RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY (ANP410)

FARRAH SHAFEERA @ ANN IBRAHIM

Level 13, FSK 6, Faculty of Health Sciences
shafeera@puncakalam.uitm.edu.my
017-6060558 / 03-32584362

OUTLINES

1. Respiratory organs and their functions

2. Pulmonary ventilation

3. Lung volumes and capacities

4. Control of respiration

5. Hypobaria, hyperbaria and exercise effect on respiration

‘EVERY BREATH IS A BLESSING OF ALLAH’

1
RESPIRATORY
ORGANS
&
THEIR FUNCTIONS
Breathing and Respiration

1. Process by which O2 is obtained from the environment and delivered to the cell. CO2
is transported outside in a reverse pathway

2. Respiration is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere, blood, and cells
(between the body and its environment )

3. The combination of 3 processes is required for respiration to occur

Ventilation (breathing)
External (pulmonary) respiration
Internal (tissue) respiration

4. The cardiovascular system assists the respiratory system by transporting gases

Function of the respiratory system

• Gas exchange-allow O2 from the air to enter the blood and CO2 to leave from the blood to the air
• Regulation of blood pH
• Voice production
• Olfaction (sensation of smell)- when airborne molecules enter into nasal cavity

• Protection-prevent entry of microbe by removing them from respiratory surfaces

Component of the respiratory system

The components of the respiratory system are

divided into:

Structurally Functionally
1.Upper respiratory system 1.Conducting zone
2.Lower respiratory system 2.Respiratory zone
 Upper
respiratory
tract

Lower
respiratory
tract

Structurally

1.Upper respiratory system: the nose, nasal cavity and pharynx

2.Lower respiratory system: the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs

Functionally, the respiratory system is divided into the conducting zone and the respiratory zone

• The conducting zone is involved with bringing air to the site of external respiration and
consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and terminal bronchioles.

• The respiratory zone is the main site of gas exchange and consists of the alveolar ducts,
alveolar sacs, and alveoli.

Functionally, the respiratory system is divided into the conducting zone and the respiratory zone

• The conducting zone is involved with bringing air to the site of external respiration and
consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and terminal bronchioles.

• The respiratory zone is the main site of gas exchange and consists of the alveolar ducts,
alveolar sacs, and alveoli.
Respiratory System Anatomy

The flow of air:

• Nostril (nose)
• Nasal cavity
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Primary (1o) bronchi
• Secondary (2o) bronchi
• Tertiary (3o) bronchi
• Bronchioles
• Alveoli (150 million/lung)

Structure Function
Nasal cavity Filter, moisten & warm the air
Pharynx Connect nasal & oral cavities to the larynx
Larynx Contain vocal chords for sound production
Trachea Allow movement of air to the bronchi
Bronchi Allow movement of air to the  lungs
Bronchiole Allow the movement of air to the alveoli
Alveoli Act as internal gas exchange surfaces
 Conducting Zone 1 : NOSE

The only externally visible part of the respiratory system

Structure of the nose

The nose is divided into two regions:
• The external nose, including the root, bridge, dorsum nasi, and apex
• The interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum

The external portion of the nose is made of cartilage and skin

and is lined with mucous membrane

Nasal cavity

1.Vestibule

Contain hairs that filter foreign particles from inspired air

2.Nasal septum

• Partition dividing nasal cavity into right and left parts

• Anterior part is cartilage & posterior part consist of vomer bone
• Consist 3 body ridges (conchae, meatus, paranasal sinus)

Function of the nose

The only externally visible part of the

respiratory system that functions by:

• Providing an airway for respiration

• Moistening and warming the entering air
• Filtering inspired air and cleaning it of foreign matter
• Housing the olfactory receptors
 Conducting Zone 2 : PHARYNX

The pharynx functions as a passageway for air and food, provides a resonating chamber for
speech sounds, and houses the tonsils, which participate in immunological reactions against
foreign invaders.

It is divided into 3 regions:

1. Nasopharynx - located posterior to conchae & superior to the soft palate

2. Oropharynx - extends from the soft palate to the epiglottis
3. Laryngopharynx - extends from epiglottis to the esophagus

Conducting Zone 3 : LARYNX

(VOICE BOX)

Conducting Zone 3 : LARYNX (VOICE BOX)

Extends from the base of tongue to the trachea

(passageway of air between pharynx and trachea)

The three functions of the larynx are:

• To act as a switching mechanism to route air

and food into the proper channels
• Involved in voice production
• Trap foreign particle & debris in the air
(larynx is lined up by pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium which produces mucus)
The larynx contains vocal folds, which produce sound when they vibrate

Structures of Voice Production

Conducting Zone 4 : TRACHEA

1. The trachea extends from the larynx to the primary bronchi

2. Membranous tube attached to the larynx

3. Composed of 3 layers
• Mucosa – made up of goblet cells and pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
• Submucosa – connective tissue deep to the mucosa
• Adventitia – outermost layer made of C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
 4. Trachea divides into 2 smaller tubes (primary bronchi) at the
junction called carina

