GENERAL BIOLOGY
THE CELL THEORY
QUARTER 1 - MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION
● Prior to the invention of the very first microscope, everything
that could not be seen by the naked eye was unexplainable.
● In 1665, English physicist Robert Hooke used of the first light
microscope to look at thin slices of plant tissues.
● One of these, a slice of cork, especially caught his eye. Under
the microscope, cork seemed to be made of thousands of tiny
chambers.
● Hooke called this chambers ― Cells because they reminded
him of a monastery‘s tiny rooms, which were also known as
cells.
● Until 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek published his
observations on tiny living organisms which he named
animalcules.
● It was believed that Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe
under his microscope the structure of a red blood cell of
different animals as well as a sperm cell.
● One of the leading botanists in his time, Robert Brown in 1831
was able to compare diverse kinds of plant specimens under
the microscope.
● He markedly indicated that there is a common thing about
them - they are all composed of cells, and inside the cell is a
dark dense spot which he termed as the nucleus.
● A few years later, German botanist Matthias Schleiden (1838)
concluded that all plant parts are made of cells.
● Theodor Schwann (1839), also a botanist and a close friend of
Schleiden, stated that all animal tissues are composed of cells,
too.
● In 1858, Rudolf Virchow concluded that all cells come from
pre-existing cells.
● The discoveries made by Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Schleiden,
Schwann, Virchow, and others led to the formulation of the cell
theory.
● The cell theory describes the properties of all cells.
This theory can be summed up into three basic
components:
(1)All living things are composed of one or more cells;
(2)The cell is the basic unit of life; and
(3)All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Quarter 1 - Module 1B
STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
● All living organisms are made up of one or many cells.
● The cells are the building block of life just as atoms are the
basic building blocks of all matter.
● Each cell contains materials that carry out basic life processes.
● Cell structures can only be observed under high magnification
electron microscope and are separated internally into
numerous membranous compartments called organelles (little
organs).
● Organelles perform a variety of functions like production of
proteins, storage of important materials, harvesting energy,
repairing cell parts, digestion of substances, and maintaining
the shape and structure of the cell.
CELLS STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS
CELL MEMBRANE
It separates cell from external environment; control passage of organic
molecules, ions, water, oxygen, and wastes in and out of the cell.
CYTOPLASM
The gelatinous liquid that fills the inside of a cell. Provides the structure
of the cell; site of metabolic reactions; medium in which organelles are
found.
NUCLEOLUS
An area inside the nucleus of a cell that is made up of RNA and proteins
and is where ribosomes are made.
NUCLEUS
Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis of ribosomes and
proteins.
RIBOSOMES
A ribosome is an intercellular structure made of both RNA and protein,
and it is the site of protein synthesis in the cell.
MITOCHONDRIA
A membrane-bound cell organelles that generate most of the chemical
energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.
PEROXISOMES
Are organelles that sequester diverse oxidative reactions and play
important roles in metabolism, reactive oxygen species detoxification,
and signaling.
VESICLES
Help transport materials that an organism needs to survive and recycle
waste materials. They can also absorb and destroy toxic substances and
pathogens to prevent cell damage and infection.
VACUOLES
A membrane-bound cell organelle. In animal cells, vacuoles are generally
small and help sequester waste products. In plant cells, vacuoles help
maintain water balance.
CENTROSOME
A cellular structure involved in the process of cell division. Before cell
division, the centrosome duplicates and then, as division begins, the two
centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.
CELL WALL
A rigid nonliving permeable wall that surrounds the plasma membrane
and encloses and supports the cells of most plants, bacteria, fungi, and
algae
LYSOSOME
A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains digestive
enzymes. Lysosomes are involved with various cell processes. They break
down excess or worn-out cell parts. They may be used to destroy
invading viruses and bacteria.
CHLOROPLAST
An organelle within the cells of plants and certain algae that is the site of
photosynthesis.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
(Rough vs Smooth)
A large, dynamic structure that serves many roles in the cell including
calcium storage, protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
GOLGI APPARATUS
A cell organelle that helps process and package proteins and lipid
molecules, especially proteins destined to be exported from the cell.
CYTOSKELETON
Maintains cell‘s shape, secure organelles on specific positions, allows
cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables unicellular
organisms to move independently.
FLAGELLA
A flagellum is primarily a motility organelle that enables movement and
chemotaxis.
CILIA
Cilia are short, hair like appendages extending from the surface of a living
cell.
PLASMODESMA
Plasmodesma is a microscopic cytoplasmic canal that passes through
plant-cell walls and allows direct communication of molecules between
two adjacent cells.
QUARTER 1 - MODULE 2A
PROKARYOTIC VS EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Brief Introduction
● There are two kinds of organisms according to their cell
structure, the prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
● The difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
is said to be the most important distinction among the groups
of living things.
PROKARYOTES
Pro- = “Before” Karyo- = “Nucleus”
EUKARYOTES
Eu- = “True’ Karyo- = “Nucleus”
Prokaryotic Cell vs Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a membrane-bound
nucleus, mitochondria, and all other organelles.
Eukaryotes are organisms with cells that contain membrane-bound
nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes includes bacteria and archaea (single celled organisms) that
include those that can survive in hostile environments. They exist mostly
as single celled organisms although multicellular prokaryotes do exist.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Shapes can either be cocci (round), bacilli (rod shaped) or spirilla (helical).
Eukaryotic cells
The nucleus of a eukaryotic cell contains the genetic material (DNA),
enclosed by a nuclear envelope. Other membrane-bound organelles are
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and chloroplast found in photosynthetic
organisms such as algae and plants.
There are also unicellular eukaryotes known as protozoa. All other
eukaryotes are multicellular organisms such as plants, animals, and fungi
Differences of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
● Pseudo-stratified columnar—single layer of cells; may just look
stacked because of varying height; for lining of respiratory
tract; usually lined with cilia (i.e., a type of cell modification
that sweeps the mucus).
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
● Connective tissues are a diverse group of tissues that serve
various binding and supportive functions.
● They are so widespread in the body that removal of other
tissues would still leave the complete form of the body clearly
apparent.

