in number. They are
connected to carpals and phalanges.
Phalanges : They are commonly known as finger bones. Five fingers contain 14 phalanges.
The thumb contains two bones and rest of the fingers contain three bones each. They are
connected to metacarpals.

Pelvic girdle Sacroiliac joints
Iliac bone
The pelvic girdle is made of two
large bones called hip bones or
innominate bones. The pelvic
girdle of female is wider than
that of males. It provides space to Sacrum
the growing foetus. Pelvic girdle
protects reproductive organs, Coccyx
intestine, urinary bladder, etc.
Fig.
18.16 Symphysis pubis
Pelvic girdle of human
Femur
Bones of lower limbs
Each lower limb consists of 30 bones of different
shape and size. Femur is the longest and strongest Patella
bone of human body. Tibia
Fibula
Fig.
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
18.17
Bones of lower limb of human

1. Femur 1 2
2. Patella 1 2
3. Tibia 1 2
4. Fibula 1 2
5. Tarsals 7 14
6. Metatarsals 5 10
7. Phalanges 14 28
Total 30 60
Femur : Femur is the longest and strongest bone of our body. It is commonly known as
thigh bone. It is connected to the knee and hip bone.
Patella : It is a small flat bone. It forms knee cap. It is a triangular bone of knee joint.
Tibia and fibula : They are two bones of shank region. Tibia is located at the side of big
toe and fibula is located at the side of small toe. Tibia is larger and stronger than fibula.
Tarsals : Seven bones are located at the posterior part of the foot. Theses bones are called
tarsals. They are commonly known as ankle bones. They are arranged in three rows.
Metatarsals : Five metatarsals are located between tarsals and phalanges. They are long
and straight.
Phalanges : Five toes of each foot contain 14 phalanges. The toes contain three bones each.
Functions of skeletal system

1. It forms the internal framework of the body.
2. It determines the shape and size of the body.
3. It protects vital organs like brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs, kidney, reproductive
organs. etc.
4. It provides attachment to muscles and helps in locomotion and movement of body
parts.
5. It stores calcium.
6. It helps to produce blood cells.
7. The cartilage present in larynx helps to produce sound.
Human Digestive system

We need to eat food to get energy. Mouth
The food that we eat should be Tongue
digested before it is supplied to Phargnx
different parts of the body. The
complex food is broken down into Food pipe
simple absorbable form by a group
of organs. This process is called
digestion. The system formed by
Liver
digestive tract and digestive glands
Stomach
which is responsible for digestion
of food is called digestive system. Duodenum
Small
Human digestive system can intestine
be divided into two parts, viz. Large
alimentary canal and digestive intestine
glands. Rectum
Fig.
Anus
18.18
Human digestive system
i. Alimentary canal
Alimentary canal begins from mouth and end in anus. It consists of mouth, food pipe,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. The diameter of alimentary canal
differs from organ to organ.
ii. Digestive glands

Various chemicals are required for digestion of food. These chemicals are called enzymes.
Different glands produce different types of enzymes. The glands involved in digestive
system are salivary glands liver (gall bladder), pancreas and intestinal glands.
Process of Digestion
Food is taken into mouth and chewed with the help of teeth. Salivary glands secrete
saliva which softens the food in mouth. The saliva contains an enzyme called salivary
amylase. This enzyme acts on starch and converts it into maltose. After chewing, the food
is swallowed into the pharynx which finally reaches the stomach through a food pipe
(oesophagus).
The wall of stomach secretes gastric juice which contains hydrochloric acid and two
enzymes, viz. pepsin and renin. The hydrochloric acid kills microbes present in the food.
In stomach, pepsin acts on proteins and converts them into peptones (smaller protein
molecules) renin acts on milk protein (casein) and changes into insoluble curd.
Nearly after two hours of meal, the food proceeds towards duodenum in the form of a
thick paste, i.e. chime. In duodenum, bile juice from the liver (gall bladder) and pancreatic
juice from the pancreas mix with the food. Bile juice does not contain any enzyme but it
helps to digest fat. The pancreatic juice contains three enzymes. They are trypsin, amylase
and lipase. Trypsin acts on proteins and converts them into peptones, amylase acts on
starch and changes it into maltose and lipase acts on fats and changes them into fatty acid
and glycerol.
After digestion in duodenum, the food slowly moves to the ileum where it is acted upon
by four enzymes; viz. erepsin, maltase, lactase and sucrase, produced by intestinal glands.
Erepsin acts on peptones and peptides and converts them into amino acids. Maltase acts
on maltose and converts it into glucose. Sucrase acts on sucrose and changes it into glucose
and fructose. Lactase acts on lactose and changes it into glucose and galactose. In this way,
proteins, fats and carbohydrates are digested in the small intestine with the help of various
enzymes. The digested food is absorbed by the thin walls of small intestine and mixed into
blood stream. This process is called absorption. After absorption, digested food is supplied
to various cells through blood circulation.
After digestion in small intestine, food proceeds towards large intestine where absorption
of water occurs. The undigested solid particles of food form faeces which moves towards
rectum and is passed away through the anus. This process is called digestion.
In this way, digestion of food takes place in the human body.
The digestion of food that occurs in different parts of alimentary canal is given below:

Part of Food
Digestive Food acted
alimentary Secretion Enzyme changed
glands upon
canal into
Salivary Salivary
1. Mouth Saliva Starch Maltose
glands amylase
Pepsin Protein Peptones
Gastric
Gastric juice Milk protein Insoluble
glands Renin
2. Stomach (casein) curd
Liver Bile juice No enzyme Helps to digest fat
Proteins and
Trypsin Peptides
peptones
3. Small Pancreatic
Pancreas Amylase Starch Maltose
intestine juice
Fatty acid
Lipase Fats
and glycerol
Erepsin Peptides Amino acids
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Intestinal Intestinal Glucose and

glands juice Lactase Lactose
galactose
Glucose and
Sucrase Sucrose
fructose
Importance of digestive system

1. Digestive system acts on complex food material and changes into simple absorbable
from.
2. It absorbs nutrients required for the body.
3. It helps to remove undigested food particles.

Respiratory system
We need energy to live and to do work.
We get energy from the food that we eat.
So, we cannot do any work for a long
Nose
time without having food. Therefore, we
eat food to obtain energy. After digestion, Wind pipe
the food is absorbed by our body and
Lung
the absorbed food is transported to each
and every cell of our body. The food
gets oxidized in mitochondria of the cell
in the presence of oxygen. As a result,
energy is released. This process is called
respiration. So the process of releasing
energy by breaking down food in the
Fig.
presence of oxygen in mitochondria is
called respiration. Oxygen gas is essential 18.19
in atmosphere while breathing in. Respiratory system of human beings
Human respiratory system consists of various organs like nose, pharynx, laryx, windpipe
and lungs. A brief description of these organs is given below:
Nose
It is the outermost organ of respiratory system. It consists of two openings called nostrils.
The small hairs present in nasal passage help to filter dust particles. Nose helps in inhale
and exhale of air.
Pharynx
It connects nose and larynx. It acts as a passage for air and food. Wind pipe and food pipe
begin from the base of pharynx. Epiglotits is located at the mouth of windpipe. It closes
the opening of windpipe while swallowing food.
Larynx
It is also called voice box. It is made up of cartilage. Larynx has two folds which is called
vocal cord. It helps to produce sound. It helps to pass air towards windpipe or trachea.
Trachea or windpipe
It is a tubular structure made up of rings of cartilage. It begins from larynx. The lower
portion of trachea divides into two branches called bronchi. Those bronchi further divide
and form many branches and sub-branches. The sub-branches of bronchi are called
bronchioles. The bronchioles are connected to alveoli, i.e. air sacs present inside lungs.
Diffusion of oxygen in blood occurs inside alveoli present in the lungs.
Lungs
Human beings have two lungs inside the rib cage. They are large, elastic and hollow
structures having millions of air sacs called alveoli. The right lung consists of three
regions and left lung consists of two regions. Bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, arteries, veins
and capillaries are found inside the lungs. Lungs are covered with a double layered
membrane called pleura. There is a fluid between two layers of pleura which protects the
lungs from mechanical injury.
While breathing, living beings take oxygen in and the oxygen reacts with glucose or
carbohydrate in mitochondria releasing energy, water and carbon dioxide gas. Living
beings perform life processes from the energy obtained during respiration.
Respiration occurs in two ways. They are external respiration and internal respiration.
External respiration or breathing is the
process of inhaling air rich in oxygen and Do You Know
exhaling air rich in carbon dioxide. No Internal respiration is also called cellular
energy is released in external respiration. respiration as it occurs in cells. Animals
Internal respiration is the process of and plants breathe by different ways. They
oxidation of food in mitochondria of cells. have a variety of organs for breathing.
In this process, oxygen reacts with digested Plants breathe through stomata and
animals breathe through body surface,
food and releases energy along with water
trachea, gills, skin or lungs.
and carbon dioxide. The chemical reaction
of internal respiration is given below:
Enzyme
Glucose + Oxygen Energy + Water + Carbon dioxide
Enzyme
C6 H12O6 + 6O2 Energy + 6H2O + 6CO2
Importance of respiratory system

1. Respiratory provides oxygen essential for the body.
2. It helps to release waste products like carbon dioxide.
3. It affects the functioning of the brain.
4. It helps the brain to transmit electrochemical information.
5. It helps body to release energy essential to carry out various metabolic activities.
Excretory system
Human beings have well developed excretory system for removal of various waste
materials. The major organs in human body that help in excretion are given below:
Lungs
Lungs help in removal of carbon dioxide gas
produced during cellular oxidation or internal
respiration.
Fig.
18.20
Human lungs

Skin
Skin helps in removal of urea, uric acid, salts
and excess water in the form of sweat.
Fig.
18.21
Human skin
Kidneys
Kidneys help in removal of urea, uric acid, salt,
excess water, etc. in the form of urine.
Fig.
18.22
Human urinary system
Liver
Liver helps in removal of urea, ammonia, etc.
The waste materials produced by liver reach
the kidneys through blood circulation and are
excreted in the from of urine.
Fig.
18.23
Human Liver
Large intestine
The undigested solid particles are removed by
large intestine through the rectum and anus.
In this way, excretion takes place in human
body by means of various organs.
Fig.
Importance of excretory system 18.24

Human large intestine
1. It helps in removal of nitrogenous waste
products like urea, uric acid, etc. from the body in the form of urine.
2. It transports waste products produced in different parts of body to their sites for
excretion.
3. Kidneys help in exertion of waste products by forming urine and reabsorbs the
materials essential for the body.
4. Excretory system helps to remove metabolic wastes produced in cells during various
metabolic activities.
Key Concepts
1. A cell is made of life-giving substance called cytoplasm which remains surrounded
by cell membrane.
2. In multicellular organisms, a large number of cells work together to perform a
certain function. This group of cells is called tissue.
3. The group of tissues in animals or plants working together to perform a certain
function is called an organ.
4. The group of organs working together to perform a specific function is called the
system.
5. The plant tissue in which cells are undifferentiated and divide actively is called the
meristematic tissue.
6. The plant tissue in which cells do not divide is called a permanent tissue. The cells
present in tissue may be living or dead.
7. Simple permanent tissue having thin-walled living cells is called parenchyma. This
tissue consists of intercellular space.
8. Simple permanent tissue having elongated and thick-walled cells is called
collechyma.
9. Simple permanent tissue containing very long dead cells having thick wall is called
sclerenchyma.
10. Complex tissue is the permanent tissue having different types of cells working
together to perform closely related functions. This tissue is made up of living or
deal cells.
11. The permanent tissue which is modified for excretion and secretion is called special
tissue.
12. The internal framework of human body which is made up of combination of bones
is skeleton and the system formed by combination of bones is called skeletal system.
13. There are different types of bones in human skeleton. The bones many be long,
short, flat and irregular.
14. Vertebral column forms the bony pillar of the trunk. It consists of 33 bones in
children and 26 bones in adults.
15. The thoracic cage is formed by 25 flat and irregular bones.
16. The system formed by digestive tract and digestive glands which is responsible for
digestion of food is called digestive system.
17. After absorption, digested food is supplied to various cells through blood circulation.
18. Digestive system acts on complex food material and changes into simple absorbable
from.
19. The process of releasing energy by breaking down food in the presence of oxygen
in mitochondria is called respiration.

20. External respiration or breathing is the process of inhaling air rich in oxygen and
exhaling air rich in carbon dioxide.
21. Internal respiration is the process of oxidation of food in mitochondria of cells.
In this process, oxygen reacts with digested food and releases energy along with
water and carbon dioxide.

a. The group of cells working together to perform a certain function is called.........
organ tissue
system epithelium
b. Which of the given tissue is a simple tissue?
xylem phloem
parenchyma meristem
c. Which of the following bones is found in human skull?
patella parietal
carpal humerus
d. Which of the given organs is found in digestive system?
lung trachea
stomach kidney
e. Which of the given organs is the major organ of excretory system?
lung skin
kidney liver

a. What are tissues and organs?
b. Write down the relation among cell, tissue, organ and system in human body.
c. What is meristematic tissue? Write its types.
d. What are permanent tissues? Write their types.
e. Write any two features of each parenchyma and sclerenchyma.
f. What xylem tissue? Write down the function of phloem tissue.
g. What is skeletal system?
h. Define axial and appendicular skeleton.
i. Write down the names and number of bones found in the lower limb.
j. What is pelvic girdle?
k. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing human digestive system.
l. Write down the significance of digestive system.
m. What is respiratory system?
n. Write down the mechanism of respiration in brief.
o. Write down the importance of respiratory system.
p. What is excretory system? Write down its importance.
a. Tissue and organ
b. Xylem and phloem
c. Parenchyma and sclerenchyma
d. Pectoral girdle and pelvic girdle
4. Give reason.
a. The bone kept in dilute hydrochloric acid becomes soft.
b. A plant does not grow if its tip is cut.
c. Digestive system is important for human body.
d. The pelvic girdle of female is wider than that of male.
5. Draw a neat figure showing human skull and label the main parts.
6. Draw a neat figure showing human respiratory system.
1. What is a cell?
2. Name two types of tissues found in plants.
3. What is meristematic tissue ?
4. What is a permanent tissue ?
5. Write any two characteristics of permanent tissue.
6. What are complex tissues ?
7. What is skeletal system?
8. Name the bones of skull which are not found in pair.

9. Name the number of following bones found in the human body:
i. Patella ii. Ethmoid
iii. Metacarpals iv. Tarsals
10. What is meant by human nutrition ?
11. What is respiratory system ?
12. What is excretory system ?
13. What is pelvic girdle?

14. Cell is called the structural and functional unit of life, why?
15. A plant dies if its phloem tissue is removed, why ?
16. Differentiate between tissue and organ with examples.
17. The pelvic girdle of a woman is wider than of a man, why ? Give reason.
18. The bone kept in hydrochloric acid becomes soft, why ?
19. Write any two differences between xylem and phloem tissue.
20. Write any two differences between parenchyma and sclerendyma.

21. What is the relationship among cell, tissue, organ and system in a living body?
Describe in brief.
22. Write any three functions of skeletal system.
23. Write down the names and number of bones found in human lower limb.
24. Write down the importance of digestive system.
25. Write in brief the digestion of food that occurs in mouth, stomach, small intestine and
large intestine.

26. What would happen if there were no skeleton in human body? Draw a neat and
labelled figure of digestive system.
27. Write any two characteristics of each parenchyma and scelerenchyma with figures.
28. Write down the importance of respiratory system in human body. Draw a neat and
labelled figure of respiratory system. A
29. Bones of human lower limb are shown in the given figure. Name the C
bones A and B and write the type of joint C. Differentiate between axial
B
skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
30. Draw a neat figure of human skull and label facial and cranial bones.

UNIT
Sense Organs
19
Before You Begin

We see different types of things around us with the help of eyes. We
hear sound with the help of ear. We get smell of different things with
the help of nose. We get taste of different foods eaten with the help
of tongue. Similarly, we can feel hot, cold, hard, soft, etc. with the
help of skin. In our body, we have some special organs specialized to
get sensation of different stimuli. Eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin
are five special organs of human body which respond to physical
and chemical changes in our surroundings. So they are called sense
organs. Sense organs can be defined as the special organs that receive
sensation of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. In this unit, we will
study about five sense organs of human body, viz. eyes, ears, nose,
tongue and skin.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to sense organs
i. introduce sense organs with examples. • Types of sense organs,
ii. explain the structure of sense organs of human body structure and working
and describe their functions. mechanism
iii. state of methods of caring sense organs. - Eyes
- Ears
- Nose
- Tongue
- Skin
sense organs : the special organs of a body having sense cells or receptors
sensation : a general state of awareness to a stimulus
receptors : special cells that receive stimulus from the environment
stimulus : a physical or chemical even to which living beings react
night blindness : a disorder in which a person cannot see clearly at night

Sense Organs
1. Eyes
Eyes are the most important sense organs of human body. We cannot see things around
us in the absence of eyes. Eyes are the sense organs that give us the sensation of sight or
vision.
Upper eyelid
Pupil
Upper lacrimal punctum Limbus
Superior canaliculus Iris
Sclera
Lacrimal sac
Inferior canaliculus Lower eyelid
Lower lacrimal punctum
Fig.
Nasolacrimal duct
19.1
External view of human eye
Human eye is located in the facial region in orbital cavity in the skull. It is found inside
lacrimal bones. Each eye is spherical in shape and hollow from inside which remains
filled with fluids called aqueous humour and vitreous humour.
The wall of eye consists of three different layers. They are
i Sclera
ii. Choroid
iii. Retina
A brief description of these three layers of eyes is given below:
i. Sclera
Sclera is the outermost layer of eye wall. It is white in colour. It is made of tough connective
tissue fibres. The anterior portion of sclera is transparent which is called cornea. The
cornea remains covered with an outer thin and transparent membrane called conjunctiva.
Sclera provides a fixed shape to the eye ball and also protects the inner parts of the eye.

