GEN BIO
- German physician
DISCOVERY OF CELL AND THE CELL
THEORY
DISCOVERY OF CELLS
1665 – Hooke described ‘cells’ in cork
ROBERT HOOKE
- first described cells in 1665, when he used a
microscope he had built to examine a thin slice
of cork, a nonliving tissue found in the bark of
certain trees
- Hooke observed a honeycomb of tiny, empty
compartments. He called the compartments in
the cork cellulae (Latin, “small rooms”), and
the term has come down to us as cells
1674 – Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa.
ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK
- The first living cells were observed a few years
later by the Dutch naturalist
- who called the tiny organisms that he observed
“animalcules,” meaning little animals
(Between the Hooke/Leuwenhoek discoveries
and the mid-19th century, very few cell
advancements were made. This is probably due
to the widely accepted, traditional belief in
Spontaneous Generation)
DEVELOPMENT OF CELL THEORY
1838 and 1839 – Schleiden and Schwann
proposed cell theory
MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
- German Botanist
- concluded that all plant parts are made of cells
THEODOR SCHWANN
- German physiologist
- stated that all animal tissues are composed of
cells
1858 –Virchow concludes that cells develop
only from existing cells
RUDOLF VIRCHOW
- after extensive study of cellular pathology,
concluded that cells must arise from preexisting
cells
THE CELL THEORY
POSTULATES OF THE CELL THEORY
1. All organisms are composed of one or more
cells
2. Cells are the smallest and basic units of
structure and function in an organism.
3. Cells arise only from existing cells
POSTULATES OF THE MODERN CELL
THEORY
1. All known living things are made up of cells.
2. The cell is a structural and functional unit of
all living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by
division. (Spontaneous Generation does not
occur).
4. Cells contain hereditary information which is
passed from cell to cell during cell division.
5. All cells Are basically the same in chemical
composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism and
biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.
What instrument was invented that was
necessary before the cell theory could be
developed?
ZACHARIAS JANSSEN
- Invented the first microscope in 1590
CELL PARTS AND FUNCTION
CELL STRUCTURE
- small unit of life
The cell can be compared to a factory building.
It creates a barrier that collects all its machinery
and employees in their proper places
The organelles represent the machinery and
employees that work in a factory building. These
organelles have their own specific functions that
work for different cellular processes
THREE MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL GENETIC CONTROL OF THE CELL

- CELL (PLASMA) MEMBRANE NUCLEUS

- NUCLEUS Parts of the Nucleus
- CYTOPLASM • Nucleoplasm is the semifluid matrix.
• Nuclear envelope separates the nucleus from
CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA the cytoplasm
MEMBRANE
- separates the cytoplasm from the external
environment. • Nuclear pores permit the passage of ribosomal
subunits and mRNA out of the nucleus into the
selectively permeable - allowing certain cytoplasm
contents to pass through and blocking the
passage of others Functions of the Nucleus
•The primary functions of the nucleus are to
CELL WALL store the cell’s DNA, maintain its integrity, and
- is a rigid structure that surrounds the cell facilitate its transcription and replication
membrane
Function of the Ribosomes
•Most bacteria have cell walls made up of •Ribosomes
peptidoglycan. - are the organelles that use instructions from the
•The cell wall in some fungi consists of chitin. nucleus, written in mRNA, to build proteins.
•In plant cells, the cell wall consists of
mesh-like cellulose fibers ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

CYTOPLASM Endoplasmic reticulum

- This is where all different subcellular structures Two Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
are suspended • Rough ER
It is composed of the cytosol, a semifluid - has thousands of ribosomes attached to the
solution that consists of water and inorganic and outer surface which give this organelle a “rough”
organic molecules appearance. Their main role is to produce
proteins.
NUCLEUS • Smooth ER
- a membrane bound organelle that contains the - does not have attached ribosomes. This
genetic material and other instructions required organelle produces lipids
for cellular processes
Golgi bodies
THE CELL ORGANELLES • These serve functions similar to a warehouse
and processing center, processing products of the
ORGANELLES OF CELL ARE DIVIDED ER
INTO THREE GROUPS:
Lysosomes
1. GENETIC CONTROL OF CELL • function as the digestive system of the cell,
( nucleus and ribosomes) serving both to degrade material taken up from
2. ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM outside the cell and to digest obsolete
(Endoplasmic reticulum, Lysosomes components of the cell itself
Peroxisomes, Vacuoles, Golgi bodies)
3. ENERGY HOUSES
(Mitochondria and Chloroplast)
Peroxisomes
- •These contain enzymes and serve as metabolic
assistance to organelles and specialize in
synthesizing and breaking down lipids
Vacuoles
- •These serve as a storage of water, organic
nutrients, a variety of salts, sugar, and some
weak acids
THE ENERGY HOUSES OF THE CELL
Mitochondrion
- This is known as the “powerhouse of the cell”.
It produces the energy necessary for the cell's
survival and functioning
Chloroplast
- it is unique to plant and algae cells. This
organelle performs photosynthesis
PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
PROKARYOTIC CELL
- a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism
that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane
bound organelle.
- All bacteria that include the organisms of
domains Archaea and Bacteria are considered
prokaryotes
EUKARYOTIC CELL
- a cell that has a membrane bound nucleus and
other membrane-bound compartments or sacs,
called organelles, which have specialized
functions
- Domain Eukarya, which includes protists,
fungi, plants, and animals, is eukaryotic
ORGANELLES
- little organs
Distinguishing Features of Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells
PRESENCE OF NUCLEUS
- he genetic material is enclosed in the nucleus
of eukaryotes and in the nucleoid region of
prokaryotes
CELL WALL OF EUKARYOTES
- Cell wall is either made up of cellulose as in
plants and chitin in fungi.
CELL WALL OF PROKARYOTES
- Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
- It includes the rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosome,
endosome, and vacuole
CHROMOSOME NUMBER IN
EUKARYOTES
- more than one linear DNA with histone
CHROMOSOME NUMBER IN
PROKARYOTES
- one covalent, closed, circular DNA
MODE OF REPRODUCTION IN
EUKARYOTES
- In eukaryotic cells, individual cells reproduce
through mitosis and meiosis
MODE OF REPRODUCTION IN
PROKARYOTES
- Most prokaryotic cells reproduce through
binary fission
Chromosome number in eukaryotes
-Eukaryotes have more than one
chromosomes so histones are essential in
packaging DNA into nucleosomes and helping it
to condense into chromatin.
Chromosome number in prokaryotes
- Most prokaryotes have only one chromosome
and an extrachromosomal DNA called a
plasmid
SIZE OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS STEM CELLS
- Eukaryotic cells tend to be 10 to 100 times the - are cells that must choose what they are going
size of prokaryotic cells to become