● Connective tissue is composed of relatively few cells, a great

PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
many extracellular fibers, and a ground substance (also called
matrix), in which the fibers are embedded.
Bacteria & Archaea Animals, Plants, Fungi (Protists)

No Nucleus Nucleus Present ● Consists of cells scattered within an extracellular matrix of

their own secretions.
Mostly Unicellular Mostly Multicellular
● It develops from the mesoderm and are described by the types
No Membrane Organelles Membrane Organelles of cells that they include and its extracellular matrix
composition.
All Have Cell Walls Some Have Cell Walls
● Connective tissue is found in between other tissues
30s/50s Ribosomes 40s/60s Ribosomes everywhere in the body. Loose and dense tissues are a kind of
soft connective tissues while cartilage, bone tissue, adipose
Plasmid is Common Plasmid is Rare tissue, and blood are specialized connective tissues.

Quarter 1 - Module 2B Connective tissues are composed of the following:

CELL TYPES AND CELL MODIFICATION
BRIEF INTRODUCTION BLOOD — made up of plasma (i.e., liquid extracellular matrix); contains
water, salts, and dissolved proteins; erythrocytes that carry oxygen
There are certain characteristics that all living things exhibit, the (RBC), leukocytes for defense (WBC), and platelets for blood clotting.
characteristics of life.
The following are the characteristics of life; Tissue Fluid

1. They metabolize. ● What is the role of tissue fluid?

2. They grow and develop. It is the fluid which allows the exchange of substances between
3. Respond to stimulus. the blood and cells. It bathes the cells of the tissues.
4. Adapt to their environment; and ● What substances are found in tissue fluid?
5. Reproduce. Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, salts and oxygen = all
delivered to the cells.
Life on Earth exhibits organization. Carbon dioxide and other waste substances = removed from
the cells.
Atom - Molecule - Macromolecule - Organelle - Cell - Tissue - Organ -
Organ System - Organism Connective tissues are composed of the following:

CELL TYPES ● CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER (CTP) — made up of loose

❖ Epithelial Cells connective tissue that is found in the skin and fibrous
❖ Connective Tissue Cells connective tissue that is made up of collagenous fibers found in
❖ Muscle Cells tendons and ligaments.
❖ Nerve Cells
● Adipose tissues are also examples of loose connective tissues
that store fats which functions to insulate the body and store
TISSUE energy.
Tissue, in physiology, a level of organization in multicellular organisms; it
consists of a group of structurally and functionally similar cells and their ● DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE — such as tendons and
intercellular material (Britannica, 2022). ligaments, is composed largely of densely packed fibers.

EPITHELIAL TISSUE ● Much of the fibrous tissue of connective tissue is composed of

● This type of tissue is commonly seen outside the body as collagen a protein material of great tensile strength.
coverings or as linings of organs and cavities.
● CARTILAGE — characterized by collagenous fibers embedded
● Epithelial tissues are characterized by closely-joined cells with in chondroitin sulfate.
tight junctions (i.e., a type of cell modification).
● Chondrocytes are the cells that secrete collagen and
● Being tightly packed, tight junctions serve as barriers for chondroitin sulfate. Cartilage functions as cushion between
pathogens, mechanical injuries, and fluid loss. bones.