Ciliary body Sclera
Suspensory ligament Choroid
Retina
Cornea
Iris Fovea centralis
Pupil Posterior pole
Anterior pole Optic nerve
Anterior segment
(contains aqueous
humour)
Lens
Central artery
and vein of
the retina
Posterior segment
Fig.
Optic dics
(contains vitreous
humour) (blind spot)
19.2
Internal Structure of eye ball
ii. Choroid
Choroid is the second layer of eye ball located between sclera and retina. It is made up
of connective tissues. It is richly supplied with blood vessels and black pigmentation.
The black pigmentation absorbs the radiation and hence prevents the reflection of
light. It also provides food and oxygen to the eye. In anterior portion, choroid forms
iris. The iris can contract and relax to control the size of the pupil. There is a hole at
the centre of the pupil. The rays of light enter the eye-ball through pupil.
iii. Retina
Retina is the third and inner layer of eye-wall. It is a transparent layer richly supplied
with nerve fibres and light sensitive cells. The image of the object forms in the retina.
The light sensitive cells present in retina are rods and cones.
Rods present in retina contain rhodopsin which helps to see in dim light or at night.
Similarly, the cones present in retina contain iodopsin which helps to see in bright
light or in day time. The defect in rods of eye causes a disease called night blindness.
In this disorder, a person can see during day time or in bright light but cannot see at
night or in dim light.
When there is defect in cones, a person suffers from colour blindness. In this disorder,
a person cannot distinguish colour. It is a genetic disease. Colour blindness is a sex-
linked disease which occurs only in males.
Human eye ball is made up of different parts. A brief description of these parts is
given below.

i. Eye lens
Human eye consists of a transparent biconvex lens. It is situated just behind the pupil,
and supported by suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscles. The thickness of the lens is
controlled by contraction and dilation of ciliary muscles. The lens is made of crystalline
living cells. The eye lens refracts the rays of light falling on it and forms a real, inverted
and diminished image on retina.
ii. Chambers
The eye lens divides the eye ball into two unequal chambers. They are aqueous chamber
and vitreous chamber. The small chamber of the eye located between eye lens and cornea
is called aqueous chamber. It remains filled with a transparent watery fluid called aqueous
humour. This fluid protects the eye from mechanical shock and keeps the eye ball moist.
Vitreous chamber is a large chamber located behind the eye less. It remains filled with
a thick fluid called vitreous humour. It provides spherical shape to the eye ball and
mechanical support to the retina.
iii. Cliary muscles

The choroid consists of a set of ciliary muscles in the anterior region. Ciliary muscles are
connected to suspensory ligaments and the suspensory ligaments support the eye lens.
The lens becomes thick and thin due to contraction and dilation of ciliary muscles. When
we see nearby objects, the eye lens becomes thick due to dilation of ciliary muscles. When
we see distant objects, the eye lens becomes thin due to contraction of ciliary muscles.
iv. Pupil
Pupil is the small hole located at the centre of the iris. It allows the rays of light to enter the
eyeball. The contraction and dilation of iris determine the size of the pupil. In dim light,
the pupil becomes larger due to contraction of iris and in bright light, the pupil becomes
smaller due to dilation of iris muscles.
v. Optic nerve
The nerve that carries signals (nerve impulses) from retina to the brain is called optic
nerve. It transmits the image formed in retina to the brain in the form of electric signals.
Working mechanism of human eye

The rays of light coming from an object
enter the eye through cornea, pupil and
strike the eye lens. Those rays are refracted
by the lens. As a result, a real, inverted and
diminished image of the object is formed
on the retina. Then the photosensitive
Fig.
cells (rods and cones) present in the retina

generate nerve impulses. The optic nerve 19.3
sends those nerve impulses (electric
Working mechanism of human eye
signals) to the brain. After processing by the brain, we see erect and correct image of the
object. In this way, eyes help us to see things in our surroundings.
Care and Hygiene of Human eye

In order to keep our eyes healthy, we should consume fruits and vegetables rich in vitamin
A such as yellow fruits and green vegetables. We should not work in too much bright
light or too much dim light. We should visit a doctor (eye specialist) in case of infection.
Similarly, we should not rub our eyes and put any medicine without doctor's prescription.
We should not read in moving vehicles. We should wash our eyes regularly with clean
and cold water. We should never wash our eyes with hot water.
2. Ears
Ears are the sense organs which help us to get the sensation of hearing. Humans have two
ears one is located in each temporal region. Ears also help to maintain body balance or
equilibrium.
Human ear can be divided into three distinct regions. They are as follows:
i. External ear
ii. Middle ear
iii. Internal ear
A brief description of three regions of human ear is given below:
Malleus
Stapes Auditory nerve
Incus
Cochlea
Fig.
Tympanic membrane
Pinna
19.4 External auditory canal
Internal structure of human ear
i. External ear
It is the outer visible part of the ear. It has three parts. They are pinna, auditory canal and
ear drum. Pinna is the outermost visible part of the ear. It is made of cartilage. It is conical
in shape. The cartilage of the pinna remains covered with thin muscles and those muscles
are covered with skin. The lower portion of the pinna is made of fatty tissue.
The pinna surrounds the opening of auditory canal. The auditory canal is a tubular passage
through which sound waves enter the middle ear. The auditory canal is connected to the
ear drum. The ear drum is a cone-sheped delicate membrane which vibrates when sound
waves strike it. The opening of the auditory canal consists of fine hairs, wax and oily
substance. They prevent the entry of dust and small creature inside the ear. The ear drum
separates the external ear from the middle ear. Th ceruminous glands present in the skin
of auditory canal secrete ear wax whereas the sebaceous glands secrete oil which prevents
the ear canal form drying.
ii. Middle ear

The region of ear between external ear and internal ear is called middle ear. It is located
behind the ear drum or tympanic membrane. Actually, middle ear is a small air-filled
bony chamber which is separated from the internal ear by a bony partition. The bony
partition consists of oval window and round window. In anterior region, the middle ear
consists of an opening which leads to eustachian tube. The tube connects throat to the
middle ear. This tube helps to balance the air pressure between external ear and middle
ear. This tube opens while swallowing food and equalizes ear pressure on the both sides
of ear drum. Therefore, chocolate is chewed while travelling by aeroplane.
The middle ear consists of three small and irregular bones. These bones are called ear
ossicles. They are malleus, incus and stapes. The malleus is a hammer-shaped bone which
connects ear drum and incus. The incus is an anvil-shaped bone which connects malleus
to the stapes. Similarly, the stapes is a stirrup-shaped bone. It connects incus with the oval
window. The ear ossicles or auditory ossicles transmit the sound waves from ear drum to
the internal ear.
iii. Internal ear

Internal ear is the innermost Ear
Vestibule
Semicircular
ossicles canals
part of the ear. It is located at Oval
the middle of the temporal window
bone. Internal ear is also called
labyrinth. The labyrinth can
be divided into two regions,
viz. bony labyrinth and
membranous labyrinth.
Cochlea
The inner ear consists of
cochlea and semicircular Middle
canals. The cavity of the ear Eustachian
tube
internal ear and semi- circular Round
Ear
canal is filled with a fluid drum
window
called perilymph. The cochlea
Fig.
is a spiral structure which

Ear
appears like the shell of snail. 19.5 drum
The middle canal of cochlea
Detailed structure of middle ear and internal ear
consists of organ of corti which
is rich in nerve cells and sensory hair cells connected with auditory nerve.
There are three semi-circular canals in the inner ear arranged at right angles to each other.
Each semi-circular canal is filled with a fluid called endolymph. One end of each canal
consists of a swollen portion which is called ampulla. The ampulla consists of sensory hair
cells that help to maintain equilibrium or body balance. At the middle portion, there is a
short vestibule which connects cochlea and semicircular canals. The vestibule consists of
two small sacs. They are utriculus and sacculus. They are rich in sensory cells associated
with static balance of the body.
Mechanism of hearing
The sound waves coming from a source are collected by pinna and directed towards the
ear drum through auditory canal. When sound waves strike the ear drum, it produces
vibrations. Those vibrations are transmitted to the inner ear through ear ossicles. When
vibrations reach the inner ear through oval window. These vibrations finally reach the
cochlea through endolymph and stimulate the sensory hair cells. These sensory hair cells
produce nerve impulses and the impulses reach the brain with the help of auditory nerve.
The brain processes the impulses received. As a result, we near the sound.
Ossicles:
Stapes
Temporal bone
Incus
Semicircular ducts
Malleus
Vestibular nerve
Cochlear
nerve
Sound Cochlea
Auricle waves
Eardrum
Auditory Tympanic Auditory
Fig.
Earlobe canal cavity tube

Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear
19.6
Mechanism of hearing
Care and hygiene of ear

We should clean our ears regularly with clean water and soap. We should not insert
any hard and pointed object in the ear. We should not put medicine without doctor's
prescription. Mother should not let her milk to enter the ear of her baby while breast
feeding. We should consult a doctor in case of ear infection.
3. Tongue
Tongue is the sense organ which helps us to get the sensation of taste. It is a soft muscular
organ located in the mouth cavity. it is an important organ of digestive system. It also
helps us to speak.

The posterior part of the tongue is attached
to the hyoid bone of the neck region and
the sides of the tongue are attached to the
bone of the chin but the anterior portion
of the tongue is mobile.
Large taste buds
There are two surfaces on the tongue.
They are upper surface and lower surface.
The upper portion of the tongue if called
Fig.
extrinsic muscle which is attached to root Small taste buds
(base) of the tongue and hyoid bone.
This muscle helps tongue to move up, in 19.7
and out. Similarly, the lower surface of Structure of tongue
the tongue consists of intrinsic muscles.
These muscles help to change the shape of the tongue.
The upper surface of the tongue appears rough which consists of four types of taste buds.
These taste buds contain sensory cells. These sensory cells are attached to the gustatory
nerve. The taste buds or papillae are divided into three pairs. They are as follows:
i. Vallete papillae ii. Fungiform papillae iii. Filiform papillae
The papillae of the tongue help to receive the sensation of tastes. The upper surface of the
tongue consists of four types of taste buds. They detect sour, sweet, salty and bitter taste.
The taste buds that detect sweet and salty taste are located near the tip of the tongue. The
taste buds that detect sour taste are located at the side of the tongue and the taste buds
that detect the bitter taste are located at the back side of the tongue. Our tongue can detect
four different types of taste. Other taste sensations are the combination of different tastes.
Physiology of taste Palatine tonsil
When we eat food, a part of it

dissolves into saliva and forms
a solution. A part of the solution
enters the taste buds through taste
Lingual tonsil
pores. As a result, the sensory
hair cells present in taste buds get Foliate
papillae Bitter
stimulated and generate nerve
impulses. Those nerve impulses are Circumvallate
transmuted to the brain with the papillae
Sour
help of gustatory nerve. The brain Filiform
processes the signal received and papillae
we get the sensation of taste. Fungiform Salty
Fig.
Human tongue performs two papillae

Sweet
different types of functions. They
19.8
are: sensory function and motor
function. Taste buds in human tongue

The sensory function of the tongue includes the process of getting four types of tastes, viz. sour,
sweet, salty and bitter. Similarly, the motor function includes masticating food, swallowing
food and speaking. We receive the sensation of sweet and salty taste earlier than the bitter
taste because the taste buds that detect bitter taste are located at the back side of the tongue
but the taste buds that detect sour and salty taste are located at the tip of the tongue.
Care and hygiene of tongue

We should keep our tongue clean. We should not drink very hot liquids. We should not
insert sharp and pointed objects in the mouth. We should eat juicy fruits. Similarly, we
should consult a doctor in case infection in tongue.
4. Nose
Paranasal
Nose is the sense organ which sinus
helps to get the sensation of Paranasal
Nasal sinus
smell. It also helps in breathing. cavity
Nose is located at the mid- Nasopharynx
portion of the facial region. The
nose of human beings is less
Base of tongue
sensitive than the nose of other Tongue
animals. Floor of Posterior
mouth pharangeal wall
The human nose can be divided
Fig.
into two parts, viz. outer part Oropharynx

and inner part. The outer part 19.9
of the nose consists of nasal
Internal structure of human nose
bones which are connected to
maxilla and frontal bone.
The inner part of the nose
mainly consists of nasal
Tear trough
cavity. It is richly supplied
with sensory cells. The Supra alar crease
inner lining of the nasal
Domes (tip defining points)
cavity consists of sensory Nostril
epithelium. It consists of Philtrum
numerous blood capillaries
and olfactory cells. Glabella
Olfactory receptors are Naslon
Nasal bridge
found in the upper portion Supratip break
of the nasal epithelium.
Infratip break
Olfactory receptors are Tip defining point
Nasolabial angle Soft tissue triangle
connected to olfactory
nerve. Columella
Fig.
Nostril sill
Alarfacial groove
19.10
Structure of human nose
Mechanism of Smelling
The chemical substances having various odour enter the nasal epithelium through nasal
passage. These chemicals stimulate the olfactory cells present in the nasal epithelium. The
olfactory cells generate nerve impulses and we get the sensation of smell. The process of
getting sensation of smell is called olfaction.
The mucous membrane of the nasal epithelium swells up when we suffer from common
cold. The sensory cells present in nasal passage cannot work properly. Therefore, we do
not get the proper smell and taste of food while suffering from common cold.
Care and hygiene of nose

We should clean our nose early in the morning. We should not throw mucous forcefully.
We should not immerse the nose in water. We should not insert a sharp object and grains
in our nose. We should take steam bath while suffering from common cold.
5. Skin
Skin is the sense organ which gives the sensation of touch. In human body, skin forms the
outermost covering layer. The outer layer of skin is a lifeless layer which does not contain
blood vessels. It is a tough layer of skin. The inner layer of skin consists of nerves, blood
vessels, sweat glands, roots of hair, fat cells, sebaceous glands, etc.
Hair
Sebaceous gland
Sensory nerve ending
Epidermis
Nerve
Dermis
Subcutaneous tissue
Fig.
Capillaries Arteriole
Muscle
Fat, collagen, fibroblasts
19.11 Sweat gland
Structure of human skin
Skin is the sense organ that gives us the sensation of touch, pain, temperature, etc. It
protects our body from external environment.
On the basis of structure, skin can be divided into two layers, they are
i. epidermis and
ii. dermis

Epidermis is the outer transparent layer made of stratified epithelium. It consists of numerous
pores through which excess water and waste products come out in the form of sweat.
The layer of skin that remains below the epidermis is called dermis. It is made of elastic
fibres. The dermis consists of nerve fibres, blood vessels, roots of hair, sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, fat cells, etc. A layer of fat is also found in the dermis. This layer keeps
our body warm. The layer of fat in the dermis is also called sub cutaneous fat. The amount
of sub-cutaneous fat is more in females than in males. The blood vessels present in dermis
helps to maintain body temperature.
The skin covers entire body and protects the body from external injury. It helps to regulate
body temperature by throwing excess heat through sweat. The skin absorbs fatty substances
and separates sweat from fat. It helps in excretion of waste products. It synthesizes vitamin
D by combination of solar radiation and ergosterol. The skin stores fat and water.
Care and hygiene of skin

We should clean our skin regularly with soap and water. We should use clean germ free
water and high quality toilet soap for bathing. We should protect skin from the contact of
very hot and very cold object. We should take nutritious diet and foods rich in vitamin A
and E to keep our skin healthy. We should protect our skin against insect bite.
Key Concepts
1. Eyes are the sense organs that give us the sensation of sight or vision.
2. Sclera is the outermost layer of eye wall. It is white in colour. It is made of tough
connective tissue fibres.
3. Choroid is the second layer of eye ball located between sclera and retina. It is made
up of connective tissues.
4. Retina is the third and inner layer of eye-wall. It is a transparent layer richly supplied
with nerve fibres and light sensitive cells.
5. The nerve that carries signals (nerve impulses) from retina to the brain is called
optic nerve.
6. There are three semi-circular canals in the inner ear arranged at right angles to each
other.
7 The papillae of the tongue help to receive the sensation of tastes. The upper surface
of the tongue consists of four types of taste buds. They detect sour, sweet, salty and
bitter taste.
8. Human tongue performs two different types of functions. They are: sensory
function and motor function.
9. Nose is the sense organ which helps to get the sensation of smell. It also helps in
breathing.
10. Skin is the sense organ which gives the sensation of touch. In human body, skin
forms the outermost covering layer.
11. The layer of skin that remains below the epidermis is called dermis. It is made of
elastic fibres.
12. The skin covers entire body and protects the body from external injury. It helps to
regulate body temperature by throwing excess heat through sweat.

a. Which of the given organs is not a sense organ?
eye ear nose heart
b. Which of the given organs contains auditory nerve?

eye ear nose tongue
c. Optic nerve is found in ................

eye ear nose skin
d. Which of the given organs maintains body balance?

ear skin nose eye
e. Human tongue can detect ............. types of tastes.

one two three four

a. Define sense organs.
b. Name the sense organs present in human body.
c. Where are eyes located?
d. Describe the structure of human eye with a neat and labelled figure.
e. What is choroid? Write down the function of retina.
f. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing the structure of human ear.
g. Describe the working mechanism of human eye.
h. How can we get the sensation of hearing ? Describe in brief.
i. What are ear ossicles? Name them.
j. Write down the function of optic nerve and auditory nerve.
k. What are taste buds? Draw a neat and labelled figure showing taste sites of
human tongue.
l. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing the structure of nose.
m. How can we get the sensation of smell ? Write.
n. Write any two features of epidermis and dermis.
o. Write a short note on care and hygiene of
i. ears ii nose
iii. tongue iv. skin

a. Eyes and Ears
b. Optic nerve and Auditory nerve
c. Rods and Cones
d. Dermis and Epidermis
4. Give reason:
a. A person suffering from night blindness cannot see at night.
b. When we enter a dark room immediately from a bright place, nothing can be
seen clearly for a while.
c. When we rotate 2-4 rounds, we feel dizzy.
d. We do not get proper taste of food while suffering from common cold.
e. Chocolate is chewed while travelling by aeroplane.
5. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing the structure of skin.
1. What are sense organs ?
2. What is vitreous humour?
3. Write down the functions of iris and optic nerve.
4. What is conjunctiva ? Write down its function.
5. What do you mean by the window of a human eye ?
6. What is night blindness ? Write down its cause.
7. What is eardrum ? Write down its function.
8. In which condition does the ear drum rupture?
9. Where is eustachian tube located ? Write down its function.
10. What are taste buds?
11. What is cochlea? Write down its function.
12. How many semi-circular canals are present in human ear?
13. Name the sense organ that balances our body.