5. Carina –sensitive area for triggering the cough reflex

Conducting Zone : BRONCHI

• Formed by division of the trachea

• Enters the lung at the hilus (medial depression)

• Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than left

• Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches

• Tissue walls of bronchi mimic to the tissue wall of trachea

(goblet cells and pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium )

• As conducting tubes become smaller, structural changes occur

§Cartilage support structures change
§Epithelium types change
§Amount of smooth muscle increases
 LUNGS
Lungs
The lungs are paired organs in the thoracic
cavity

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Lungs
The lungs are enclosed and protected by the
pleural membrane

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Divided into 2 (visceral and parietal pleura)

• Between parietal and visceral pleura-pleural fluid
• Function of pleural fluid:
1) Act as lubricant (when lung and thoracic cavity change their shape during respiration)
2) Hold pleural membranes together

Lobes and Fissures of the Lungs

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Defined by the presence of alveoli;
Respiratory Zone : Alveolus
• Begins as terminal bronchioles feed into respiratory bronchioles
• Respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar ducts, then to alveolar sacs composed of alveoli
• Approximately 300 million alveoli:

Structure of an alveolus

• Surrounded by fine elastic fibers

• Contain open pores that:
§Connect adjacent alveoli
§Allow air pressure throughout the lung to be equalized
1. Surrounded by capillaries for gas exchange

2. Very large surface area.

3. One cell layer thick which allows for gas exchange.

Structure of an alveolus

Alveolar walls:
§ The thin wall of an alveolus is
primarily composed of simple
squamous epithelium
§ Gas exchange occur easily
across this very thin epithelium
by simple diffusion
§ Alveolar macrophages remove
debris and microbes from the
inner surface of the alveolus

§ Type I cell allow for

gas exchange with
pulmonary capillaries
§ Type II cell secrete
substance (surfactant)
to prevent collapse of
alveoli during
exhalation and to
reduce surface tension
 Role of surfactant

The respiratory membrane is composed of:

1. A layer of type I and type II alveolar cells and associated alveolar macrophages that constitutes the alveolar wall

2.An epithelial basement membrane underlying the alveolar wall

3.A capillary basement membrane that is often fused to the epithelial basement membrane

4.The capillary endothelium

 ALIVE
OR
JUST BREATHING?

2
PULMONARY
VENTILATION
• Ventilation: process of moving air into and out of the lungs
• 2 phases: inhalation (movement of air into the lung) & exhalation (movement of air out of the lung)

Boyle’s Law
Pressure changes that drive inhalation and
exhalation are governed, in part, by Boyle’s
Law
§ The volume of a gas varies inversely with its
pressure

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

During inspiration
-Contraction of muscles of inspiration increases the volume of thoracic cavity
-Increased thoracic volume causes the lung to expand (alveolar volume increased)
-Alveolar pressure <atmospheric pressure

During expiration
- Relaxation of muscles of expiration decreased the volume of thoracic cavity
- Decreased thoracic volume producing decrease in alveolar volume
- Alveolar pressure >atmospheric pressure
Pressure Changes in Pulmonary Ventilation

Other Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation

Surface tension

Inwardly directed force in the alveoli which must be overcome to expand the lungs during each

inspiration

Elastic recoil

Decreases the size of the alveoli during expiration

Compliance

Ease with which the lungs and thoracic wall can be expanded
 3
LUNG VOLUMES
&
CAPACITIES

Spirometer: device used to measure the volume of air that move into & out of respiratory system

Consist of 4 types of lung volumes

1) Tidal volume (TV): volume of air inspired/expired with each breath

2) Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after

inspiration of resting tidal volume

3) Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): amount of air that can be expired forcefully after expiration of

the resting tidal volume

4) Residual volume (RV): volume of air still remaining in respiratory passages after maximum

expiration

Spirometer: device used to measure the volume of air that move into & out of respiratory system

Consist of 4 types of lung volumes

1) Tidal volume (TV): volume of air inspired/expired with each breath

2) Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): amount of air that can be inspired forcefully after

inspiration of resting tidal volume

3) Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): amount of air that can be expired forcefully after expiration of

the resting tidal volume

4) Residual volume (RV): volume of air still remaining in respiratory passages after maximum

expiration
§Inspiratory capacity : Amount of air can inspired maximally after normal expiration
IRV + TV

§Functional residual capacity : Amount of air remaining in the lung at the end of normal expiration
ERV + RV
§Vital capacity : All the air can be exhaled after maximum inspiration
IRV + TV + ERV

§Total lung capacity : Sum of IRV + ERV + TV + RV

3
GAS EXCHANGE
Factor that affecting the gas exchange across the
respiratory membrane

§Thickness of membrane
§Surface area of respiratory membrane
§Partial pressure of gases across the membrane

Gas transport
The blood transport O2 and CO2 between the lungs and other tissues throughout the body.

These gasses are carried in several different form:

1.Dissolve in the plasma

2.Chemically combined with hemoglobin (Hb)
3.Converted into a different molecule

How is  CO2 transported in blood?