Cells that make up epithelial tissues can have distinct arrangements:
● Cuboidal—for secretion
● Simple columnar—brick- shaped cells; for secretion and active
absorption
● Simple squamous—plate-like cells; for exchange of material
through diffusion
● Stratified squamous—multilayered and regenerates quickly;
for protection
● BONE — mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming
cells called osteoblasts which deposit collagen.
● The matrix of collagen is combined with calcium, magnesium,
and phosphate ions to make the bone hard. Blood vessels and
nerves are found at a central canal surrounded by concentric
circles of osteons.
MUSCLE TISSUE
● These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers
that allow the body to move voluntary or involuntary.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
● Movement of muscles is a response to signals coming from
nerve cells.
● Muscle is the most abundant tissue in the body of most
animals. It originates (with few exceptions) from mesoderm,
and its unit is the cell or muscle fiber, specialized for
contraction.
● When viewed with a light microscope, striated muscle appears
transversely striped (striated), with alternating dark and light
bands.
In vertebrates, these muscles can be categorized into the following:
● SKELETAL—striated; voluntary movements
● CARDIAC—striated with intercalated disk for synchronized
heart contraction; involuntary
● SMOOTH—not striated; involuntary
NERVOUS TISSUE
● These tissues are composed of nerve cells called neurons and
glial cells that function as support cells.
● These neurons sense stimuli and transmit electrical signals
throughout the animal body.
● Neurons connect to other neurons to send signals. The
dendrite is the part of the neuron that receives impulses from
other neurons while the axon is the part where the impulse is
transmitted to other neurons.
● Two basic types of cells in nervous tissue are neurons (nerve),
the basic functional unit of the nervous system, and neuroglia,
a variety of non-nervous cells that insulate neuron membranes
and serve various supportive functions.
THE CHROMOSOME
CHROMOSOME
● Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the
nucleus of animal and plant cells. Each chromosome is made of
protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
● Passed from parents to offspring, DNA contains the specific
instructions that make each type of living creature unique.
● A structure found inside the nucleus of a cell. A chromosome is
made up of proteins and DNA organized into genes.
● Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.
CELL CYCLE: MITOSIS
BRIEF INTRODUCTION
● One of the distinct characteristics of living things is being able
to preserve themselves.
● All types of cells have the ability to reproduce through cell
division, which is part of the step of the cell cycle.
● Cells need to undergo cycles as part of their growth and to
repair or replace damaged parts. Cell cycle enables a living
thing to continue its existence by multiplying itself in
controlled and systematic processes.
CELL DIVISION
➢ It involves the distribution of identical genetic material or DNA
to two daughter cells.
➢ What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is
passed along, without dilution or error, from one generation to
the next
➢ Cell Division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair.
The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be
adjusted by external stimuli (i.e., chemical messages).
Checkpoint—a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where stop‘ and
go-ahead‘ signals can regulate the cell cycle.
THE CELL CYCLE
Interphase—is the growth period in the cell cycle.
THE CELL CYCLE: CHECKPOINTS
● The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point
● The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to
divide and that enough nutrients are available to support the
resulting daughter cells.
● If the cell does not receive the ‘go-ahead‘ signal, it will exit the
Cell Cycle and switch to a non-dividing state called G0.
● Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.
● In the next phase, the S phase or synthesis phase, DNA
replication occurs where the nucleus becomes larger with
twice the amount of DNA.
● During this stage, the cell spends considerable amount of time
and energy to make copies of its chromosome.
● The G2 Checkpoint—ensures that DNA replication in S phase
has been successfully completed.
PROTEIN CHECKPOINTS
❖ KINASE
❖ CYCLIN
Mitosis Promoting Factor (MPF)
2 subunits:
1. Protein kinase - [constant]; catalyzes phosphorylation **the
engine that derives cycle**
2. Cyclin - [increases]; binds to kinase
Cdk -> **Dimer = activated MPF
Maturation Promoting Factor, or MPF could be purified from meiotic frog
eggs…
MPF is a protein kinase
MITOSIS
● Mitosis (apparent division)
● is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus divides to
produce two new nuclei.
● Mitosis results in two daughter cells that are genetically
identical to each other and to the parental cell from which they
came.
PROPHASE
Prophase—is the preparatory stage, during prophase, centrioles move
toward opposite sides of the nucleus.
The initially indistinct chromosomes begin to condense into visible
threads.
Chromosomes first become visible during early prophase as long, thin,
and intertwined filaments but by late prophase, chromosomes are more
compacted and can be clearly discerned as much shorter and rod-like
structures.
● As the chromosomes become more distinct, the nucleoli also