14. Actual taste of food cannot be obtained while eating food by blocking the nose. Why?
15. Write any two differences between optic nerve and auditory nerve.
16. Why does the eye lens become thin when we see distant objects? Give reason.
17. Chocolate is chewed while travelling by aeroplane. Give reason.
18. Why does the capacity of olfaction decreases when one suffers from common cold?
Give reason.
19. Sweet and sour tastes can be felt earlier than the bitter taste. Give reason.
20. When one rotates 2-4 rounds, she/he feels dizziness. Why?

21. Describe in brief the importance of sense organs in human body.
22. Draw a neat and labelled diagram showing internal structure of human eye.
23. Describe the working mechanism of human ear.
C
E
D
24. Name the sense organ shown in the
given diagram. Also, label the parts A, B,
C, D, E and F with a function of each.
F
25. Write down the protective and safety
B
measures of eyes. A

26. Draw a neat and labeled figure showing the internal structure of human eye. Write
down the safety and protective measures of skin.
C
27. Name the parts A, B and C in the given diagram

of an eye and mention any one function each of B
and C. Describe the mechanism of vision in brief.
A B
28. Draw a neat and labelled diagram showing

internal structure of human ear. Differentiate
between photoreceptors and chemoreceptors.
29. The pupil of an eye gets enlarged when a person moves towards dark. Why? Draw a
neat and labelled diagram showing various sites of taste in human tongue.

UNIT
Evolution
20
Before You Begin

A variety of plants and animals are found around us. We can see
very simple plants like chalmydomonas, spirogyra, diatoms to
very large and well develop trees. Similarly, we can see very simple
and unicellular animals like amoeba, paramecium, euglena, etc. to
most developed animals like elephant, human beings, etc. All the
advanced organisms are the very simple organisms of the past. The
development of a complex organism from a primitive one is a very
slow process and takes millions of years. The process in which an
advanced organism develops form a simple and primitive organism is
called evolution. Actually, evolution is a sequence of gradual changes
in which advanced animals are formed from a primitive organisms
after millions of years. Evolution is a very slow but continuous process
of change. In this unit, we will study about evolution, evidences in
favour of organic evolution and theories of evolution in brief.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to evolution
i. introduce evolution. • Evidences in favour of
ii. describe the evidences in favour of organic evolution. evolution
iii. describe the theories of organic evolution. • Theories of evolution
- Lamarck's theory
- Darwin's theory
- Critisisms on Lamarck's
theory and Darwin's
theory
evolution : the sequence of gradual changes which takes place in organisms

homologous : having similar structure but different functions
analogous : having different structure but similar functions
vestigial : rudimentary or functionless

Evolution
The word evolution has been derived from the Latin word 'evolvere' which mean to unroll.
It means that a pre-existing primitive organism develops into an advanced form after
millions of years. The sequence of gradual changes in primitive organisms over millions
of years which forms a new species is called evolution. It is a very slow but continuous
process of change. It is a naturally occurring progressive process of change. Development
of human beings from the primates is an example of evolution. Similarly, development
of vertebrates from the invertebrates and development of flowering plants from the non-
flowering plants of the past are some more examples of evolution.
Scientists believe that life originated on the earth about 600 millions years ago in the
from of primitive and unicellular organism. Then the unicellular organism gradually
developed into multicellular organism. Different species of plants and animals evolved
from those simple and primitive organisms of the past. This process took millions of
years. According to the theory of organic evolution, unicellular plants developed into
multicellular plants. Similarly, non-flowering plants evolved into flowering plants.
Unicellular invertebrates and multicellular invertebrates developed into vertebrates like
fish. Then the fishes evolved into frogs and frogs evolved into reptiles. Finally, reptiles
evolved into birds and mammals.
Charles Darwin proposed the term evolution for the first time. He says that the present
complex life has been evolved from an earlier simple form of life by gradual changes over
a long period of time. Human life time or even entire history of human beings on the earth
is too short to observe the process of evolution. However, various kinds of organisms and
fossils provide evidences in favour of evolution.
Evidences in Favour of Organic Evolution

1. Evidences from the fossils
2. Evidences from the study of embryo
3. Evidences from comparative morphology and anatomy
4. Evidences from the study of bridge animals
5. Evidences from the study of vestigial organs
6. Evidences from the distribution
of organisms
1. Evidences from fossils

The dead remains or impressions of
plants and animals left in sedimentary
rocks are called fossils. We can collect
information about the ancient animals
Fig.
and plants from the study of fossils. The

branch of science which deals with the
study of fossils is called palaeontotgy. 20.1
Fossil bird
Fossils provide the most reliable evidence in favour of organic evolution. Fossils are found
in sedimentary rocks. When animals and plants die, their dead bodies are carried away
by rivers and streams which get deposited on the banks of river, coastal areas, etc. They
also get deposited at the bottom of big lakes and seas. This process occurs continuously
and many layers are formed. The upper layers exert pressure on lower layers. As a result,
sedimentary rocks are formed.
When we study the fossils present on sedimentary rocks, it is found that the lower layers of
rocks contain fossils of simple and primitive organisms. The middle layers of those rocks
contain fossils of developed as well as fossils of primitive animals. Similarly, the upper
layers of sedimentary rocks contain fossils of simple as well as developed organisms.
Similarly, There is a close relation between the fossils of upper layers and those of lower
layers. It proves that the advanced organisms of present day world might have evolved
from the primitive and simple organisms of the past. In this way, the evidences obtained
from the study of fossils support the theory of organic evolution.
2. Evidences form the study of embryo

An embryo is the very early stage of an organism. Shark Lizard Chicken Pig Human
It develops from a zygote due to cell division.
The branch of biology which deals with the
study the embryos is called embryology. The
embryos of different groups of vertebrates
look alike in early stage of their development.
We find many similarities among them and it
becomes difficult to distinguish among them.
For example, the embryos of fish, frog, reptile,
bird and mammal look identical in their early
stage of development. Later each embryo
Fig.
develops into adult having different features

according to their parental characteristics. It
shows that the different types of animals and 20.2
plants of the present had been evolved from Embryos of different types of
simple and primitive organisms of the past. In vertebrates
this way, evidences obtained from the study of
embryos support the theory of organic evolution.
3. Evidences from comparative morphology and anatomy

There are many similarities and differences among different groups of organisms. For
example, fishes, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals have many similarities though they
differ in structure and appearance. The evidences obtained from the study of homologous
and analogous organs also provide evidence in favour of organic evolution.
The fore limb of human being, fore limb of a horse, flipper of a whale, patagium of a bat,
etc. perform different functions but their basic structure is similar. These organs have
almost similar types of bones, muscles and blood vessels except minor differences. Such
type of organs are called homologous organs. It shows that all these organisms might
have been evolved from a common ancestor.
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals
Metacarpals
Fig.
Phalanges
Human Cat Whale Bat
20.3
The wings of insects, patagium of a bat,

feathers of birds, etc. perform similar function Do You Know
but they differ in origin and structure. Such Homologous organs are those which
type of organs are called analogous organs. are different in functions but similar in
The study of anologous organs shows that structure and origin. Fore limb of human
though organisms differ in structure and being fore limb of a horse, fore limb of a
origin, they can modify their body parts cow, patagium of a bat, flipper of a whale,
according the their environment. etc.
In this way, the study of comparative

morphology and anatomy supports the theory of organic evolution.
4. Evidence from the study of bridge animals or connecting links

Those animals which show the characteristics of two different groups are called bridge
animals. For example, Archaeopteryx (a fossil bird of Jurassic period, duck-billed platypus,
echidna, lung fishes, etc. These organisms are also called connecting links because they
connect two different groups of organisms by showing some characteristics of lower
group and some characteristics of higher group.
Fig.
20.4
Lung fish Archaeopteryx Duck-billed platypus Echidna
Duck-billed platypus and echidna connect reptiles to the mammals. They lay eggs and
are cold-blooded like reptiles but they have mammary glands, pinnae and body hair like
mammals. Lung fishes connect pisces to amphibia. They have features of fishes but they
can breathe through lungs on land. Similarly, Archaeopteryx, connects reptiles and birds.
Like reptiles, it has teeth in jaw, and a long tail. Similarly, it has feathers and wings in the
body. These examples prove that higher groups of organisms might have evolved from
lower groups of organisms in the past. In this way, evidences obtained from the study of
bridge animals or connecting link support the theory of organic evolution.
5. Evidences from the study of vestigial organs

In human body, the organs like vermiform appendix, coccyx, body hair, nictitating
membrane of eye, articular muscles of ear are present but they do not perform any
function. However these organs are quite functional in other mammals. Such type of
organs are called vestigial organs.
Vermiform appendix is rudimentary and functionless in human beings but it is quite
functional in herbivores like cow, sheep, buffalo, goat, deer, rabbit, etc. It helps to digest
cellulose.
Fig.
20.5 Vermiform appendix

Vermiform appendix of human
The articular muscles of human ear are rudimentary and functional in animals like cow,
buffalo, sheep, elephant, etc. These animals use articular muscles to rotate the pinna
(external ear) towards the direction of source of sound.
Fig.
20.6
Vestigial ear muscle of
human
Similarly, the coccyx or tail bone is vestigial part in human beings but it is quite
functional in animals like cow, dog, cat, sheep, lion, tiger, etc.

Fig.
Coccyx
20.7
Coccyx of human
From these examples, it can be concluded that the animals having vestigial organs and the
animals in which those organs are quite functional might have evolved form a common
ancestor. In this way, the evidences obtained from the study of vestigial organs also
support the theory of organic evolution.
6. Evidences form the distribution of organisms

The earth is inhabited by different species of plants and animals. The species of plants and
animals that are found in a certain region may or may not be found in another region even
though both regions have the same climatic condition. For example, the elephant that is
found in Africa and India is not found in Brazil. When the members of the same species
migrate to the places having different climatic condition and remain there for many
generations, they develop new characteristics to adapt in their habitat. Environmental
variation also occurs in those organisms and they look different from their ancestors and
this process is called evolution. In this way, evidences obtained from the distribution of
organisms also support the theory or organic evolution.
Theories of Evolution
Various evidences suggest that evolution has taken place on the earth and it will be
continued in future as well. Various biologists and naturalists have been put forth many
theories to describe the evolution of organisms on the earth. Among them, we will discuss
Lamarck's theory and Darwin's theory of evolution with their criticisms.
1. Lamarck's theory of evolution

In 1809 AD, Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, a French scientist,
proposed the general theory of evolution for the first time.
His theory is popularly known as Lamarck's theory of
evolution.
The Lamarcks' Theory of evolution can be described as
follows:
Fig.
i. Effect of environment on organisms

ii. Use and disuse of organs 20.8
iii. Inheritance of acquired characteristics Lamarck
i. Effect of environment on organisms
The structural characteristics of an organism change due to the effect of environment. When
an organism lives in a new environment, certain physical needs originate in the organism due
to changed mode of life. For example, the animals that live in cold places have thick fur in the
body to protect them form extreme cold. Similarly, the persons that live in Himalayan region
have more RBCs in the blood than those live in the Terai region. When new characteristics
develop in organisms due to effect of organisms, new species are evolved.
ii. Use and disuse of organs

According to Lamarck, which an organ is used, its size increases and when an organ is
not used for a long time, its size decreases gradually and finally disappears. A constant
use and disuse of organs determine the growth and development of an organ which leads
to modification of the organ. For example, an athlete develops strong muscles due to the
continuous use. Similarly, snakes lost their limbs due to disuse. This theory is known as
use and disuse of organs.
iii. Inheritance of acquired characteristics

Those characteristics which are obtained by an organism during its life time are
called acquired characteristics. Living organisms develop those characteristics due to
environmental effect and use and disuse of organs. According to Lamarck, acquired
characteristics are inherited by offspring form their parents. When acquired characteristics
are transmitted for several generations, new species of organisms are evolved.
According to Lamarck, long-necked giraffe evolved from a short-necked giraffe which
used to graze on the land. Due to scarcity of grass on land, giraffe tried to stretch its neck
to reach the leaves of tall plants. This habit of giraffe resulted in the development of long-
neck in giraffe. This process continued for several generations and finally species of long
necked giraffe evolved.
Short-necked
giraffe Long-necked
giraffe
Fig.
20.9
Criticisms on Lamarckism
The major criticisms on Lamarck's theory of evolution are given below:
1. All the acquired characteristics of organisms are not inherited to the offspring.
2. According to Lamarck, new characteristics develop in the organisms according to
wish and need of organisms which is totally incorrect.
3. The change in structure of an organism due to use and disuse of organs is not observed
practically.
Darwin's Theory of evolution

Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is commonly known as
Darwinism. Charles Darwin was a famous English scientist.
He described the theory of evolution in his book"Origin of
new species by natural selection" which was published in
1859 AD. Darwin's Theory of evolution is also called theory
Fig.
of natural selection. It can be described in following points.
1. Enormous fertility of organisms
20.10
2. Struggle for existence Darwin
3. Variation and heredity
4. Natural selection
5. Origin of species
1. Enormous fertility of organisms

Every species have enormous capacity to produce a large number of organisms however
the population of organisms remains constant more or less in nature due to several
factors. The number of offspring produced is always more than the number of organism
that survive in nature. Struggle for food, space and mate among the members of the same
species are the key factors that control the population of a species in nature.
Charles Darwin took example of elephants, the slow breeder. Darwin calculated that a
pair of elephants would give about 19 million offspring in the duration of 750 years. But
this number of elephants is never found on the earth due to several factors.
2. Struggle for existence

Struggle for existence by an organism determines the survival of that organism in nature.
If all the offspring produced by organisms do not die, their number increases in an
uncontrolled manner. But the number of organisms remain more or less constant due to
competition among themselves, with other species or with the environment. This is called
struggle for existence. The struggle may be among the members of the same species. It
is called intraspecific struggle for existence. Similarly, the struggle may be among the
members of different species. It is called interspecific struggle for existence. Climatic
factors also affect the survival of organisms on the earth.
3. Variation and heredity

The structural differences which provide individuality among the numbers of the same
species is called variation. Similarly, the transmission of parental characteristics form one
generation to another is called heredity. Living organisms modify themselves according
to the environment. Those organisms which can adapt in the changing environment
survive and which cannot adapt in the changing environment will disappear.

4. Natural selection
According to Drawin's theory, organisms which compete for a place in the world, only
those having advantageous variations survive and reproduce. And those who do not
have advantageous variations will disappear. Nature selects those organisms which are
able to compete with other organisms.
The organisms which are fit to compete will survive and reproduce. This process is called
natural selection.
5. Origin of new species

Living organisms develop new characteristics during struggle for existence. The
advantageous characteristics of parents are transmitted to their offspring. When this
process continues for several generations, the newly formed organism look different from
their ancestors. As a result, new species of organisms are evolved form the same ancestors.
Criticisms on Darwinism
The major criticisms on Darwinism are given below:
1. Darwin could not explain the evolution of organisms from variation clearly.
2. Natural selection is only a minor cause of origin of new species. But it is not a main
cause of origin of new species because mutation also results in the formation of new
species.
3. According to Darwinism, only useful variations are transmitted from one generation
to another. But both useful and useless characteristics transmit equally from one
generation to another.
4. Darwin's theory does not explain about the existence of vestigial organs in organisms.
Key Concepts
1. The word evolution has been derived from the Latin word evolvere which mean to
unroll.
2. The sequence of gradual changes in primitive organisms over millions of years
which forms a new species is called evolution.
3. Scientists believe that life originated on the earth about 600 millions years ago in the
form of primitive and unicellular organism.
4. Charles Darwin proposed the term evolution for the first time. He says that the
present complex life has been evolved from an earlier simple form of life by gradual
changes over a long period of time.
5. The dead remains or impressions of plants and animals left in sedimentary rocks
are called fossils.
6. An embryo is the very early stage of an organism. It develops from a zygote due to
cell division.
7. The evidences obtained from the study of homologous and analogous organs also
provide evidence in favour of evolution.

8. Homologous organs are those which are different in functions but similar in
structure and origin. Fore limb of human being, fore limb of a horse, fore limb of a
cow, patagium of a bat, flipper of a whale, etc.
9. Those animals which show the characteristics of two different groups are called
bridge animals. For example, Archaeopteryx (a fossil bird of Jurassic period, duck-
billed platypus, echidna, lung fishes, etc.
10. According to Lamarck, when an organ is used, its size increases and when an organ
is not used for a long time, its size decreases gradually and disappears.
11. Those characteristics which are obtained by an organism during its life time are
called acquired characteristics.
12. According to Lamarck, new characteristics develop in the organisms according to
wish and need of organisms which is totally incorrect.
13. According to Darwin's theory, organisms which complete for a place in the world,
only those having advantageous variations survive and reproduce. And those who
do not have advantages variations will disappear.
14. According to Darwinism, only useful variations are transmitted from one generation
to another. But both useful and useless characteristics transmit equally from one
generation to another.

a. Who propounded the theory of evolution for the first time?
Lamarck Charles Darwin
Hugo de Vries Alfred Russel
b. When did Lamarck publish his theory of evolution?