CO2 is transported in the blood in 3 forms :

1.Dissolved in plasma – 5 %
2.Chemically bound to Hb – 10% is carried in RBCs as carbaminohemoglobin
3.Bicarbonate ion in plasma – 85% is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3–)
At the tissues:

1. Bicarbonate quickly diffuses from RBCs into the plasma

2. The chloride shift – to counterbalance the outrush of negative

bicarbonate ions from the RBCs, chloride ions (Cl–) move from the
plasma into the erythrocytes

At the lungs, these processes are reversed

1. Bicarbonate ions move into the RBCs and bind with hydrogen ions
to form carbonic acid
2. Carbonic acid is then split by carbonic anhydrase to release CO2 and
H2O
3. CO2 then diffuses from the blood into the alveoli

Transport and Exchange of CO2 - Bohr effect

Definition:
Effect by which an increase of CO2 in
the blood and a decrease in pH
results in a reduction of the affinity
of Hb for O2
Oxygen Transport

§Molecular O2 is carried in the blood:

§Bound to haemoglobin (Hb) within red blood cells -98.5%
§Dissolved in plasma- 1.5%

Oxygen Transport: Role of Hemoglobin

§Each Hb molecule binds four O2 atoms in a rapid and reversible process

§The hemoglobin-oxygen combination is called oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
§In pulmonary capillaries, Hb + O2         HbO2
§In tissue cappilaries, HbO2         Hb + O2
§The ability of Hb to bind to O2 depends on partial pressure of O2 (Po2)
§In lung, Po2 is normally high while in tissues, Po2 is normally low

§Describe the percent of saturation hemoglobin as a function of PO2

§Hemoglobin is 100% saturated with O2 when each Hb binds with 4 atoms of O2
Several other factors influence the
affinity of Hb to binds with O2 .
1) Blood pH
2) PCO2
3) Temperature

Fever (↑ temp), ↑ CO2 and acidosis (↑H+) shift the curve to the right, making it easier

to unload O2 at the tissues

Hypothermia (↓ temp), ↓CO2 and alkalosis (↓ H+) shift the curve to the left, binding
O2 more strongly
The Bohr effect is a phenomenon that arises from the relationship between pH and oxygen’s affinity for hemoglobin:
A lower, more acidic pH promotes oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin.
A higher, or more basic, pH inhibits oxygen dissociation from hemoglobin.

Fetal and Maternal Hemoglobin

Fetal hemoglobin (Hb-F) has a higher affinity for

oxygen (it is shifted to the left) than adult
hemoglobin A, so it binds O2 more strongly.
§ The fetus is thus able
to attract oxygen
across the placenta
and support life,
without lungs.
 4
CONTROL OF
RESPIRATION

Neural Regulation of
Respiration
• Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to
the brain by the phrenic and intercostal nerves
• Neural centers that control rate & depth are
located in the medulla
• The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
• Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15 min.
• Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often due
to extra oxygen needs
 5
HYPOBARIA, HYPERBARIA
AND
EXERCISE EFFECT ON
RESPIRATION

Factors Influencing

Respiratory Rate & Depth

•Physical factors
–Increased body temperature
–Exercise
–Talking
–Coughing

•Volition (conscious control)

•Emotional factors

•Chemical factors

A) Carbon dioxide levels

•Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the main regulatory chemical for respiration
•Increased carbon dioxide increases respiration
•Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the medulla oblongata

B) Oxygen levels
•Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are detected by
chemoreceptors in the aorta and carotid artery
•Information is sent to the medulla oblongata
Aging results in decreased:
§Vital capacity
§Blood O2 level
§Alveolar macrophage activity
§Ciliary action of respiratory epithelia

Consequently, elderly people are more susceptible to pneumonia,

bronchitis, emphysema, and other issues

Disorders: Homeostatic Imbalances

§Asthma
§Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
§Lung cancer
§Pneumonia
§Tuberculosis
§Common cold
§Pulmonary edema
§Cystic fibrosis
§Asbestos-related diseases
§Sudden infant death syndrome
§Acute respiratory distress

Emphysema
•Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break through
•Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis
•Airways collapse during expiration
•Patients use a large amount of energy to exhale
•Over-inflation of the lungs leads to a barrel chest
 Chronic Bronchitis
•Inflammation of the mucosa of the lower respiratory passages
•Mucus production increases
•Pooled mucus impairs ventilation & gas exchange
•Risk of lung infection increases
•Pneumonia is common
•Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early

•Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema

•Major causes of death and disability in the United States

•Features of these diseases

–Patients have a history of smoking

–Labored breathing (dyspnea)

–Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections

Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

Lung Cancer
•Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the United States
•Increased incidence associated with smoking
•Three common types
–Squamous cell carcinoma
–Adenocarcinoma
–Small cell carcinoma
Sudden Infant Death syndrome (SIDS)
•Healthy infant stops breathing and dies during sleep

•Some cases are thought to be a problem of the neural respiratory control center

•1/3 of cases appear to be due to heart rhythm abnormalities

Asthma

•Chronic inflammation if the bronchiole passages

•Response to irritants with dyspnea, coughing, and wheezing

3 THINGS THAT YOU HAVE LEARNED