become more distinct.
● By the end of prophase, the nucleoli become less distinct, often
disappearing altogether.
METAPHASE
Metaphase—is when chromosomes become arranged so that their
centromeres become aligned in one place, halfway between the two
spindle poles. The long axes of the chromosomes are 90 degrees to the
spindle axis. The plane of alignment is called the metaphase plate.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
ANAPHASE
Anaphase—is initiated by the separation of sister chromatids at their
junction point at the centromere. The daughter chromosomes then move
toward the poles.
TELOPHASE
● Telophase—is when daughter chromosomes complete their
migration to the poles.
● The two sets of progeny chromosomes are assembled into
two-groups at opposite ends of the cell.
● The chromosomes uncoil and assume their extended form
during interphase.
● A nuclear membrane then forms around each chromosome
group and the spindle microtubules disappear. Soon, the
nucleolus reforms.
CYTOKINESIS
● Cytokinesis is the physical process that finally splits the parent
cell into two identical daughter cells.
● During cytokinesis, the cell membrane pinches in at the cell
equator, forming a cleft called the cleavage furrow.
QUARTER 1 - MODULE 4
MEIOSIS
BRIEF INTRODUCTION
● Reproduction is needed by all organisms to continue living and
propagating their species lineage. Each organism has a unique
mode of reproduction.
● If the cells in our body divides through mitosis to repair
damaged cells. Is there a special type of cell division that is
exclusive for gametes (sperm and egg cell)?
Reduces the amount of genetic information. While mitosis in diploid cells
produces daughter cells with a full diploid complement, meiosis produces
haploid gametes or spores with only one set of chromosomes.
During sexual reproduction, gametes combine in fertilization to
reconstitute the diploid complement found in parental cells.
The process involves two successive divisions of a diploid nucleus.
PMAT I
PROPHASE I
METAPHASE I
ANAPHASE I
TELOPHASE I
PROPHASE I
● Identical to Prophase in mitosis.
● Has been subdivided into five substages: leptonema,
zygonema, pachynema, diplonema, and diakinesis.
Leptotene - Condensation of chromosomes
Zygotene - Synapsis between homologous chromosomes
Pachytene - Crossing over
Diplotene - Dissolution of synaptonemal complex
Diakinesis - Dissolution of nuclear membrane
Homologous chromosomes aligned -> Chromosome crossover ->
Recombinant chromatids, Non-recombinant chromatids
METAPHASE I
● The spindle apparatus is completely formed and the
microtubules are attached to the centromere regions of the
homologues.
● The synapsed tetrads are found aligned at the metaphase plate
(the equatorial plane of the cell) instead of only replicated
chromosomes.
ANAPHASE I
● Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and migrate toward the
opposite poles.
● The sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached at their
respective centromere regions.
TELOPHASE I
● The dyads complete their migration to the poles. New nuclear
membranes may form.
● In most species, cytokinesis follows, producing two daughter
cells. Each has a nucleus containing only one set of
chromosomes (haploid level) in a replicated form.
PMAT II
PROPHASE II
METAPHASE II
ANAPHASE II
TELOPHASE II
PMAT II
● Second Meiotic Division - the events in the second meiotic
division are quite similar to mitotic division.
● The difference lies, however, in the number of chromosomes
that each daughter cell receives.
● While the original chromosome number is maintained in
mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.
● Prophase II — The dyads contract.
● Metaphase II — The centromeres are directed to the equatorial
plate and then divide.
● Anaphase II — The sister chromatids (monads) move away from
each other and migrate to the opposite poles of the spindle
fiber.
● Telophase II — The monads are at the poles, forming two
groups of chromosomes. A nuclear membrane forms around
each set of chromosomes and cytokinesis follows. The
chromosomes uncoil and extend.
● Cytokinesis — the telophase stage of mitosis is accompanied by
cytokinesis.
● The two nuclei are compartmentalized into separate daughter
cells and complete the mitotic cell division process.
● In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by the formation of a
constriction in the middle of the cell until two daughter cells
are formed. The constriction is often called cleavage, or cell
furrow.
● However, in most plant cells this constriction is not evident.
Instead, a new cell membrane and cell wall are assembled
between the two nuclei to form a cell plate. Each side of the
cell plate is coated with a cell wall that eventually forms the
two progeny cells
MEIOSIS MAKES BABIES
MITOSIS MAKES SKIN
GAMETOGENESIS
● The production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the
process of meiosis.
● During meiosis, two cell divisions separate the paired
chromosomes in the nucleus and then separate the chromatids
that were made during an earlier stage of the cell’s life cycle,
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
resulting in gametes that each contain half the number of
chromosomes as the parent.
● The production of sperm is called spermatogenesis and the
production of eggs is called oogenesis.
● When certain lipids are placed into water, they will
spontaneously rearrange themselves to form structures called
micelles.
● These are created by fatty acids.