In 1809 B.S. In 1809 A.D.
In 1908 AD In 1859 AD
c. Which one of the given evidences is taken as the most reliable evidence in favour
of organic evolution?
Evidences from bridge animals
Evidences from distribution of organisms
Evidences from fossils
Evidences from embryology

d. Which of the following organs is the vestigial organ?
vermiform appendix heart
liver kidney
e. When did Charles Darwin published his book "Origin of Species"?

In 1860AD In 1959 AD
In 1559 AD In 2059 B.S.

a. What is meant by evolution?
b. Define organic evolution.
c. Write any three evidences that support the theory of organic evolution.
d. What is palaeontology?
e. How do evidences obtained from study of fossils support theory of organic
evolution? Explain.
f. Where are fossils found?
g. How are fossils formed in nature? Describe.
h. What is embryology? How do evidences obtained from study of embryos support
the theory of organic evolution? Describe in brief.
i. What are bridge animals? Give any two examples.
j. How do evidences obtained from the study of bridge animals support the theory
of organic evolution? Describe in brief.
k. How do evidences obtained from vestigial organs support the theory of organic
evolution? Explain.
3. Write any two differences between homologous organs and analogous organs.
4. Write any two theories of evolution.
5. State and explain Lamarck's theory of evolution.
6. Write any three drawbacks of Lamarck's theory.
7. What is meant by use and discuss of organs?
8. Write a short note on Darwinism.
9. What is meant by struggle for existence?
10. What is natural selection? Describe in brief in context of Darwinism.
11. Write any two drawbacks of Darwin's theory.

1. What is organic evolution?
2. What are fossils?
3. What are homologous organs?
4. What are vestigial organs?
5. Which types of organs are shown in the given figure?
Human Cat Whale Bat
6. What is struggle for existence?

7. What are bridge animals?
8. What is natural selection ?
9. Define variation and heredity.
10. How was the ancestor of long necked giraffe?
11. Name any two biologists who propounded the theory of organic evolution.
12. What is palaeontology?
13. What are shown in the given figure?

14. Why are fossils taken as the strongest evidence obtained so far regarding the evolution
of organisms? Give reason.
15. Why are vermiform appendix and canine teeth of human beings called vestigial
organs? Give reason.
16. Lung fishes and duck-billed platypus are called bridge animals. Give reason.
17. Write any two differences between Lamarckism and Darwinism.
18. Archaeopteryx is considered as the animal developed into bird from a reptile. Why?
19. Darwin's theory is also not accepted universally. Give any two reason.
20. Write any two differences between mutation and variation.

21. What is struggle for existence? Describe on the basis of Darwinism.
22. How do evidences obtained from study of embryos support the theory of organic
evolution? Describe in brief.
23. What are fossils? How do evidences obtained from the study of fossils support the
theory of organic evolution? Describe in brief.
24. What is meant by "effect of environment on organisms"? Describe on the basis of
Lamarckism.
25. How does population of organisms remains constant in nature? Describe on the basis
of Darwin's theory.

26. How are living beings selected naturally? Describe on the basis of Darwinism.
27. Which types of organs are shown in the given figure? How do evidences obtained
from the study of these organs support the theory of organic evolution? Describe in
brief.
28. Nowadays, scientists do not accept the hypothesis of special creation of god regarding
the evolution of organisms. Why? What would happen if there were no evolution on
the earth?
29. Explain Lamarck's theory of evolution in brief.
30. Explain Darwin's theory of evolution in brief.

UNIT
Nature and
21 Environment
Before You Begin

The surface of the earth is formed by soil, stone, rivers, lakes, pond, ocean,
etc. The earth is surrounded by a thick layer of atmosphere. The physical
nature of earth consists of various components like soil, water, rocks, air,
etc. The physical components of the earth have direct or indirect impacts
on life style of various living organisms. Thus, there is a close relationship
between the components of physical environment and living organisms
in the earth. All living beings get food, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
minerals, etc. form the physical environment.
Different types of animals and plants live on the earth. All living beings
(i.e. animals and plants) require favourable environment for their
existence. Various communities of living organisms exist in their respective
environment. Thus there is a constant interaction between communities of
organisms and their surrounding environment. Such a interaction between
living organisms (i.e. biotic components) and surrounding environment (i.e
abiotic components) is called ecosystem. The concept of ecosystem is older,
but the terms was first proposed by a British ecologist A.G. Tansley in 1935
AD. The ecosystem contains biotic components like producer, consumer,
decomposer, etc. and abiotic components like air, water, light, temperature,
soil, rock, etc. In this unit, the brief description of factors influencing the
animals and plants, ecosystem, food chain, interrelationship between
animals and plants, and ecosystem services is presented.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Ecological factors
i. introduce environment and its components. • Ecosystem
ii. describe the abiotic factors and biotic factors that • Food circulation process in
affect ecosystem. ecosystem
iii. introduce ecosystem with examples.
iv. describe the interrelationship between plants and • Food chain and food web
animals. • Interrelationship between
v. explain the basic needs and human dependence on animals and plants
plants and animals. • Ecosystem services
vi. explain ecosystem services and their types.
ecosystem : a self-sustaining structural and functional unit of biosphere

abiotic : non-living things present in an ecosystem
biotic : living things present in an ecosystem
ecology : the branch of science which deals with ecosystem
autotrophs : the green plants which can synthesize their own food by photosynthesis

Ecological factors: Factors influencing in the animals and plants
The totality of our surrounding consists of various living organisms and non-living
things like light, heat, soil, air, temperature, water, etc. These various types of external
factors that affect life of organisms are called ecological or environmental factors. The
continuous interaction and interrelationship between/among various living components
and components of physical environment create ecosystem in the environment. The
environmental or ecological factors are classified into abiotic factors and biotic factors.
The brief description of these factors is presented below.
Abiotic Factors
The non-living factors of ecosystem that include physical environment and climate
factors are called abiotic factors. The physical environment includes air, water, soil and
other various organic and inorganic substances. The climatic factors include temperature,
pressure, rainfall, sunlight, weather, humidity, etc. These various abiotic factors of an
ecosystem are interrelated to each other. The brief description of some of the abiotic
factors of an ecosystem is presented below.
Air
The mixture of various gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, helium, argon,
neon, etc. is called air. The layer of air that surrounds the earth is called atmosphere.
Besides various gases, air contains molecules of water and water vapour. Air helps in
pollination of plants. Living beings inhale oxygen and release carbon dioxide during
respiration. Green plants requires carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. Green plants take
carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and oxygen is produced as byproduct.
Water
Water is an essential natural resource required for the life processes of animals and plants.
Water plays vital role in the growth and development of living being. Living beings cannot
exist in the absence of water on the earth. Green plants need water for photosynthesis. All
animals including human beings use water from rivers, lakes, ponds, wells, oceans, etc.
for various purposes mainly for drinking to remain alive.
Soil
Soil is formed from humus, minute rock particles and minerals. The structure of soil
varies from place to place. The colour of the soil is also different due to the presence
of minerals in it. The quality of the soil gets improved due to mixing the decomposed
biodegradable materials in it.
Solar energy
The sun is the major source of energy. It gives solar energy in the form of heat and
light. Solar energy is essential for living beings. Green plants prepare their own food by
photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight. The accessibility of solar energy varies from
place of solar energy varied from place to place due to the geographical situation. The
variation in the solar energy determines variation in climate, rain fall, food production,
etc. As a result, biodiversity in different places is possible.
Biotic Factors
The living organisms of an ecosystem are called biotic factors. Various organisms in
environment are interrelated and interdependent. Biotic factors refer to community of
organisms. On the basis of the nutritional relationship, biotic factors are classified into:
producers, consumers and decomposers.
a.. Producers
The living beings that can prepare their food on their own are called producers. The
chlorophyll bearing plants are producers. They produce their own food by photosynthesis.
The green plants that can prepare their own food are also called autotrophs since they
synthesize their own food other living beings in ecosystem take food from producers.
B. Consumers
The living beings which depend on producers for their food directly or indirectly are
called consumers. On the basis of nature of the food they take, consumers are classified
into: primary consumer, secondary consumer and tertiary consumer.
i. Primary consumers
The living beings which directly depend on plants for their food are called primary
consumers. Primary consumers are called herbivores since they feed on plants. The
examples of primary consumers are cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, rabbit, etc.
ii. Secondary consumers

The living beings which depend on primary consumers directly for their food are called
secondary consumers. These are carnivorous animals since they feed on flesh of herbivores.
Secondary consumers indirectly depend on green plants for their food. Some examples of
secondary consumers are dog, fox, frog, snake, birds, etc. Secondary consumers provide
food for tertiary consumers.
iii. Tertiary consumers

The living beings which depend on primary consumers and secondary consumers for
their food are called tertiary consumers. Tertiary consumers also indirectly depend on
green plants for their food. Some examples of tertiary consumers are lion, tiger, crocodile,
whale, owl, peacock, hawk, shark, crocodile, vulture, etc.

C. Decomposers
The organisms that decompose dead bodies of organisms by decaying them are called
decomposers. In other words, decomposers are saprophytic organisms that feed on
decaying organic matter or dead bodies of organisms. Decomposers decompose the
complex organic compounds present in the dead bodies of the organisms or organic
matter into simpler substances. Such soluble minute particles are mixed in the soil and
roots of the plants absorb them. In other words, plants get required nutrients from the
decomposed materials. The examples of decomposers are bacteria and fungi. They play
a vital role in maintaining balance in ecosystem by providing required materials for the
growth of plants in the environment.
Ecosystem
The self-sustaining, structural and functional unit of biosphere that includes both biotic
communities and abiotic environment is called ecosystem. It is considered as a basic
unit of ecology. Both biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem are essential to
maintain life in the biosphere. Also, each of the factors of ecosystem influence the other
by interconnecting and interrelating to each other. On the basis of habitat, ecosystem is
broadly divided into: terrestrial ecosystem and aquatic ecosystem.
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystem refers to the ecosystem which exists on land. It is further divided
into grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc.
Fig.
21.1
Terrestrial Ecosystem
The ecosystem which exists in the grassland is called grassland ecosystem. There are
various biotic and abiotic components in the grassland ecosystem. Soil, air, water, rocks,
sunlight, heat, temperature, humidity and other decayed materials are abiotic components
of grassland ecosystem. Similarly, various living organisms are the biotic components
of grassland ecosystem. Biotic components of grassland ecosystem are classified into
producers, consumers and decomposers.
Producers are all green plants that can prepare their own food. All kinds of green plants
like plants, shrubs, herbs, weeds, grasses, etc. are the examples of producers. Producers
provide food to various types of consumers that exist in grassland ecosystem.
Similarly, the living organisms that depend on producers for their food are called
consumers of grassland ecosystem. Consumers are further divided into primary, secondary
and tertiary. The primary consumers are the living organisms that directly depend on
producers for their food. For example, rabbit, goat, monkey, insects, earthworm, mouse,
etc. The carnivorous animals that directly depend on the primary consumers for their
food are called secondary consumers. For example, birds, frog, wolf, jackal, cat, dog, etc.
Similarly, the strong carnivores such as tiger, leopard, vulture, hawk, lion, etc. are tertiary
consumers of grassland ecosystem. The decomposers of the grassland ecosystem are
various types of bacteria and fungi.
Decomposers act dead bodies of organisms and decompose their complex organic matter
into simple substances. The minute particles of decomposed materials are the nutrients
for green plants.
Aquatic Ecosystem
The ecosystem which exists in water is called aquatic ecosystem. Aquatic ecosystem is
further classified into freshwater ecosystem and marine water ecosystem. The freshwater
ecosystem is further divided into pond or lake ecosystem, river ecosystem, etc.
Pond or lake ecosystem refers to the ecosystem that exists in a pond or lake. There are biotic
and abiotic components in pond ecosystem. The biotic components of pond ecosystem
are classified into producers, consumers and decomposers.
sun light
mackerel
small fish
one-celled life shrimplike creatures

(magnified) (magnified)
tuna
Fig.
21.2 large shark

Aquatic ecosystem

All living organisms that can synthesize their own food by photosynthesis are called
autotrophic plants. The examples of producers in pond ecosystem are all aquatic plants
like algae, hydrilla, pistia, lotus, lily, diatoms, volvox, phytoplanktons, etc. They all
provide food to consumers of pond ecosystem.
The heterotoophic organisms that depend directly or indirectly on producers of pond
ecosystem are called consumers. The consumers of pond ecosystem are further classified
into primary, secondary and tertiary. The aquatic animals that feed on producers are
called primary consumers of pond ecosystem. Some examples of primary consumers of
pond ecosystem are small aquatic animals like amoeba, paramecium, cyclops, daphnia,
earthworms, insects, zooplanktons, etc. Similarly, small fish, frog, aquatic insects,
crustaceans, molluscs, etc. are secondary consumers of pond ecosystem. Likewise, big
fishes, carnivorous aquatic birds, water snakes, etc. are the tertiary consumers of pond
ecosystem.
The organisms of pond ecosystem that feed on dead organic matter are called decomposers.
Decomposers act on dead plants and animals and convert complex organic matter of
decomposing substances into simple inorganic matter. The examples of decomposers in
pond ecosystem are different types of bacteria and fungi. They maintain balance in the
pond ecosystem.
Ecosystem
Terrestrial Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystem

Grassland Ecosystem
Fresh water Maine water
Forest Ecosystem Ecosystem Ecosystem
Desert Ecosystem Pond/lake Ecosystem
River Ecosystem
Food Circulation Process in an Ecosystem

Energy is essential for continuation of life processes of any living organism. The major
source of energy is food stuff or biomass. Green plants can prepare their food by
photosynthesis. They are producers in ecosystem and they provide food to consumers.
The plants like yeast, mucor, mushroom, etc. are saprophytes since they get their food
from dead organisms. Similarly, animals cannot prepare their food and hence they
depend on plants directly for their food. Thus, food prepared by green plants circulates
through primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers. Similarly,
decomposers obtain their food from dead and decaying bodies of animals and plants. In
ecosystem, each living organism obtains food from dead and decaying bodies of animals
and plants indirectly. In ecosystem, each living organism obtain food from other source
in different forms for their livelihood. Therefore, the process of transfer of food materials
from an organism to another creates food chain and food web in ecosystem.

Food Chain
In an ecosystem, there is a food relationship among various living organisms to continue
their life processes. There is a continuous interrelationship between produces and
consumers in an ecosystem for their food. As a result, a food chain exists in an ecosystem
for food preparation and food consumption. Producers provide food to consumers
and decomposers get food from decomposing materials like dead bodies of animals or
decaying plants.
Fig.
21.3
Food chain in grassland ecosystem
Some animals consume other animals and they are animals consumer other animals and
they are in furn consumed by other organisms in an ecosystem. As a result, a chain of food
is formed in which transform of energy takes place. The transform of consumers with
repeated eating and being eaten is called food chain, thus, a food chain is a sequential
process which is created among various living organisms by eating and being eaten. In
forest ecosystem, deer eats grass and deer is eaten by tiger.
Grass/plants Deer Tiger

(Producer) (Herbivore) (Carnivore)
Food web
Fig.
21.4
Food web
Various food chains that exist in different ecosystems cannot function in isolation. The
various food chains create a network with interconnections and linkages under natural
conditions. Thus, the network of various food chains with the interconnection at various
trophic levels of an ecosystem is called a food web. It is a complex network of food chains
in an ecosystem.
Differences between Food chain and Food web

Food chain Food web
1. It is a sequential process which 1. It is a network of various food chains
represents who eats who. which are interconnected at various
trophic levels.
2. It is formed by various levels of an 2. It is formed by the interconnection of
ecosystem. various food chains.
3. There are many food chains in an 3. There is one food web in an ecosystem.
ecosystem.
Activity 1
Make a visit to a grassland nearby your school or home in different groups of the
classmates. Observe the producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary,
consumers, and prepare a short report on it. Also, discuss it in your classroom.
Interrelationship between Animals and Plants

In an ecosystem, animals and plants are interrelated for their food. Green plants prepare
complex organic matter by using simple organic matter. All living organisms need nutrients
to be alive, grow and develop. The substances that are required to keep living organism
alive are called nutrients. Similarly, nutrition is the process by which living organisms
obtain food to continue their life processes. On the basis of nutritional relationship, biotic
factors of an ecosystem are categorized into autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Autotrophs
The organism that can prepare their own food by photosynthesis are called autotrophs
and the mode of nutrition of autotrophs is called autotrophic nutrition. All green plants
are autotrophs and their mode of nutrition is autotrophic nutrition or autotrophism.
Autotrophs are producers. All green plants are produces since they can prepare then own
food by using water, carbon dioxide and sunlight with the help of chlorophyll. All the
producers synthesize organic food material by using inorganic matter in the presence of
sunlight.
Heterotrophs
The living organisms that cannot prepare their own food and depend on producers
directly or indirectly for their food are called heterotrophs or heterotrophic organisms.
The mode of nutrition of heterotrophs is called heterotrophic nutrition or heterophism.