DISORDERS IN CELL CYCLE ● Present in this formation are the electric and hydrogen bonds,
and the London dispersion forces (or the vander waals forces)
CHROMOSAL ABERRATION that stabilize the structure.

● This are changes in chromosome structure or number. Most
chromosomal aberrations are known as aneuploidies, or
different numbers of chromosome other than pairs.
KEY TERMS TO REMEMBER!
● Micelles can be spherical but can also form ellipsoidal,
discoidal, and cylindrical structures.
● Hydrophobic Effect – the main driving force in membrane
formation.

● Nondisjunction - is the failure of the chromosomes to separate, ● When amphipathic molecules are dispersed in water, their
which produces daughter cells with abnormal numbers of hydrophobic parts (i.e., hydrocarbon chains) aggregate and
chromosomes. become segregated from the solvent.

● Aneuploidy - a condition of having missing or extra LIPOSOMES

chromosomes.
● Due to the amphipathic nature of phospholipids, it has the
TURNER SYNDROME ability to spontaneously form bilayer membranes.

results when one of the X chromosomes (sex chromosomes) is missing or ● Phospholipids are the major constituents of eukaryotic cell
partially missing membranes.

KLINEFELTER SYNDROME VESICLE INFORMATION

where boys and men are born with an extra X chromosome. ● Amphipathic lipids can also form bilayers, but some do so more
readily than others; this ability depends on the diameter of the
METAFEMALE head group relative to the cross-sectional area of the
hydrocarbon chain(s).
a sterile female organism, esp a fruit fly (Drosophila) that has three X
chromosomes ● More wedge-shaped molecules tend to favor the formation of
micelles while cylindrical molecules tend to form bilayers.
JACOB’S SYNDROME
● Sonication – involves the bombarding of solution with sound
a rare genetic abnormality in which a male receives an extra Y waves.
chromosome from his father.
USES OF LIPOSOME
AUTOSOMAL ABERRATION
● To study the properties of cell membranes (i.e. ion
● Down syndrome or trisomy 21 is a genetic condition caused by permeability).
an extra chromosome.
● To deliver drugs or DNA to patients.
● Trisomy 18, also known as Edward's Syndrome, is a
chromosomal abnormality that often results in stillbirth or an Quarter 1 - Module 5
early death of an infant.
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS:
● Trisomy 13, also called Patau syndrome, is a chromosomal
condition associated with severe intellectual disability and THE CELL MEMBRANE
physical abnormalities.
BRIEF INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURAL ABERRATION
● In cellular biology, membrane transport refers to the collection
❖ Deletion of mechanisms that regulate the passage of solutes such as
❖ Duplication ions and small molecules through biological membranes, which
❖ Inversion are lipid bilayers that contain proteins embedded in them.
❖ Translocation
● Plasma membrane (Cell Membrane) plays a vital role in the
QUARTER 1 - MODULE 5A transport mechanisms and separates the living cell from its
surroundings.
LIPID PROPERTIES & MEMBRANE FORMATION
● To perform these roles, it needs lipids, which make a
LIPIDS semi-permeable barrier between the cell and its environment.

● are amphipathic which means they have both hydrophilic and ● It also needs proteins, which are involved in cross-membrane
hydrophobic properties. transport and cell communication, and carbohydrates (sugars
and sugar chains), which decorate both the proteins and lipids
LIPID BILAYER and help cells recognize each other.

● The Lipid Bilayer are created by lipids with bulkier and thicker
hydrophobic tails (e.g. glycolipids, phospholipids and
cholesterol lipids).
● Phospholipids and glycolipids form the bilayer structure and
not the micelles itself.
LIPID FORMATION
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
● The modern understanding of the cellular or plasma membrane
is referred to as the fluid mosaic model or fluid mosaics of
lipids and proteins.
● It is composed of a bilayer of phospholipids, with their
hydrophobic, fatty acid tails in contact with each other.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY

THE FLUIDITY OF CELL MEMBRANE

The Fluidity of the membrane is due to;

1. Temperature, the configuration of the unsaturated fatty acid

tails (some kinked or form a sharp twist by double bonds).

2. The presence of cholesterol embedded in the membrane; and,

3. The mosaic nature of the proteins and protein-carbohydrate

combinations, which are not firmly fixed in place.