All animals and non-green plants are heterotrophs and their mode of nutrition is called
heterotrophism. On the basis of mode of nutrition, heterotrophs are classified into
parasites, saprophytes and holozoic organisms.
Differences between Autotrophs and Heterotrophs

Autotrophs Heterotrophs
1. They can synthesize their own food. 1. They cannot synthesize their own
food.
2. Chlorophyll is present. 2. Chlorophyll is absent.
3. Most of them are plants. 3. Most of them are animals.
Parasites
The living organisms that get their food and shelter from their hosts are called parasites.
Hosts are the living organisms that provide food and shelter to the parasites. The examples
of parasitic organisms are leech, mosquito, amoeba, liverfluke, roundworm, tapeworm,
etc. Similarly, some examples of parastitic plants are rust (Puccinia) smut (Ustilago), etc.
Saprophytes
The organisms that obtain their food from dead and decaying organic matters by acting
upon them are called saprophytes. Saprophytes decompose dead bodies of animals and
parts of decaying plants and change them into simple inorganic matters. The common
examples of saprophytes are bacteria and fungi.
Holozoic organisms
Holozoics organisms refer to the organisms that feed on the whole body of plants or
animals or both. The mode of nutrition of holozoics is called holozoic nutrition. Most
of the animals except parasites and saprophytes have holozoic mode of nutrition. Some
examples of holozoics are human beings, dog, frog, tiger, vulture, fish, snake, butterfly,
paramecium, etc. Holozoic nutrition includes four different processes. They are ingestion,
digestion, assimilation and egestion.
Ecosystem services
The benefits that human beings obtain from the ecosystem are called ecosystem services.
Some of the ecosystem services are mentioned below with brief description.
Provisioning services
Provisioning services of an ecosystem refer to the products that human beings obtain
from an ecosystem. They are foods and fibres, fuel, and ornamental resources.
Human beings get foods and fibres from ecosystem. the foods and fibres that can be
obtained from plants are food, timber, jute, firewood, etc. Similarly, milk, meat, wool,
leather, etc. are obtained from animals.
Similarly, human beings need fuel to cook food, operate machines and automobiles, The
energy can be derived from petrol, diesel, kerosene, coal, firewood, biogas and other
substances as fuel. These all materials are obtained from ecosystem.
Likewise, different types of ornaments that human being use are obtained from the
ornamental resources in the environment. Different types of materials like shell, bone,
leather, etc. are used to make ornaments.
Regulating services
Regulating services refer to benefits obtained by human beings due to the balance in
ecological factors. Regulating services include climate regulation and water purification.
Ecosystem affects climate in local and global level. Balance in ecosystem regulates climate.
For example, forest helps regulate temperature and water cycle. Similarly, carbon dioxide
and other industrial gases affects the climate of the locality.
Similarly, balanced ecosystem helps in water purification directly or indirectly. In balanced
ecosystem, impure substances of water get filtered. The biological waste products are
decomposed and get mixed in soil. Ecosystem regulates human diseases and natural
diseases by various ways.
Cultural services
Ecosystem affects cultural norms and values including religious thoughts, behaviour,
etc. It also affects natural beauty and habitat of living organisms. Also, ecosystem helps
maintain social and biological relationship among various living beings. It helps preserve
cultural heritages. Moreover, balanced ecosystem helps increase fresh environment and
conserve natural resources. It also helps attract tourists by conserving tourists destinations.
Supportory services
Supportory services included nutrient recycling, soil formation, primary production,
food regulation, water purification, etc.
Key Concepts
1. The continuous interaction and interrelationship between/among various living
components and components of physical environment create ecosystem in the
environment.
2. The non-living factors of ecosystem that mainly include physical environment and
climate factors are called abiotic factors.
3. The mixture of various gases such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, helium,
argon, neon, etc. is called air.
4. Air is very important abiotic factor for living beings.
5. Water is an essential natural resource required for the life processes of animals and
plants.
6. The sun is the major source of energy. It gives solar energy in the form of heat and
light.

7. The living organisms of an ecosystem are called biotic factors. Various organisms in
environment are interrelated and inter-dependent.
8. The living beings that can prepare their food on their own are called producers.
9. The living beings which depend on producers for their food directly or indirectly
are called consumers.
10. The living beings which directly depend on plants for their food are called primary
consumers.
11. The living beings which depend on primary consumers directly for their food are
called secondary consumers.
12. The living beings which depend on primary consumers and secondary consumers
for their food are called tertiary consumers.
13. The organisms that decompose dead bodies of organisms by decaying them are
called decomposers.
14. The self-sustaining structural and functional unit of biosphere that includes both
biotic communities and abiotic environment is called ecosystem.
15. Terrestrial ecosystem refers to the ecosystem which exists on land. It is further
divided into grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc.
16. The ecosystem which exists in water is called aquatic ecosystem. Aquatic ecosystem
is further classified into freshwater ecosystem and marine water ecosystem.
17. The transform of consumers with repeated eating and being eaten is called food
chain. Thus, a food chain is a sequential process which is created among various
living organisms by eating and being eaten.
18. The network of various food chains with the interconnection at various trophic
levels of an ecosystem is called a food web.
19. The organism that can prepare their own food by photosynthesis are called
autotrophs and the mode of nutrition of autotrophs is called autotrophic nutrition.
20. The living organisms that cannot prepare their own food and depend on producers
directly or indirectly for their food are called heterotrophs or heterotrophic
organisms.
21. The living organisms that get their food and shelter from their hosts are called
parasites.
22. The organisms that obtain their food from dead and decaying organic matters by
acting upon them are called saprophytes.
23. Provisioning services of ecosystem refer to the products that human beings obtain
from an ecosystem. They are foods and fibres, fuel, and ornamental resources.
24. Provisioning services of ecosystem refer to the products that human beings obtain
from an ecosystem.
25. Regulating services refer to benefits obtained by human beings due to the balance
in ecological factors.

a. What is called the group of organisms that exists in common environment and
organisms have interrelationship for flow of energy?
Biotic components Community
Parasites Abiotic components
b. Which one is decomposer among the following?

Snake Green plant
Mushroom Caterpillar
c. Which one is the producer among the following in a lake ecosystem?

Fish Bacteria
Hydrilla Paramecium
d. What is called the network of food chains that exists in an ecosystem?

Food chain Community
Food web All of the above
e. Which one is not a holozoic among the following?

fish paramecium
fungi butterfly

a. What is ecosystem? What does it contain?
b. Define ecological factors. Name any four biotic components of an ecosystem.
c. What are biotic factors and abiotic factors. Give two examples of each.
d. Define decomposers. Explain the importance of decomposers in an ecosystem.
e. Define the forest ecosystem with examples. Explain the role of producers in a
grassland ecosystem.
f. What is aquatic ecosystem? Define autotrophic plants of pond ecosystem with
examples.
g. Explain food circulation process in an ecosystem with examples.
h. Define food chain. Present an example of food chain in a forest ecosystem.
i. What does food web mean? Explain with example.
j. How do animals and plants interrelate in an ecosystem? Explain with examples.
k. What do you mean by ecosystem services? Name any four ecosystem services
and explain any one of them.
a. Producers and consumers
b. Secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
c. Food chain and food web
d. Autotrophs and heterotrophs
e. Parasites and saprophytes
4. Give reason:
a. Green plants are called producers.
b. Bacteria are called decomposers.
c. Mushroom is a saprophyte.
d. Human being is a holozoic organism.
e. All green plants are autotrophs.
f. Leech is a parasitic organism.
g. Non-green plants are heterotrophs.
5. Classify the following living beings under the topics of producer, consumer
decomposer, parasite and saprophyte
Green plants, mushroom, algae, lion, frog, bacteria, fungi, leech, mosquito
6. Study the given figure and answer the following questions.
a. What is the name of ecosystem shown in the figure.

b. Name primary consumer and tertiary consumer in the figure.
c. The grass shown in the figure is producer, why?

7. Draw a well labeled diagram of pond ecosystem including producers, consumers
and decomposers in it.
8. "The proper balance among producers, consumers and decomposers is the result of
balanced ecosystem in nature". Justify this statement with appropriate examples.
Project work
Make a visit to a nearby pond, lake, stream or river and observe producers, primary
consumers and secondary consumers in selected water body. Identify and enlist them
in proper category. Present it in your classroom for discussion.
1. What is ecosystem?
2. What is ecology?
3. What are producers?
4. What are biotic components?
5. What are abiotic components?
6. Define primary consumers.
7. What is a food chain?
8. What type of organisms are called autotrophs?
9. What is photosynthesis?
10. What are four basic needs of human beings?
11. What are ecosystem services ?
12. What are cultural services in an ecosystem ?

13. Why are green plants called producers and animals are called consumers? Give
reason.
14. Consumers cannot survive in the absence of producers, why?
15. Write any two differences between food chain and food web.
16. Describe in brief the role of decomposers to operate an ecosystem.
17. An ecosystem cannot operate in the absence of the sun. Give reason.
18. Write any two differences between producers and consumers.
19. Write any two differences between herbivores and carnivores.

20. What is the relationship between plants and animals in an ecosystem? Explain in
brief.

21. Write a short note on supportory services in an ecosystem. What would happen if
there were no abiotic factors in nature?
22. Describe in brief the role of the sun to run an ecosystem.
23. What is a food web? How is it operating in nature? Explain with figure.
24. Study the given food chain and answer the following questions.
Grass Grasshopper Frog
Snake
i. Name the producer and secondary consumer in the above food chain.
ii. What would be the effect on the food chain if all the snakes were killed?

25. Identify the given factors in the terms of abiotic factors, producers, consumers and
decomposers:
Solar energy Grass Air
Snake Mouse Water
Fungi Soil
26. Draw a neat figure showing the food web of a pond ecosystem. Differentiate between
herbivores and carnivores in two points.
27. Describe in brief the importance of food and cloth for human beings. 2+2
28. Describe the role of producers to operate an ecosystem. Write any two differences
between consumer and decomposer.
29. Draw a neat diagram showing the food web of a grassland ecosystem. Differentiate
between food chain and food web.

Geology and Astronomy
UNIT
Natural Hazard
22
Before You Begin

Various types of disasters occur in nature due to degradation of environment
naturally or through human activities. The major cause of occurring such
disasters is imbalance in environment. The disasters that occur suddenly
by natural processes are called natural disasters. The most destructive and
devastating natural disasters are earthquake, variety of environmental
hazards. The natural disasters occur frequently in different parts of the
world, but their occurrence and effects depend upon geographical and
meteorological factors of the place.
The occurrence of natural hazards and their impact on environment
depends on geological structure of the land. Also, climatic factors are
responsible for many natural hazards. Landslides and floods frequently
occur in Nepal due to its geographical structure. Earthquake frequently
occurs in Japan and cyclone or hurricane occurs frequently and gravity of
natural hazards is determined by geographical structure, climatic factors
and land structure of the particular area. In this unit, introduction to
various natural hazards, description of management of natural hazards,
causes, effects and preventive measures of glacier, outburst of glacier lake
and cyclone is presented.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to natural
i. introduce natural hazards and man-made hazards. hazards
• Types of natural hazards
ii. describe the methods of management of hazards.
• Management of hazards
iii. explain the causes, effects and protective measures
• Disaster risk management
of natural hazards, viz. glacier flood, glacier lake
outburst flood and cyclone. • Glacier flood, glacial lake
out-burst food and cyclone:
causes, effects and mitigating
measures
hazard : a natural or man-made situation which adversely affects life and property
disaster : an unexpected event like earthquake, flood, landslide, etc.
glacial : formed by snow or glaciers
hurricane : a violent storm with very strong winds
GREEN Science (Geology and Astronomy) Book-9 371

Hazard
A natural or man-made situation that possesses threat to lives and properties in
environment is called a hazard. A hazardous situation that has come to pass is called an
incident. Most hazards in nature are dormant or potential. When the hazards come to
their extremity, they become active and show their dangerous and devastating nature by
claiming lives and properties.
Hazards may be both natural and man-made in environment. Similarly, some hazards may
be physical, biological, chemical, etc. Some examples of natural hazards are earthquake,
volcano, landslide, etc.
The conditions or situations that can cause the body physical harm or inverse stress
are called physical hazards. Physical hazards may occur naturally or through human
activities. Some examples of natural hazards are earthquake, volcano, etc. The man-made
hazards occur more due to the human activities. For example, landslide, flood, road
accident, explosion of bomb, etc.
The chemical substances that create threat in environment and harm lives, properties and
environment are called chemical hazards. Chemical hazards may be both natural and
man-made. For example, insecticides, harmful gases, acids, etc. The biological agents that
can cause risk in living beings are called biological hazards. Such hazards are bacteria,
viruses, fungi, foreign toxin, etc. They have adverse impacts in the lives of living beings.
Although, there are many types of hazards, broadly the hazards that occur in nature are
categorized into natural hazards and man-made hazards. The brief description of these
hazards is presented below.
Natural Hazards
Various natural processes are
responsible for occurring different types
of destructive and devastating hazards
in nature. The hazards which occur
in nature due to the natural processes
are called natural hazards. They occur
automatically in nature periodically or
all of a sudden and out of human control.
Fig.
Some examples of natural hazards are

earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide,
glacier, flood, cyclone, etc. In comparison 22.1
to man-made hazards, natural hazards Earthquake
are more dangerous and devastating.
Man-made Hazards
Some hazards in nature are caused due to adverse impact of various human activities
in nature. The hazards which occur as a result of human activities are called man-made
hazards. Some examples of man-made hazards are road occident, collapsing of buildings,
372 GREEN Science (Geology and Astronomy) Book-9

bomb explosion, epidemics, outburst of dams, aeroplane crash, desertification, etc. In
comparison of natural hazards, man-made hazards are less destructive and in the control
of human being to a large extent.
Fig.
22.2
Bomb explosion Collapsing building
Management of Natural Hazards

Various natural factors are responsible for occurring natural hazards. Thus, human beings
cannot stop natural disasters from occurring. But, there is the possibility of minimizing
the damage and loss that may occur by natural disaster. Therefore, it is necessary to
design plan for management of natural disasters by identifying their types of causes of
their occurrence. Adoption of the following activities may be helpful in the management
of natural hazards.
i. Generating public awareness to stay alert to natural disasters.
ii. Conducting immediate rescue activities for the disaster affected people.
iii. Managing physical and financial support for affected people.
iv. Mobilization of various welfare organizations to provide support to the affected
people.
v. Following various precautions and preventive measures for natural hazards.
Management of Man-made Hazards

In comparison to natural hazards, man-made hazards are in the control of human beings.
Man-made hazards can be controlled to a large extent by adopting the following activities.
i. Generating public awareness against man-made hazards
ii. Maintaining environmental sanitation
iii. Spreading awareness regarding epidemics
iv. Conducting afforestation programmes and discouraging deforestation
v. Keeping natural resources pollution free
vi. Following traffic rules to minimize road accidents

vii. Maintaining vehicles periodically
viii. Adopting scientific way for agricultural Do You Know
activities • Hazard is a condition/event that has
ix. Paying much attention to personal potential for causing injury or loss
hygiene of life or damage to property and
environment.
x. Discouraging forest fire • Disaster is an event that occurs
xi. Maintaining wiring system of electricity suddenly/unexpectedly in most
supply cases. It disrupts the normal course
of life in affected area. It results in
xii. Arranging proper treatment for loss or damage to life, property and
victimized and disease affected people environment.
xiii. Broadcasting various informative
programmes regarding hazards
xiv. Conservation and preservation of green forests and wildlife.
xv. Stopping unhealthy competition among human beings in different sectors.
Disaster management cycle

Various activities that are conducted before a disaster, during a disaster and after a
disaster form a cycle. It consists of four phases: Prevention/ mitigation, preparedness,
response and rehabilitation or reconstruction. The various activities that are adopted in
disaster risk management cycle are presented below.
Activities before a Disaster or Pre-disaster Activities

The activities that are carried out to minimize the loss of lives and properties are called
pre-disaster activities. It includes generating awareness through campaigns and other
activities, preparation of the disaster management plans at various levels, strengthening
the existing weak structures, etc. These activities are called preventing or mitigating
activities adopted to minimize risk of disasters.
Activities during a disaster or Disaster occurrence activities

The emergency response activities that are taken to ensure needs and provisions for the
victims during disaster are called activities during a disaster. Taking precautions, assisting
ans supporting victims, etc. are the activities that are conducted during a disaster.
Activities after a Disaster or Post-disaster Activities

The activities that include recovery and rehabilitation, of affected communities
immediately after the disaster occurred are called post-disaster activities. These
activities include rescue of victims, treatment of affected people, distributing food
to needy and affected people, management of shelter, clothing, etc. Also, analysis of
damaged structures, compensation to needy people, management of basic needs, flow
of social services to the affected people, etc. are the activities that need to be conducted
in post-disaster period.
Glacier Flood
Glaciers are essential natural resources
and source of river that provide fresh-
water in the Himalayan region of Nepal.
Glaciers are receding and glacial lakes
are forming due to global warming.
These glacial lakes are the sources of
natural disasters also. The outburst of
Fig.
such lakes lead to floods that may claim
lives and properties. In Nepal, there are
many examples of glacial lake outburst 22.3
floods. There are about 3252 glaciers and Glacier flood
2323 glacial lakes in Nepal. Few glacial lakes have been outburst so far. Among 2323
glacial lakes in Nepal, 20 are potentially dangerous. In Nepal, there are many rivers like
Arun, Trishuli, Dudhkoshi, etc. that originate from Tibet. Downstream of these rivers are
at the risk of glacial lake outburst flood. A study has shown that the floods in these rivers
has claimed lives and properties at different times.
Causes of Glacier Flood

There are many causes of glacier flood. The major causes of glacier flood are given below:
i. Global warming
ii. Melting of snow
iii. Glacial lake outburst
iv. Geographic energy
v. Change in climate
vi. Tectonic shocks
vii. Human encroachment
Effects of Glacier Flood

The effects of glacier flood depend on speed of flood, amount of debris in the flood and
duration of the flood. The major effects of glacier flood are given below.
i. Destruction of land structures, natural resources, physical structures and cultural
heritages
ii. Destruction of fertile land
iii. Destruction of lives and properties
iv. Occurrence of landslides and soil erosion
v. Destruction of habitat of the living beings
vi. Destruction of agricultural products that may invite starvation
vii. Outbreak of epidemics and other various diseases
viii. Slow down the economic development of the country
Preventive measures of Glacier Flood
Glacier flood can be prevented by various ways. Some of the protective measures of
glacier flood are mentioned below.
i. Mapping of glacial lakes by field investigation
ii. Construction of dykes parallel to the rivers to slow down the current of water flow
iii. Identification and ranking of glacial lakes on the basis of their potential danger
iv. Encouraging afforestation and discouraging deforestation
v. Construction of reservoirs to store the flood water
vi. Establishment of flood measuring stations in the flood prone areas
vii. Preparation of flood hazard map in flood-prone areas
viii. Adopting precautions in glacier flood-prone areas
ix. Generating public awareness against glacier flood
Glacier lake outburst flood (GLOF)

A type of outbrust flood that occurs due
to filling of the dam containing a glacial
lake is called glacial lake outburst flood.
The dam of the glacial lake consists
of glacier, ice or a terminal moraine.
Failure of glacial lake dam occurs due
to erosion, water pressure, avalanche,
earthquake, volcanic eruption, etc. As a
result, a large amount of glacier breaks
Fig.
off and displaces the water in a glacial

lake massively. Catastrophic failure of 22.4
the containing ice or glacial sediment can
Glacier Lake outburst
release the water of the lake by glacier
lake outburst. Glacier lake outburst floods are often compounded by a large amount of
river bed erosion in the steep moraine villages. The volume of glacial lakes varies, but
may hold millions to hundred millions of cubic meters of water.
There are many deadly glacial lake outburst floods identified worldwide. In Nepal, the
Tsho Rolpa glacier lake is situated in the Rolwaling valley. The lake is dammed by a 150
m high unconsolidated terminal moraine dam. This lake is growing larger every year due
to the melting and retreat of the trakarding glacier. It has become most dangerous glacier
lake in Nepal storing 90 to 100 million cubic meters water.
Effects of glacier lake outburst

The major effect of glacier lake outburst flood are given below.
i. Destruction of lives and properties
ii. Destruction of land structures

iii. Sources of floods, soil erosion and landslides
iv. Destruction of fertile land and agricultural products
v. Destruction of physical infrastructures like human settlements, roads, bridges, etc. in
downstream
Cyclone
A circular fluid motion that rotates in
as closed area in the same direction
as the earth is called a cyclone. A
cyclone is an inward spiraling wind
that rotates clockwise in the southern
hemisphere and anticlockwise in the
northern hemisphere. Generally, large
scale cyclones are centered in the low
atmospheric pressure areas. Fig.
A rapidly rotating storm system
characterized by strong winds, low 22.5
pressure center and a spiral arrangement Cyclone
of thunderstorms is called a tropical
cyclone. It produces heavy rain. It is a natural disaster which causes loss in lives and
properties depending upon its strength. Cyclone has adverse effects in different parts
of the world every year. It claims lives and properties in Bangladesh, India, Japan,
Philippines, Mexico, America etc. Nepal cannot be affected by cyclone directly since its
landlocked geographical location.
Meteorologists give different names to cyclones. The names of some cyclones are Bhola,
Katrina, Gorki, Mitch, etc. In Bangladesh, a cyclone named 'Bhola' claimed 4 lakh people in
1970 AD and 'Gorki' killed 14,000 people in 1991AD. Similarly, a cyclone named 'Katrina'
claimed 1800 people and millions worth property in 2005 AD in America.
Cause of Cyclone
The process of developing a cyclone starts when the temperature of sea water in 50m
depth from the surface of the sea is 26.5°C. In this process, water vapour with warm
air rises up when the air concentrates in low pressure zone which organizes cluster of
thunderstorms with weak surface winds. This process is called tropical disturbance.
The continuation of tropical disturbance results in strengthening of surface winds and
blowing forcefully around and into the centre of the growing storm. The storm becomes
stronger and larger when the atmospheric pressure decreases. The strong storm changes
into cyclone when the speed of rotating storm is more than 119km/h and may reach up
to 200km/h. In cyclone, the water vapour flowing upwards cools down fast and releases
heat. It is the main source of energy for a cyclone.

Effects of Cyclone
When cyclone develops, wind blows in terrifying speed. The wind blowing in extremely
high speed sweeps and damaged human settlements and other structures. It also claims
lives of people and other animals. During storm surge of cyclone, human settlements of
the sea beach may be submerged due to raise in water level. The major effects of cyclone
are mentioned below.
i. Destruction of lives and properties in coastal regions
ii. Source of other disasters like flood, soil erosion, landslide due to heavy rain fall
induced by cyclone
iii. Destruction of land structure, fertile land and agricultural products
iv. Reduction in fertility of the fertile land due to deposit of silt due to cyclone
v. Disturbances in water related activities like boating, fishing, shipping etc.
Protective Measures of Cyclone

Cyclone is a quite unpredictable natural disaster that occurs in coastal regions. It is
destructive and devastating in coastal regions since it claims lives and properties
violently in a short period of time. Meteorologists can forecast only the probability,
direction and speed of cyclone with the help of satellites. Such forecast may be helpful
to adopt precautions. Some protective measures that can be adopted against cyclone are
mentioned below.
i. Collecting information regarding cyclone and warning people of the coastal regions
ii. Adopting cyclone resistant technologist to build houses in the coastal regions
iii. Constructing emergency shelters for victims of cyclone
iv. Rescuing cyclone affected people in the short period
v. Generating public awareness against cyclone among the people of coastal regions
vi. Updating to the information regarding cyclone by the people of coastal regions
Key Concepts
1. A natural or man-made situation that possesses threat to lives and properties in
environment is called a hazard.
2. When the hazards come to their extremity, they become active and show their
dangerous and devastating nature by claiming lives and properties.
3. The conditions or situations that can cause the body physical harm or inverse stress
are called physical hazards.
4. The chemical substances that create threat in environment and harm lives, properties
and environment are called chemical hazards
5. The biological agents that can cause risk in living beings are called biological
hazards. Such hazards are bacteria, viruses, fungi, foreign toxin, etc.
6. The hazards which occur in nature due to the natural processes are called natural
hazards.

7. The hazards which occur as a result of human activities are called man-made
hazards.
8. Human beings cannot stop natural disasters from occurring. But, there is the
possibility of minimizing the damage and loss that may occur by natural disasters.
9. Various activities that are conducted before a disaster, during a disaster and
after a disaster form a cycle. It consists of four phases: Prevention/ mitigation,
preparedness, response and rehabilitation or reconstruction.
10. The activities that are carried out to minimize the loss of lives and properties are
called pre-disaster activities.
11. The emergency response activities that are taken to ensure needs and provisions for
the victims during disaster are called activities during a disaster.
12. The activities that include recovery and rehabilitation of affected communities
immediately after the disaster occurred are called post-disaster activities.
13. A type of outburst flood that occurs due to filling of the dam containing a glacial
lake is called glacial lake outburst flood.
14. A circular fluid motion that rotates in as closed area in the same direction as the
earth is called a cyclone.

a. What is responsible for natural hazards in nature?
Chemical energy Geographical energy
Geological energy Physical energy
b. How many glacial lakes are there in Nepal?
3252 2323
2423 2523
c. Which one is the cause of glacier flood?
Soil erosion Global warming
Air pollution Water pollution
d. What is the cause of failure of glacial lake dam?
Soil erosion Avalanche
Land structure Water pollution

e. What is the name of the cyclone that occurred in 1970 AD in Bangladesh?
Katrina Gorki
Bhola Mitch

a. What does a hazard mean? Mention different types of hazards.
b. Define natural disasters. Differentiate between natural hazards and man-made
hazards.
c. What do you mean by management of natural hazards? Explain briefly.
d. Mention any 10 ways of controlling man-made hazards.
e. What does disaster management cycle mean? Make a list of pre-disaster activities.
f. Why are post-disaster activities important?
g. What is glacier flood? Mention any five causes of glacier flood.
h. What are the effects of glacier flood? Mention any six effects of glacier flood.
i. How can the effects of glacier flood be minimized? Explain briefly.
j. What do you mean by glacier lake outburst? Mention any five effects of glacial
lake outburst.
k. Define cyclone. Cyclone is a natural disaster of coastal region, why?
l. Explain the causes of cyclone.
m. Mention any four effects and four protective measures of cyclone.
Project work
Make a study of any one natural hazard that occurred in your area and prepare a
short report on it in the following format.
a. Introduction b. Causes
c. Effects d. Preventive measures
e. Conclusion
Present the report in your classroom.

1. What is a natural hazard?
2. How many types of natural hazard are there? Name them.
3. What is meteorology?
4. Define man-made hazard with one examples.
5. What is glacier flood ?
6. In which places of Nepal there is possibility of glacier flood? Write.
7. What is glacier lake outburst?
8. What is cyclone?
9. What is meant by GLOF?
10. Define tropical disturbance.
11. What is tropical storm and cyclone?
12. What do you mean by the eye of a cyclone?
13. Write down the major effects of cyclone.

14. Write any two differences between natural hazard and man-made hazard.
15. Write any two differences between glacier flood and cyclone.
16. Flood and earthquake are called natural hazards. Give reason.
17. Glacier flood occurs frequently in Nepal. Give any two reasons. .
18. Road accident is called man-made hazard whereas landslide is called natural hazard,
why ?
19. Cyclone cannot affect Nepal directly, why ?
20. List the major effects of glacier flood.
21. What are the main causes of cyclone?
23. What are the protective measures of glacier flood? Write.
24. Write down the effects of glacier lake outburst.
25. Describe in brief the importance of study of meteorology in the context of Nepal.

26. Mention the steps of disaster management cycle. Explain any one of them.
27. How is management of natural hazards done? Write any four points.
28. Write a short note on glacier lake outburst in Nepal.
29. Mention any four effects and four protective measures of cycle.
30. Write a short note on glacier flood.

UNIT
Greenhouse
23
Before You Begin

A structure with walls and roofs made by transparent materials is called
a greenhouse. Generally, the materials like glass or plastics are used to
make greenhouse. The plants that require regulated climatic conditions
are grown in greenhouse. You might have heard about greenhouse. It is
also called hot-house or glasshouse. The interior of a greenhouse becomes
significantly warmer than the surrounding temperature. Greenhouses
are constructed in different sizes according to need. Some greenhouse
are small sheds, whereas some are industrial-sized building.
Greenhouses are used for maintaining botanical gardens, growing

commercial plants, vegetable farming, etc. Generally, greenhouses are
used for growing and propagating plants in cold climates. Greenhouses
allow sunlight to enter and prevent heat from escaping from their
interior. Greenhouse has an important role in our daily life. In this unit,
introduction to natural greenhouse and its effects, importance of artificial
greenhouse and use, and climate change are presented.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Introduction to greenhouse
i. introduce greenhouse in natural environment and and its effects
explain its effects. • Artificial greenhouse and its
utility
ii. describe the importance of greenhouse. • Climate change
iii. describe the utilities of artificial greenhouse. - Introduction
- Causes
iv. introduce climate change. - Effects
- Mitigating measures
v. describe causes, effects and mitigating measures of
climate change.
greenhouse : the glasshouse made to regulate climatic conditions

climate : the average atomspheric condition of a place over a long period of time
deforestation : the process of cleaning forests

Greenhouse Effect
There are different gases in the troposphere of the atmosphere. Such gases are carbon
dioxide, chlorofluoracarbon, methane, oxides of nitrogen, water vapour, etc. Along with
the gases, dust particles are also present in the atmosphere. The layer of gases and dust
particles cover the surface of the earth making dense canopy. Such canopy allows solar
radiations to enter the earth but does not allow to escape after reflection. As a result, the
temperature of the earth increases due to the effect of solar radiation. Thus, it works as an
artificial greenhouse. The phenomenon of increasing the temperature of the earth due to
the canopy of greenhouse gases that works like glass or plastic in an artificial greenhouse
is called greenhouse effect in nature. The greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane,
chlorofluorocarbon, oxides of nitrogen, water vapour, etc.
It is estimated that carbon dioxide has the greatest impact on greenhouse effect. The impact
of carbon dioxide is 57%, chlorofluorocarbon has 25%, methane has 12% and oxides of
nitrogen has 6%. Due to the effect of greenhouse, the temperature of the earth increases
gradually. The process of increasing the temperature of the earth due to the greenhouse
effect is called global warming. Global warming is responsible for melting snow capes
resulting in increment of level of sea. Similarly, the temperature of the higher regions
increases due to melting of ice and drying of water resources. It has adverse impacts on
all living organisms including human beings.
Cause of Greenhouse in the Earth

Various greenhouse gases are released from different human activities and by some natural
processes. One of the important greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide is produced by burning
fossil fuels. Similarly, methane is produced from decomposition of biodegradable wastes.
Likewise, chlorofluorocarbon is released from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol
spray cans, etc. Water vapour is produced from the oxidation of organic compounds and
vaporization of water from different water resources like lakes, streams, rivers, seas, etc.
These all gases form canopy around the earth's surface and greenhouse is formed.
Importance of Greenhouse Effect

The earth absorbs solar radiations due to the greenhouse effect. The solar radiations
that enter the earth cannot escape after reflection due to the greenhouse in the earth.
In the absence of greenhouse, heat cannot be stored on the earth and consequently the
temperature of the earth would be less by 39°C than today's temperature. As a result, ice
may cover the earth and there is no possibility of any living organism on the earth due
to extreme cold and presence of ice everywhere. Thus, greenhouse plays a vital role in
maintaining favourable temperature for the existence of living beings on the earth.
Adverse Impacts of Greenhouse Effect

Although, greenhouse plays a vital role for the existence of different living beings on the
earth, it has many adverse impacts too. Some of the adverse impacts of greenhouse effect
on the earth are mentioned below.
i. It increases temperature in atmosphere.

ii. It brings changes in water cycle.
iii. It brings hazards in the health of living organisms including human beings.
iv. It reduces agricultural productivity and production.
v. It helps in melting of snow in the polar regions and drying water resources.
vi. It helps in increasing sea level due to the melting of snow. The increase in the sea level
adversely affects human settlement in coastal regions.
vii. It brings negative impacts in biodiversity.
viii. It creates desertification.
ix. It imbalances ecosystem in nature.
x. It changes pattern of weather condition.
Artificial Greenhouse
The structures with walls and roofs that
are made by glasses or plastics are called
artificial greenhouses. Artificial
greenhouses are used in agricultural
farms, botanical gardens, etc. to maintain
favourable temperature for the plants
Fig.
that are grown inside them.

Artificial greenhouse allows to enter 23.1
solar radiation but does not all it to
escape after reflection. As a result, interior of
the greenhouse becomes hot due to changing
of solar light energy into heat energy inside Do You Know
them. The heat energy preserved inside A small artificial greenhouse is called cold
the artificial greenhouses increases the frame.
temperature inside them. The slanted roofs
of artificial greenhouses allow more sunlight
to enter inside the greenhouse. The required
amount of temperature for the plants inside the greenhouses helps them to grow and
develop well.
Importance and Utility of Artificial Greenhouse

The importance and utility of artificial greenhouse is mentioned below.
i. Off-seasonal vegetable can be grown by maintaining favourable temperature inside
the greenhouse.
ii. Various plants that may die in cold temperature can be conserved.
iii. Special types of plants can be grown throughout the year.

iv. Agricultural products can be produced in the countries having extremely cold
temperature/climate.
v. Different types of types of flowers, vegetables, fruits, etc. can be grown throughout
the year.
vi. Environmental pollution can be controlled by growing plants inside greenhouses.
Climate Change
Climate is an abiotic component of atmosphere. It is an atmospheric phenomenon over a
long period of time. It has been observed that it varies over time due to various reasons.
The variation in the climate in global or regional level over time in called climate change.
More over climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns.
Such type of change lasts for a long period of time. Various human activities are mainly
responsible for changing climate. Increase the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
over use of fossil fuels, burning of firewood, deforestation, etc. are the major causes of
climate change.
Nepal has variation in climate conditions due to its geographical diversity. The highest
peak of the world, i.e. Mt. Everest, lies in Nepal. Similarly, Nepal is divided into three
geographical regions: Mountain, Hill and Terai. Thus, climate of Nepal ranges from
extremely cold to extremely hot due to its geographical structure. Therefore climate
change has become a burning issue for Nepal in present days.
Causes of Climate Change

Various human activities as well as natural processes are responsible for climate change.
The cause of various movements, volcanic eruption, variation in solar radiation on the
earth, etc. play vital role in changing climate. Similarly, human activities like deforestation,
industrialization, excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, etc. also have a
major role in climate change. The factors that play vital in climate change are described
below briefly.
i. Increase in temperature
The temperature of the earth varies due to the variation in geographical structures. Some
parts of the earth receive more solar radiation, while other parts do less. The parts of the
earth receiving more solar radiations have more temperature and less solar radiation
receiving parts have less temperature. Thus, increase in temperature causes climate change.
ii. Greenhouse effect

Various human activities are responsible for producing greenhouse gases like carbon
dioxide, chlorofluorocarbon, methane, etc. These gases create greenhouse effect on the
earth which is responsible for climate change.

iii. Deforestation
Green plants balance the amount of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the atmosphere.
Deforestation causes destruction of green plants of the forest and hence amount of
carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere. The more amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere causes climate change.
iv. Industrialization
Industrialization is the major source of producing greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide,
sulphur dioxide, methane, etc. These gases are responsible for greenhouse effect which
results in climate change.
v. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers

Various greenhouse gases are produced due to excessive use of chemical fertilizers. Also,
use of chemical fertilizers makes the soil dry. Greenhouse effect and rise in temperature
result in climate change.
vi. Volcanic Eruption