KEY TAKES OF THE FLUID NATURE OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

● Phospholipids in the plasma membrane can move within the

bilayer.

● Most of the lipids, and some proteins, drift laterally.

● Rarely does a molecule flip-flop transversely across the

membrane

● As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a

solid state.

● The temperature at which a membrane solidifies depends on

the types of lipids.

● Membranes rich in unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid than

those rich in saturated fatty acids.

● Membranes must be fluid to work properly; they are usually

about as fluid as salad Oil.

(Quarter 1: Module 6)
● The steroid cholesterol has different effects on membrane
fluidity at different temperatures.
Transport Mechanisms:

● At warm temperatures (such as 37°C), cholesterol restrains

Membrane-Crossing Mechanism
movement of Phospholipids.

SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
● At cool temperatures, it maintains fluidity by preventing tight
packing.
KEY NOTES

THE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

● Plasma membranes lack symmetry: the membrane's exterior is
not identical to its interior.
CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

● There is a significant difference between the arrangement of

● The landscape of the membrane is studded with proteins, some
proteins and phospholipids and between the two leaflets that
of which span the membrane.
form a membrane.

● Some of these proteins serve to transport materials into or out

● Intrinsic proteins penetrate and bind tightly to the lipid bilayer,
of the cell.
which is made up largely of phospholipids and cholesterol and
which typically is between 4 and 10 nanometers in thickness.
● Carbohydrates are attached to some of the proteins and
lipidson the outward-facing surface of the membrane, forming
● Extrinsic proteins are loosely bound to the hydrophilic (polar)
complexes which function is to identify the cell to other cells.
surfaces, which face the watery medium both inside and
outside the cell. Some intrinsic proteins present sugar side
● Cell membranes enclose and define the borders of cells, but
chains on the cell's outer surface.
rather than being a static bag, they are dynamic and constantly
in flux.
● On the membrane's interior, some proteins serve to anchor the
membrane to cytoskeleton's fibers.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
● There are peripheral proteins on the membrane's exterior that cellular energy —or ―active— i.e., its transport requires the cell to
bind extracellular matrix elements. expend energy.

● Carbohydrates, attached to lipids or proteins, are also on the DIFFUSION

plasma membrane's exterior surface.
● Passive movement of molecules from a region of high
● These carbohydrate complexes help the cell bind required concentration to a region of low concentration.
substances in the extracellular fluid.
● Concentration gradient - is the difference in concentration
● This adds considerably to plasma membrane's selective nature. between the two regions.

Signal Transduction ● Small, uncharged molecules like O2, CO2 and H2O can move
easily through the membrane.
Cell Signalling
● Works well over short distances.
● Among the most sophisticated functions of the plasma
membrane is its ability to transmit signals via complex ● Once molecules enter the cell, the rate of diffusion slows.
proteins.
● Limits cell size.
● These proteins can be receptors, which work as receivers of
extracellular inputs and as activators of intracellular OSMOSIS
processes, or markers, which allow cells to recognize each
other. ● Diffusion of the solvent across a semi-permeable membrane
separating two solutions. (Diffusion of
What are Receptors? water)

● Receptors are proteins either inside a cell or on its surface, ● Water molecules move from a region of high concentration to a
which receive a signal. region of low concentration.

● It comes in many types, but they can be divided into two ● Direction depends on the relative concentration of water
categories: intracellular receptors, which are found inside of molecules on either side of the cell membrane.
the cell and cell surface receptors, which are found in the
plasma membrane. Isotonic: Water inside the cell equals the water outside the cell and equal
amounts of water move in and out of the cell.
Cell Signalling
Hypotonic: Hypotonic: Water outside the cell is greater than that inside
● Membrane receptors provide extracellular attachment sites the cell, water moves into the cell, may cause cell to burst (lysis)
for effectors like hormones and growth factors, which then
trigger intracellular responses. Hypertonic: Water inside the cell is greater than outside. Water moves
out of the cell, may cause the cell to shrink (plasmolysis)
● Some viruses, such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV),
can hijack these receptors to gain entry into the cells, causing
infections.

FACILITATED TRANSPORT/DIFFUSION
(PASSIVE-MEDIATED TRANSPORT)

● Assists with the movement of large molecules like glucose.

● Passive movement of a substance into or out of the cell by

means of carrier proteins or channel proteins.

● Moves molecules from high to low regions of concentration

● Membrane markers allow cells to recognize one another, which ● Carrier proteins: Transports noncharged molecules with a
is vital for cellular signaling processes that influence tissue and specific shape.
organ formation during early development.
● Channel proteins: Tunnel shape that transports small charged
● This marking function also plays a later role in the “self”- versus molecules.
― ”non-self” distinction of the immune response.
● DOES NOT REQUIRE water molecules for other molecules to
● Marker proteins on human red blood cells, for example, transfer.
determine blood type (A, B, AB, or O).
TRANSMEMBRANE
TRANSPORT MECHANISMS PROTEIN CHANNELS & TRANSPORTERS

CELLULAR TRANSPORT MECHANISMS’ RELATION TO THE PLASMA ACTIVE TRANSPORT

MEMBRANE
● The process of moving substances against their concentration
The movement of a substance across the selectivelY permeable plasma gradients.
membrane can be either ―passive—i.e., occurring without the input of
● Requires Energy.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
● Examples:
1. Kidney cells pump glucose and amino acids out of the urine and
back into the blood.
1. Intestinal cells pump in nutrients from the gut. Root cells pump
in nutrients from the soil. Gill cells in fish pump out sodium
ions.
● Active Transport Pump:
● Sodium-potassium pump
● 3 sodium ions inside the cell and 2 potassium ions outside the
cell bind to the pump.
● This allows the release of energy from ATP and causes the
protein complex to change shape.
● The change in shape allow the Na+ and K+ ions to move across
and be released
BULK TRANSPORT
● Endocytosis: The cell membrane folds inward, traps and
encloses a small amount of matter from the extracellular fluid.
● Transports large molecules (or even whole cells) by engulfing
them.
● Exocytosis: The reverse of endocytosis: A vesicle from inside
the cell moves to the cell membrane. The vesicle fuses to the
membrane and the contents are secreted.
● Removes or secretes substances such as hormones or enzymes.
3 Types of Endocytosis:
● Pinocytosis: The intake of a small droplet of extracellular fluid.
This occurs in nearly all cell types.
● Phagocytosis: The intake of a large droplet of extracellular
fluid. This occurs in specialized cells.
● Receptor-assisted endocytosis: The intake of specific
molecules that attach to special proteins in the cell membrane.
These proteins are uniquely shaped to fit the shape of a specific
molecule.
Quarter 1: Module 7
ENZYMES
SciBulary
Catalyst - a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being
changed.
Enzyme – a biological catalyst (usually a protein)
Substrate - the reactant molecule that an enzyme works on.
Active Site - the part of the enzyme where the substrate binds.
Enzyme-substrate complex - formed when the substrate molecule
collides with the active site of its enzyme.
Endoenzymes (intracellular) / Exoenzymes (extracellular)
Activation energy - the minimum energy required to start a chemical
reaction.
Transition state - the intermediate stage in a reaction in which the old
bonds break and new bonds are formed.
Brief Introduction
● Enzymes are vital for life and serve a wide range of important
functions in the body, such as aiding in fighting germs,
digestion, and metabolism.
● Some enzymes help break large molecules into smaller pieces
that are more easily absorbed by the body. Other enzymes help
bind two molecules together to produce a new molecule.
● Enzymes are highly selective catalysts, meaning that each
enzyme only speeds up a specific reaction.
What is an enzyme?
● Enzymes are protein macromolecules.
● They have a defined amino acid sequence, and are typically
100- 500 amino acids long.
● They have a defined three- dimensional structure.
Enzymes are catalysts.
● They act as a catalyst to a chemical or biochemical reaction,
with a defined mechanism.
● They increase the speed of that reaction, typically by 106
-1014 times faster than the rate of the uncatalysed reaction.
● They are selective for a single substrate.
● They speed up rate of reaction by lowering the activation
energy (Ea).
● They are stereospecific, meaning the reaction produces a
single product.
Common Mistakes and Misconceptions
Enzymes are "specific." Each type of enzyme typically only reacts with
one, or a couple, of substrates. Some enzymes are more specific than
others and will only accept one particular substrate. Other enzymes can
act on a range of molecules, as long as they contain the type of bond or
chemical group that the enzyme targets.
Enzymes are reusable. Enzymes are not reactants and are not used up
during the reaction. Once an enzyme binds to a substrate and catalyzes
the reaction, the enzyme is released, unchanged, and can be used for
another reaction. This means that for each reaction, there does not need
to be a 1:1 ratio between enzyme and substrate molecules.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
● An oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction is a type of chemical
reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two
species.
● An oxidation-reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in
which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion
changes by gaining or losing an electron.
● Redox reactions are common and vital to some of the basic
functions of life, including photosynthesis, respiration,
combustion, and corrosion or rusting.
What do you mean by oxidation and reduction?
● OXIDATION can be defined as addition of
oxygen/electronegative element to a substance or removal of
hydrogen/ electropositive element from a substance.
● REDUCTION can be defined as removal of
oxygen/electronegative element from a substance or addition
of hydrogen/ electropositive element to a substance.
*oxidation occurs when an atom’s oxidation state increases during a
reaction
*reduction occurs when an atom’s oxidation state decreases during a
reaction
Enzyme Components
Apoenzyme
● Is an inactive enzyme, activation of the enzyme occurs upon
binding of an organic or inorganic cofactor.
● Are enzymes that lack their necessary cofactor(s) for proper
functioning
● A Protein
HOLOenzyme
● Are the active forms of apoenzymes. (Apoenzyme plus
cofactor)
● DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase are examples.
COFACTOR
● mostly metal ions or small organic molecules, are inorganic and
organic chemicals that assist enzymes during the catalysis of
reactions.
● Nonprotein component (e.g. magnesium, zinc)
COENZYME
● are non-protein organic molecules that are mostly derivatives
of vitamins soluble in water by phosphorylation.
● Organic cofactor (Eg: NADH, FADH)
Many enzymes can catalyze a reaction only if coenzymes, or cofactors
are present.
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
● Enzyme activity can be affected by a variety of factors, such as
temperature, pH, concentrations and inhibitors.
● Enzymes work best within specific temperature and pH ranges,
and sub-optimal conditions can cause an enzyme to lose its
ability to bind to a substrate.
TEMPERATURE
● Raising temperature generally speeds up a reaction, and
lowering temperature slows down a reaction.
● However, extreme high temperatures can cause an enzyme to
lose its shape (denature) and stop working.
● Most enzymes have an optimum temperature, near normal
body temperature at which they catalyze a reaction most
rapidly.
Temperature and Enzymatic Activity
(a) Temperature. The enzymatic activity (rate of reaction
catalyzed by the enzyme) increases with increasing
temperature until the enzyme, a protein, is denatured by heat
and inactivated. At this point, the reaction rate falls sleepy.
Power of Hydrogen
● pH (abbr. power of hydrogen or potential for hydrogen):
● Each enzyme has an optimum pH range. Changing the pH
outside of this range will slow enzyme activity. Extreme pH
values can cause enzymes to denature.
● Even small pH changes can alter the electrical charges on
various chemical groups in enzyme molecules, thereby altering
the enzyme‘s ability to bind its substrate and catalyze a
reaction.
Enzymes catalyze a reaction most rapidly at an optimum pH, near neutral
Substrate Concentration
● Increasing substrate concentration also increases the rate of
reaction to a certain point.
● Once all of the enzymes have bound, any substrate increase
will have no effect on the rate of reaction, as the available
enzymes will be saturated and working at their maximum rate.
● At the saturation point, the reaction will not speed up, no
matter how much additional substrate is added. The graph of
the reaction rate will plateau.
Enzymatic Activity and Substrate Concentration
(c) Substrate concentration. With increasing concentration of substrate
molecules, the rate of reaction increases until the active sites on all the
enzyme molecules are filled, at which point the maximum rate of reaction
is reached.
Enzyme Concentration
● Increasing enzyme concentration will speed up the reaction, as
long as there is substrate available to bind to.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY
● Once all of the substrate is bound, the reaction will no longer
speed up, since there will be nothing for additional enzymes to
bind to.