Volcanic eruption is the source of dust particles and compounds of sulphur in environment.
Dust particles and compounds of sulphur block the solar radiation by accumulating in
strastosphere of the atmosphere. It ultimately results in climate change on the earth.
Effects of Climate Change

Climate change has many adverse effects on plants and animals including human beings.
The major effects of climate change are give below.
a. Impact on ecosystem and biodiversity

Many species of animals and plants cannot adapt themselves in the changing environment.
So, they are in the verge of extinction due to global climate change.
b. Increase in temperature
Due to climate change, the average temperature on the surface of the earth is increasing
day by day. When the average temperature from 2001 to 2010 AD was compared with
the temperature of 1980 AD, it was found that the temperature of 1980 AD was less. The
statistical data from 1976 to 2005 AD shows that the average temperature of Nepal is
increasing at the rate of 0.04°C per year. It shows that climate change is responsible for
increasing global temperature.
c. Impact on human settlement

The settlement of human beings in Himalayan region, hilly region, near the rivers, near
the sea and coastial region is being affected by climate change. The flood in Koshi river,
and the flood in Sunkoshi river destroyed life and property and displaced many people
from their settlement.
d. Impact on human health
Human beings suffer from various diseases due to climate change. The efficiency of
human beings decreases and animals suffer from different types of diseases due to climate
change.
e. Negative impact in water resources

Water resources are adversely affected by climate change. The rate of snowfall and
deposition in Himalayas is decreasing year by year. The ice on Himalayas melts very fast.
It affects the flow of water in rivers. When the temperature increases, the ice of Himalayas
melts and result in floods and landslides. Climate change also affects the pattern of rainfall
and water cycle.
f. Impact on agriculture
Greenhouse effect, acid rain, heavy rainfall, drought, hailstones, etc. are caused due to
climate change. Climate change also brings changes on the surface of the earth due to flood
and landslides. These phenomena has negative impact on agriculture and productivity
of crops.
g. Impact on physical facilities

The physical infrastructure like buildings, roads, bridges, water reservoirs, etc. many
be damaged due to effect of climate change.
h. Disaster caused due to climate change

Climate change is the major cause of the disasters like flood, landslide, GLOF,
drought, heavy rainfall, etc.
i. Energy crisis
Running water resource is the major source to generate hydroelectricity. The decrease
in amount of water in rivers is the decrease in production of hydroelectricity. It results
in energy crisis in near future due to effect of climate change.
Measures of Climate Change Management

1. We should minimize the overuse of fossil fuels.
2. We should stop unmanaged urbanization.
3. We should develop and use alternative sources of energy.
4. Public awareness should be generated.
5. We should improve our agricultural system.
6. We should dispose wastes properly.
7. We should control the pollution caused by fossil fuels in factories and industries.
8. We should conserve natural environment.
9. We should minimize the production and emission of greenhouse gases.
10. We should reduce the use of fossil fuels.
11. We should develop diseases free species of plants and animals.
12. We should manage the means of transportation properly.
13. We should minimize the use of insecticides, pesticides and chemical fertilizes.
14. Development works should be sustainable.
15. We should plant trees on bare parts of land.
16. Environmental pollution should be controlled.
17. We should encourage afforestation and discourage deforestation.
18. We should conserve water resources.
Key Concepts
1. The phenomenon of increasing the temperature of the earth due to the canopy of
greenhouse gases that works like glass or plastic in an artificial greenhouse is called
greenhouse effect in nature.
2. The process of increasing the temperature of the earth due to the greenhouse effect
in called global warming. Global warming is responsible for melting snow capes
resulting in increment of level of sea.
3. Greenhouse plays a vital role in maintaining favourable temperature for the
existence of living beings on the earth.
4. The structures with walls and roofs that are made by glasses or plastics are called artificial
greenhouses. Artificial greenhouses are used in agricultural farms, botanical gardens, etc.
to maintain favorable temperature for the plants that are grown inside them.
5. The variation in the climate in global or regional level over time in called climate
change.
6. Various human activities as well as natural processes are responsible for climate
change. The cause of various movements, volcanic eruption, variation in solar
radiation on the earth, etc. play vital role in changing climate. Similarly, human
activities like deforestation, industrialization, excessive use of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides, etc. also have a major role in climate change.
7. Due to climate change, the average temperature on the surface of the earth is
increasing day by day.
8. The settlement of human beings in Himalayan region, hilly region, near the rivers,
near the sea and coastal region is being affected by climate change.
9. Climate change also brings changes on the surface of the earth due to flood and
landslides. These phenomena has negative impact on agriculture and productivity
of crops.

a. Which of the given gas is not a greenhouse gas?
oxygen chlorofluorocarbon
methane carbon dioxide
b. Which of the following is the main cause of climate change?
deforestation
increase in temperature
increased release of greenhouse gases
volcanic eruption
c. Artificial greenhouse stores .................
heat energy light energy
sound energy electrical energy
d. What type of climate is found in terai region of Nepal?
very hot moderate
cold very cold
e. What is artificial greenhouse made of?
glass metal
glass and plastic plastic

a. Define greenhouse and write its types.
b. What is meant by greenhouse effect?
c. Write any four harmful effects of greenhouse effect.

e. What is artificial greenhouse made of? Write its utility.
f. Write down the importance of cold frame.
g. Write down the utility of artificial greenhouse.
h. What do you man by climate change?
3. Write any five major causes of climate change and describe any two of them.
4. Industrialization and deforestation play a great role for climate change. Justify
this statement.
5. Write any six effects of climate change and describe any two of them.
6. Write any five measures of climate change management.
7. How does climate change affects human settlement ? Explain with examples.
8. Write any two differences between natural greenhouse and artificial greenhouse.
9. Analyze the causes of climate change in the context of Nepal.
10. Why is the roof of artificial greenhouse made slanted? Give reason.
1. Define greenhouse.
2. What is greenhouse effect ?
3. What are greenhouse gases ?
4. What is artificial greenhouse made of?
5. What is an artificial greenhouse ?
6. What is climate change ?
7. Name any four greenhouse gases.
8. What happens due to absence of greenhouse effect on the earth?
9. What are the main causes of climate change in Nepal ?
10. What is the effect of climate change on human health ?
11. What is cold frame ?
12. Write any two causative factors of climate change.
13. What is the effect of climate change in atmospheric temperature ?

14. Write any two utilities of artificial greenhouse. ;
15. The roof of artificial greenhouse is made slanted. Give reason.
16. Artificial greenhouses are very useful for human beings, why ?
17. Climate change affects agricultural system adversely. Justify this statement.
18. Climate change invites energy crisis. Justify this statement with examples.
19. List the major effects of glacier flood.
21. What is the effect of climate change on human health? Write any two effects.
22. Write any two measures of climate change management.
23. Increase in release of various greenhouse gases is the main cause of climate change.
Give reason.
24. Write down the cause of being more temperature inside the greenhouse than that of
its surroundings.

25. How does climate change occur due to industrialization? Write in brief.
26. Write in brief about the impact on human settlement and physical facilities due to
climate change.
27. How does climate change occur due to increase in release of greenhouse gases? Write
in brief.
28. How does climate change occur due to deforestation? Explain.
29. Explain the effect of climate change in agriculture and water resources.

UNIT
The Earth in the
24 Universe
Before You Begin

The vast surrounding space around us is called universe. It includes
solar system, stars, galaxies, constellations, planets, satellites, etc. The
earth is a planet that lies in the solar system. The sun in the solar
system is the medium-sized star and one of the important members
of solar system. It is about 1.5 × 108 km away from the earth. The
earth revolves around the sun. Similarly, other planets also revolve
around the sun in their elliptical orbits. The solar system is situated
in the milky-way galaxy. It can be observed with the help of powerful
telescope from the earth. The spiral shaped galaxy that consists of
solar system and other stars, planets, constellations, galaxies, etc.
is the milky-way galaxy. The milky-way galaxy contains about 1011
stars. In the universe, the milky-way is at the center and the sun lies
in the two-thirds of the milky-way galaxy.

After completing the study of this unit, students will be able to: • Units related to Astronomical
i. describe rotation and revolution of the earth. distance
• The solar system
ii. introduce and describe the phases of the moon. • Motions of the earth
iii. explain the relationship among the sun, earth and • Phases of the moon
moon in terms of their position. • Positions of the sun, the earth
and the moon
iv. introduce eclipse and state its types. • Sidereal month and synodic
month
v. describe solar eclipse and lunar eclipse with labelled
• Umbra and Penumbra
figures.
• Eclipse (solar eclipse and lunar
vi. define satellites and explain their types with examples. eclipse)
universe : the vast surrounding space that includes everything like galaxy, solar
system, etc.
light year : the total distance covered by light in one year through a vacuum
satellite : the heavenly body revolves around the planet
eclipse : the phenomenon of casting a shadow on the earth or the moon

Units Related to Astronomical Distance
The solar system consists of 8 planets and other 173 satellites. The earth is only suitable
for existence of living beings among eight planets. The earth revolves around the sun in
an elliptical orbit. The motion of the earth in this pattern is called on orbital motion or
revolution. Also, the earth moves in its own axis. It is called rotation of the earth. The days
and nights occur due to the rotation of the earth, whereas change in seasons occurs due
to the revolution of the earth.
The distance between astronomical bodies is called astronomical distance. Astronomical
distance cannot be measured in units like meter or kilometer since the astronomical bodies
are very far from each other. The following units are used to measure the astronomical
distance.
1. Light year ii. Astronomical unit iii. Par sec
Light year
One light year is defined as the distance travelled by light in one year in vacuum. It is the
unit used for measuring the distance between celestial bodies.
Facts about light year

The speed of light in vacuum = 3 × 108 m/s
Hence the light travels in one year = 9.46 × 1015m/s
∴ One light year = speed of light × 1 year
= 3 × 108m/s × 1 year
= 3 × 108m/s × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60s
= 9.46 × 1015m
∴ One light year = 9.46 × 1015m
Therefore, the distance 9.46 × 1015m is called 1 light year.
Astronomical Unit
The average distance between the sun and the earth is called astronomical unit. Its value
is 1.5 × 1011m, i.e 1 Astronomical unit = 1.5 × 1011m.
Par sec
Par sec is the unit of measuring the distance between celestial bodies. It is greater than
light year. 1 par sec = 3.26 light years.
The distance between the earth and the sun is 8 light minutes. Light takes 8 minutes
and 20 seconds to reach the earth from the sun. The nearest star from the solar system is
Proxima centauri. It is about 4.3 light year away from the solar system. The nearest galaxy
from the earth is Andromeda. The distance between Andromeda and the earth is 130, 000
light year. The length of Milky-way galaxy is 100, 000 light year and its diameter is about
200 light years.

The Solar System
The family of the sun which consists of
eight planets, their satellites, asteroids,
comets, etc is called solar system. The sun
is the medium-sized star around which all
planets, their satellites, asteroids, comets,
etc. revolve in their orbits. The sun lies
at the center of solar system. The surface
temperature of the sun is about 5400°C.
The nuclear fusion reaction is the source
Fig.
of heat of the sun. In this reaction, a single
heavy nucleus is formed by combining
24.1
two or more light nuclei. Similarly, a vast
amount of energy is produced in the sun Solar System
by the conversion of hydrogen gas into helium gas.
All planets revolve around the sun in their elliptical orbits. The earth is the only planet
having suitable conditions for the existence of living beings. Moreover, the earth has
suitable temperature, water and supporting gases required for the existence of living
beings.
Motion of the Earth

There are two types of motions of the earth. They are diurnal motion and annual motion.
The earth takes 1 day (i.e. 23 hour 56 minutes 4 seconds) to complete one rotation around
its axis. It is called diurnal motion. The motion of the earth in which it rotates around its
own axis is called diurnal motion. The axis of the earth tilted at an angle of 66.5° with its
orbital plane. The earth rotates from west to east in its axis. The rotation of the earth
causes day and night on the surface of the earth.
The earth revolves around the sun in its own
elliptical orbit. It takes 365 days, 5 hours,
48 minutes and 46 seconds to complete one Do You Know
revolution around the sun. This revolution of There are 365 days in a year. But every
the earth is called annual or orbital motion. fourth year has one more day. The
particular year which have 366 days is
Seasons on the Earth
called a leap year. The extra day in a leap
The revolution of the earth causes the change year is added in February. Thus, February
of seasons on the earth. It occurs due to the has 29 days in the leap year.
following reasons.
i. Revolution of the earth around the sun.
ii. Spherical shape of the earth
iii. Tilted axis of the earth
iv. Elliptical orbit of the earth.

Change of Seasons on the Earth
The earth completes one revolution around the sun in 365 days. The earth revolves around
the sun in an elliptical orbit and the axis of rotation of the earth is tilted at an angle of
66.5°. Due to these reasons, the earth is not always at the same distance from the sun
which results in the change in seasons on the earth. The duration of one year, i.e. 365 days
is divided into four seasons. They are:
i. Summer season ii. Autumn season
iii. Winter season iv. Spring season
The tilted axis of rotation of the earth always lies in the same direction. Due to this, the
position of the northern and southern hemispheres of the earth towards the sun keeps on
changing throughout the year. When the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun,
we experience summer and the people in the southern hemisphere experience winter.
Spring and autumn seasons occur when the earth lies in between these two extreme
positions in its orbit.
Spring
March 21/22
Sun
Summer Winter
June 20/21 December 21/22
Fig.
24.2 Autumn, September 22/23

Formation of seasons on the earth
On June 21, i.e. 8th of Asar, the earth lies the farthest from the sun in the southern
hemisphere, but the nearest from it in the northern hemisphere. So, the northern
hemisphere experiences the longest day and the southern hemisphere experiences the
shortest day on June 21. At this time, the summer season occurs in the northern hemisphere
and the winter season occurs in the southern hemisphere.
On December 22, i.e. Poush 7, the northern hemisphere has the shortest day and the southern
hemisphere has the longest day. At this time, the winter season occurs in the northern
hemisphere and the summer season occurs in the southern hemisphere.
On March 21, i.e. Chaitra 8, the sun lies above the equator and the days and nights are
equal in all parts of the earth. At this time, the spring season occurs in the northern
hemisphere and the autumn season occurs in the southern hemisphere.
On September 23, i.e. Asoj 7, the rays of the sun fall perpendicularly on the equator. So,
day and night are equal in both hemispheres. At this time, the autumn season occurs in
the northern hemisphere and the summer season occurs in the southern hemisphere.
Phases of the Moon
Different shapes of moon can be seen every day when viewed from the earth. What is the
reason behind this fact? Have you seen different shapes of the moon or not?
The planets and satellites do not have their own source of light for shining. They shine by
reflecting the light from the sun. The moon is the natural satellite of the earth. It does not
have its own source of light. The moon always presents its same face towards the earth.
When the reflected light of the moon reaches the earth, the moon becomes visible. We see
only that part of the moon which reflects the sunlight towards the earth.
Third quarter
Waning crescent Waning Gibbous
New moon Full moon
Waxing crescent Waxing Gibbous

Fig.
First quarter
24.3
Phases of moon
When the moon lies in between the sun and
the earth, the reflected light from the moon
does not reach the earth and the moon is not
visible. This day is called the new moon day.
The dark side of the moon faces the earth on
the new moon day.
On the night just after the new moon day, a
Fig.
crescent moon can be seen. The other part of

the moon is only faintly visible. The crescent
goes on increasing till the 15th day from the 24.4
new moon day when the full bright face of New moon
the moon is visible. The day is called the full
moon day.
The gradual increase in the bright disc of the
moon is called waxing of the moon. The
bright disc of the moon increases for 15 days
after the new moon day. This duration is
called the bright half. After the full moon, the
bright face of the moon goes on decreasing
Fig.
every day for 15 days. This duration is called

the dark half. The gradual decrease in the
24.5
bright disc of the moon is called waning of
Full moon
the moon. So, the waxing and waning of the disc of the moon, as the moon revolves
around the earth, is called the phases of the moon.
On the full moon day, the moon rises in the Do You Know
eastern sky and it rises 50 minutes later the
next day. The moon revolves around the When the earth lies between the moon and
the sun, the full bright face of the moon is
earth in its own orbit. The moon completes
1 seen from the earth. This day is called the
one revolution around the earth in 27 days. full moon day.
3
This duration is called the sidereal month.
1
Similarly, the duration between two consecutive new moons or full moons is 29 days.
2
This duration is called the synodic month.
Differences between Synodic month and Sidereal month.

Synodic month Sidereal month
1. This is the time period between two 1. This is the time taken by the moon to
new moons or two full moons. complete one revolution around the
earth.
2. 1 2. 1
Its duration is 29 days. Its duration is 27 days.
2 3
Positions of the Sun, the Earth and the Moon

The sun is the nearest star from the earth. It is a medium-sized star consisting of masses
of hot gas. More then 70% hydrogen gas is present in the sun. The sun revolves around
the galaxy and it also revolves around its own orbit. The earth revolves around the sun in
its elliptical orbit. Thus, in the course of revolution, the earth reaches far from the sun and
comes near to the sun due to its elliptical orbit around the sun. The moon is the natural
satellite of the earth. It revolves around the earth in its elliptical orbit. In the course of
revolution of the earth and the moon, sometimes the moon the earth and the sun lies in
the same straight line. Sometimes, the moon lies between the earth and the sun. Similarly,
sometimes the earth lies between the sun the moon. In the course of revolving around the
earth, the moon also revolves around the sun.
Umbra and Penumbra Penumbra Earth’s

Umbra orbit
When an opaque object
blocks the light coming
from the source, shadow
is formed on the screen.
When an opaque object,
large than the light source, Moon
is placed between the light
Fig.
Sun Total eclipse Earth

source and the screen, two Moon’s
Partial eclipse
portions of shadow are orbit
24.6
formed. They are inner
Process of shadow formation
portion and outer portion. The completely dark inner portion of the shadow that does
not receive light at all is called umbra. Similarly, the outer lighter portion of shadow
that receives some light from the source is called penumbra. In the process of shadow
formation, umbra and penumbra can be observed. Source of light, opaque object and
screen are essential for shadow formation.
Activity 1
Place a ball between a cardboard and a torch light on a table in a straight line. Focus the
light of torch light and observe it. Study it and explain the process of shadow formation
with figure.
Eclipse
The sun is a luminous body with its own source of light. The earth and the moon are
non-luminous and opaque bodies. They do not have their own source of light. They shine
by reflecting the light coming from the sun. We know that the earth revolves around the
sun and the moon revolves around the earth in their fixed elliptical orbits. In the course
of revolution, sometimes the sun, the earth and the moon come to lie in a straight line.
In such situation, the body which lies in between casts a shadow and causes an ellipse.
Hence an eclipse is the phenomenon of casting shadow on the earth or on the moon in
course of the revolution of the earth and the moon in their orbits.
The causes of eclipse are given below.

i. Light travels in a straight line.
ii. The earth revolves around the sun and the moon revolves around the earth.
iii. The sun, the earth and the moon come to lie in a straight line with the earth or the
moon in between.
iv. The earth casts shadow on the moon or the moon casts shadow on the earth.
Types of Eclipse
There are two types of eclipse. They are lunar eclipse and solar eclipse.
Lunar Eclipse
When the sun, the earth and the moon come to lie, in a straight line with the earth is in
between, the earth casts shadow on the moon causing the lunar eclipse. Lunar eclipse
the phenomenon of casting shadow by the earth on the moon. The conditions of causing
lunar eclipse are :
i. The sun, the earth and the moon come to lie in a straight line in the course of revolution
of the earth and the moon.
ii. The earth lies in between the sun and the moon.
The orbital plane of the moon makes on angle of 5.15° with the orbital plane of the earth.
Thus, the orbits of the earth and that of the moon intersect at two points. These two points
are called Rahu and Ketu. On the full moon night, the moon lies at this point and the sun,
the earth and the moon come to lie in a straight line. The earth casts its shadow on the
moon since the earth lies between the sun and the moon. Therefore, a lunar eclipse can
occur only on a full moon day.
Fig.
24.7
Lunar Eclipse
But at every full moon day there is no lunar eclipse since the moon does not lie at Rahu
and Ketu and the sun, the earth and the moon do not come to lie in a straight line at every
full moon day.
Total Lunar Eclipse and Partial Lunar Eclipse

The moon passes through the different areas of shadow when it moves round the earth.
The moon is a non-luminous body and hence it is not visible itself. Thus, the moon is
invisible when it comes to lie in the umbra cone of the earth. In this situation, it does
not receive any light from the sun and hence does not reflect any light. This condition is
called total lunar eclipse. Similarly, the moon comes slightly out of the line in the course of
revolution. In this condition, the moon is not be completely in the umbra cone of the earth
and hence it receives some light from the sun and reflects it. Thus, the moon is partially
visible from the earth. The situation of lunar eclipse in which the moon is partially visible
is called partial lunar eclipse.
Solar Eclipse
Solar eclipse is the condition of casting shadow on the earth by the moon. When the sun,
the earth and the moon come to lie in a straight line in the course of revolution with the
moon in the middle, the moon casts its shadow on the earth. This condition is called solar
eclipse. Thus, the phenomenon in which the moon casts shadow on the earth during the
revolution of the earth and the moon is called solar eclipse. The causes of solar eclipse are :
i. The sun, the earth and the moon come to lie in a same straight line in the course of
revolution of the earth and the moon.
ii. The moon lies between the earth and the sun.
iii. The moon casts its shadow on the earth.

A solar eclipse occurs only on a new moon day since the dark side of the moon faces the
earth on new moon day only. But on every new moon day, the sun, the earth and the
moon do not come to lie in a straight line and hence there is no lunar eclipse on every
new moon day. The orbital plane of the earth is at an angle of 5.15° with the orbital plane
of the moon.
Fig.
24.8
Solar Eclipse
Total Solar Eclipse and Partial Solar Eclipse
In the course of revolution, the portion of the earth completely falls in the umbra region.
This condition of solar eclipse is called total solar eclipse. In total solar eclipse, the sun
appears as a black circular disk with ring of light. The duration of total solar eclipse is
very short (i.e. 8 minutes). Similarly, the condition of solar eclipse in which the portion of
the earth falls in the penumbra is called partial solar eclipse.
Sometimes the distance between the earth
and the moon in increased during the solar
eclipse. In this situation, the sun is appeared
Fig.
as a ring-like structure since the central part

of the sun is blocked. The situation of solar
24.9 Total eclipse Annular eclipse Partial eclipse
eclipse is called an annular solar eclipse. In
every 1000 years, an annular solar eclipse Different types of solar eclipse
occurs in a particular place of the earth. It is harmful to view solar eclipse with naked eyes
because it can damage our eye sight permanently. Solar eclipse can be viewed through safety
glasses or forming an image of the sun on a screen by different methods.
Differences between Lunar eclipse and Solar eclipse.

Lunar eclipse Solar eclipse
1. In lunar eclipse, the earth lies in the 1. In solar eclipse, the moon lies in
between the sun and the moon in a between the sun and the earth in a
straight line. straight line.
2. It occurs in full moon day. 2. It occurs in new moon day.
3. In lunar eclipse, the shadow of the 3. In solar eclipse, the shadow of the
earth falls on the moon. moon falls on the earth.

Key Concepts
1. The days and nights occurs due to the rotation of the earth, whereas change in
seasons occurs due to the revolution of the earth.
2. One light year is defined as the distance travelled by light in one year in vacuum.
3. The average distance between the sun and the earth is called astronomical unit. Its
value is 1.5 × 1011m, i.e 1 Astronomical unit = 1.5 × 1011m.
4. Parsec is the unit of measuring the distance between celestial bodies. It is greater
than light year. 1 parsec = 3.26 light years.
5. The family of the sun which consists of eight planets, their satellites, asteroids,
comets, etc is called solar system.
6. The earth revolves around the sun in its own elliptical orbit. It takes 365 days, 5
hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds to complete one revolution around the sun. This
revolution of the earth is called annual or orbital motion.
7. The phases of the moon refers to the different sizes of the lighted part of the moon.
8. The time period between a no moon or new moon and full moon is called bright
half. It is the period of 15 days. The bright part of the moon increases gradually in
bright half. Similarly, the time period between a full moon and new moon is called
dark half. It is also a period of 15 days. The moon wanes during this period.
9. The moon is the natural satellite of the earth. It revolves around the earth in its
elliptical orbit.
1
10. The moon completes its one revolution around the earth in 27 days. This time
3
period is called sidereal month. Similarly, the time period between two full moons
1
or two new moons is 29 days. This period is called synodic month.
2
11. The completely dark inner portion of the shadow that does not receive light at all is
called umbra. Similarly, the outer lighter portion of shadow that receives some light
from the source is called penumbra.
12. An eclipse is the phenomenon of casting shadow on the earth or on the moon in
course of the revolution of the earth and the moon in their orbits.
13. When the sun, the earth and the moon come to lie, in a straight line with the earth
is in between, the earth casts shadow on the moon causing the lunar eclipse.
14. At every full moon day there is no lunar eclipse since the moon does not lie at Rahu
and Ketu and the sun, the earth and the moon do not come to lie in a straight line at
every full moon day.

15. Solar eclipse is the condition of casting shadow on the earth by the moon. When the
sun, the earth and the moon come to lie in a straight line in the course of revolution
with the moon in the middle, the moon casts its shadow on the earth. This condition
is called solar eclipse.
16. In total solar eclipse, the sun appears as a black circular disk with ring of light.

1. Choose the best answer the given alternatives.
a. How many planets and satellites in the solar system?
8 planets and 183 satellites 9 planets and 173 satellites
8 planets and 173 satellites 9 planets and 178 satellites
b. What is the distance between the sun and the earth?
1.5 × 7km 1.5 × 106 km
1.5 × 108km 1.5 × 109km
c. What is the speed of the light in vacuum?
3 × 106m/s 3 × 107m/s
3 × 108m/s 3 × 1010/ms
d. What is the time period between a new moon and a full moon called?
Dark half Bright half
Sidereal month Synodic month
e. What is the condition of solar eclipse?
The earth lies between the sun and the moon
The moon lies between the sun and the earth.
The sun casts shadow on the earth.
The earth casts its shadow on the moon.

a. What is universe? What does it consist of ?
b. Describe the units related to astronomical distance briefly.
c. Define solar system. Explain the positions of the sun, the earth and the moon in
the solar system.
d. Explain the motions of the earth briefly.
e. What does the phases of moon mean? How is different phases of moon possible?
f. Define umbra and penumbra with a well labeled diagram.
g. What is an eclipse? Mention the causes of eclipse.
h. Define lunar eclipse and solar eclipse with their conditions.
a. Bright half and dark half
b. New moon and full moon
c. Diurnal motion and annual motion
d. Total eclipse and partial eclipse
e. Total solar eclipse and annular solar eclipse
f. Synodic month and sidereal month
4. Give reason:
a. The earth sometimes comes near the sun and sometimes goes far from it.
b. Synodic month is longer than sidereal month.
c. Lunar eclipse does not occur on every full moon night.
d. Solar eclipse does not occur on every new moon day.
e. It is harmful to view solar eclipse with naked eyes.
Project work
Draw neat and labeled diagrams of lunar eclipse and solar eclipse in a chart paper
and present it in your classroom by describing the phenomena of occurring eclipse.

1. What is the universe? Write.
2. What is the distance between the earth and the sun?
3. What is milky way galaxy?
4. Define solar system.
5. Define one solar day.
6. Write any two characteristics of planets.
7. What do you mean by rotation and revolution of the earth?
8. What do you mean by umbra and penumbra?
9. Define synodic month.
10. What is lunar eclipse?
11. What is sidereal month?
12. In which days of the year are the days and nights equal in all the parts of the earth?
Write.
13. Write down the location of the Milky Way and the sun in our galaxy

14. Living beings can survive on the earth but cannot survive on the mercury. Give reason.
15. In which condition does lunar eclipse occur? The moon takes some time to become
bright after the eclipse, why?
16. Solar eclipse and lunar eclipse cannot be observed at the same time from all the parts
of the earth. Why?
17. Why is the duration of lunar eclipse more than that of the solar eclipse? Give reason.
18. Why is the distance between the earth and the moon not the same throughout the
year? Give reason.
19. Write any two reasons for the existence of living beings on the earth.
20. What type of eclipse would be seen when observed from the moon during lunar
eclipse? Give reason.
21. Draw a neat and labelled figure sowing solar eclipse.
22. Why is solar eclipse important for scientists? Moon appears dim just before the eclipse.
What is the reason behind it?
23. What is the reason for changing seasons on the earth?

24. Write any two differences between bright half and dark half
25. Write any two differences between lunar eclipse and solar eclipse.

26. Draw a neat and labelled figure showing lunar eclipse and explain how does it occur.
27. Write any two differences between sidereal month and synodic month. What effect
would occur in the solar and lunar eclipse if the axis of the earth and that of the moon
lie in the same plane? Write.
28. Name the type of the eclipse shown in the figure. Also describe the occurrence of such
a type of eclipse in brief.
29. Define solar eclipse and how does it occur? Describe with a labelled figure.
30. Explain the phases of the moon with a neat and labelled figure.

Secondary Examination/Specification Grid (Theory)
Compulsory Science
Grade: 9 F.M.: 75
Time: 2 hour 15 minutes
Subject Total
Unit K U A HA Remarks
Area weighting
Measurement
Force
Machine
Energy, Work and Power
Physics 5×1 4×2 2×3 1×4 23
Light
Sound
Current Electricity and
Magnetism
Classification of Elements
Chemical Reaction
Solubility
Some Gases
Chemistry Metals 4×1 4×2 2×3 1×4 22
Carbon and its Compounds
Water
Chemical Fertilizers Used in
Agriculture
Classification of Plants and
Animals
Adaptation of Organisms
Biology System 5×1 4×2 2×3 1×4 23
Sense Organs
Evolution
Nature and Environment
Geology Natural Hazard

and Greenhouse 1×1 1×2 – 1×4 7
Astronomy The Earth in the Universe
Total number of questions 15 13 6 4 38
Total weighting 15 26 18 16 75

Model Question
Compulsory Science
Grade: 9 F.M.: 75
Time: 2 hour 15 minutes
Group A 15×1=15
1. How is 'one second' time defined in SI system?
2. What do you mean by inertia of rest?
3. State the law of moment.
4. What is chemical energy?
5. What is an electric load?
6. What is chemical reaction?
7. What is oxyhydrogen flame?
8. Define allotropes and allotropism.
9. What are phosphorus fertilizers?
10. What are autotrophic and heterotrophic plants?
11. What are bacteria? Name the scientist who discovered bacteria.
12. Write down the major function of synovial fluid.
13. What is cochlea? Write down its function.
14. What type of organisms are called heterotrophs?
15. What is sidereal month?
Group B 13×2=26
16. It is impossible to get a perfect machine in practice. Give reason.
17. The apparent depth of water in a pond appears less than the real depth. Give
reason with figure.
18. Sound absorbing materials are kept in the walls of cinema hall. Why?
19. Germanium and silicon are called semiconductors. Why?
20. Why is Mg++ called a basic radical? Given reason.
21. Nickel powder is used while preparing hydrogen gas in industries. Give reason.
22. Diamond cannot conduct electricity but graphite can. Why?
23. Write any two differences between hard water and soft water.
24. Sea horse is kept in class pisces. Why?
25. Body structure and colour of animals help them in adaptation. Justify this
statement with an example.
26. Canine teeth of human beings are called vestigial organs and Archaeopteryx is
called a bridge animal, why?
27. Leech and mosquito are called parasites. Give reason.
Group C 6×3=18
28. How is the angle of dip at a certain place measured? Dip needle
Describe in brief. Which region in the earth will the dip Horizontal line
needle set itself as show in the given figure? Write with Land
reason.
29. What happens to the kinetic energy when the velocity of a moving body is
doubled? Explain.
30. What are sub-atomic particles? Study the given table and answer the following
questions:
Elements Electronic configuration
A 2, 6
B 2, 8, 6
C 2, 8, 18, 6
a. What is the valency of element 'C' and why?
b. Name the compound formed by the combination of A and B and write down
the type of the bond formed between them.
31. Write down two uses of each of the given gases.
a. Hydrogen b. Oxygen c. Nitrogen
32. Write any three criticism's of Darwin's theory.
33. What is the relationship between plants and animals in an ecosystem? Explain.
Group D 4×4=16
34. Answer the following questions on the basis of given ray diagram. 1+1+1+1
a. Name the rays A and B.
b. Which ray has more speed (A or B) in the glass medium?
Light
c. Which phenomenon is shown in the given diagram.
d. Ray B is bending more than the ray A. What is the A
Prism B
reason behind it?
35. Describe in brief the role of sodium and potassium ions in the bodies of living
beings. Complete the given ionic equations.
NaCl .......... + Cl–
CuSO4 Cu++ + ..........
36. What are shown in the given figure? What is their importance to support the
theory of organic evolution? Explain.
37. How does climate change occur due to increase in release of greenhouse gases?
Write in brief.

Green Science 9 Final PDF (2076)

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Green Science 9 Final PDF (2076)

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Approved by Government of Nepal, Ministry of Education, Curriculum

Development Centre, Sanothimi, Bhaktapur as an additional material

Lalitpur, Nepal, Tel: 977-1-5529899

Geology and Astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Before You Begin

Learning Objectives Syllabus

Glossary: A dictionary of scientific/technical terms

measurement : the comparison of an unknown physical quantity with a known standard

1. Fundamental physical quantities

Unit and its Types

6 GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9

thermometer watch beam balance ammeter

Q1. Kilogram is called a fundamental unit, why?

Q2. Second is called a fundamental unit, why?

Physical Expression/ SI units Symbol Basic units

Q3. The unit of acceleration is called a derived unit.

Q4. The unit of density is called a derived unit.

Q5. The unit of pressure is called a derived unit.

Fundamental units Derived units

Differences between Fundamental (Basic) units and Derived units

GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9 9

S.N. Physical units Traditional units Standard units

10 GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9

GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9 11

Sequential General Exercise 1

mass length time love

b. Which of the following is the SI unit of mass?

12 GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9

d. Which of the following is a derived unit?

e. Which of the following is the SI unit of density?

m/s kg/m3 g/cm3 kg m3

2. Answer the following questions.

4. Write down the SI units of the given physical quantities.

7. Find out the fundamental units involved in the units of

8. Write a short note on “SI system of measurement”.

14 GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9

For Group ‘C’ (Application Type Questions) (3 Marks Each)

For Group ‘D’ (Higher Abilities Type Questions) (4 Marks Each)

GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9 15

Before You Begin

Learning Objectives Syllabus

16 GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9

the state, i.e. rest or motion, of a body is

Rest and motion are relative terms

passengers, seats, fan of the train, walls

GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9 17

Differences between Scalars and Vectors

Distance and Displacement C

irrespective of its direction. In the

SI system, distance is measured in 5km

18 GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9

Speed and Velocity

GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9 19

Differences between Speed and Velocity

Uniform velocity and Non-uniform velocity

2.7 0s 10m 1s 10m 2s 10m 3s 10m 4s 10m 5s

A body is said to be moving with non-uniform or variable velocity if it covers unequal

2.8 1s 20m 2s 10m 3s 16m 4s 8m 5s

GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9 21

2.9 Stop A time (t) Stop B

22 GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9

Positive acceleration and Negative acceleration

GREEN Science (Physics) Book-9 23

16 constant velocity (zero