● The higher the concentration of an enzyme the greater should

be the initial reaction rate. This will last as long as substrate is
present.

Enzyme Inhibitors (Inhibition)

Competitive inhibitor : A molecule similar in structure to a substrate can

bind to an enzyme‘s active site and compete with substrate

Noncompetitive inhibitors : attach to the enzyme at an allosteric site,

which is a site other than the active site distort the tertiary protein
structure and alter the shape of the active site.

Feedback inhibition

● Regulates the rate of many metabolic pathways when an end

product of a pathway accumulates and binds to and inactivates
the first enzyme in the metabolic pathway.

● Product (usually ultimate product) of a pathway controls the

rate of synthesis through inhibition of an early step (usually the
first step).

● Conserves material and energy by preventing accumulation of

intermediates.

What Do Enzymes Do?

❖ The digestive system: Enzymes help the body break down

larger complex molecules into smaller molecules, such as
glucose, so that the body can use them as fuel.
❖ DNA replication: Each cell in the body contains DNA. Each time
a cell divides, the cell needs to copy its DNA. Enzymes help in
this process by unwinding the DNA coils.
❖ Liver enzymes: The liver breaks down toxins in the body. To do
this, it uses a range of enzymes the facilitate the process of
destroying the toxins.

Other Enzyme Activities

● Hormone production
● Cell regulation
● Muscle Contraction
● Transporting materials around a cell
● Respiration
● Signal transduction