SIZE OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS BONE CELLS

- Prokaryotic cells range in diameter from
0.1–5.0 µm OSTEOCLASTS
- large multinucleated cells that are involved in
DNA replication in eukaryotes bone resorption and breakdown
- Eukaryotes only replicate their DNA during
the S-phase of interphase in cell division. OSTEOBLASTS
- the opposite function, they are involved in the
DNA replication in prokaryotes generation of new bone
- Prokaryotes continuously replicate their
short DNA. OSTEOCYTES
- cells that secrete growth factors that activate
TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION bone growth in response
IN EUKARYOTES
- The transcription occurs in the nucleus and the OSTEOPROGENITOR
translation occurs in the cytoplasm. - are the stem cells found in bone tissue

TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION GAMETES

IN PROKARYOTES
- Transcription and translation can be done at the
same time in the cytoplasm
RIBOSOME OF EUKARYOTES
- Ribosomes can be found in the cytoplasm,
outer nuclear membrane, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondrion, and chloroplast.
RIBOSOME OF PROKARYOTES
- All ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm
are an organism's reproductive cells. They are
also referred to as sex cells.
Female gametes are called ova or egg cells (23
egg)
Male gametes are called sperm (23 sperm)
BLOOD CELL
ERYTHROCYTES
- Red blood cells carry oxygen to all cells in the
body. The oxygen is carried to cells on a protein
in red blood cells (called hemoglobin).

The similarities and differences between LEUKOCYTES

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells: - White blood cells are an important part of the
immune system.

ANIMAL CELL AND PLANT CELL THROMBOCYTES

ANIMAL CELL
- a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall
and has a true, membrane-bound nucleus along
with other cellular organelles
- Animal cells are generally smaller than plant
cells.
- Platelets make the blood clot and help stop
bleeding.
EPITHELIAL CELLS
- Epithelial cells make up the linings of cavities
in the body such as the lungs, small intestine,
and stomach

TYPES OF ANIMAL CELL

- More than 200 different types of cells are
present in the human body.
4 SUBTYPES OF EPITHELIAL CELL
Squamous Epithelium
- comprises a single layer of flattened cells,
making it the thinnest sort of epithelium
Found in :
• Alveoli of the lungs
• The lining of the blood and lymph vessels
• Lining of the body cavities – i.e. the pleura,
pericardium and peritoneum
Cuboidal epithelium
- comprises a single layer of cuboidal, or
roughly square, cells.
Found in:
• Salivary glands
• Small ducts of many exocrine glands
• Pancreas
Columnar epithelium
- comprises a single layer of long, thin cells.
Some simple columnar cells also have cilia or
microvilli.
Cilia - specialization for movement
Microvilli - to absorbtion
Found in:
• Bronchi tubes
• Uterine tubes and uterus
• Intestine, stomach, and colonund in:
Pseudostratified epithelium ( pseudo - fake,
stratified- layer) (fake layer)
- is made up of closely packed cells that appear
to be arranged in layers because they’re different
sizes, but there’s actually just one layer of cells.
found in: the larger respiratory airways of the
nasal cavity, trachea, and bronchi
PLANT CELLS
- are eukaryotic cells with a true nucleus along
with specialized structures called organelles that
carry out certain specific functions
- The plant cell is rectangular and comparatively
larger than the animal cell
TYPES OF CELL:
COLLENCHYMA
- To support plant for primary growth
- They are hard or rigid cells, which play a
primary role in providing support to the plants
when there is restraining growth in a plant due to
a lack of hardening agent in primary walls
SCLERENCHYMA ( dead cell of plant)
- These cells are more rigid compared to
collenchyma cells and this is because of the
presence of a hardening agent
PARENCHYMA
- Play a significant role in all plants
- These cells are typically more flexible than
others because they are thinner
XYLEM
- They help in the transport of water and
minerals from the roots to the leaves and other
parts of the plants. ( paakyat)
PHLOEM
- They transport food prepared by the leaves
to different parts of the plants (pababa)
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
THE GENETIC MATERIAL OF CELLS
DNA MOLECULE
- Almost every cell in our bodies has genetic
material in the form of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)
GENE
- are segments of your DNA, which give you
physical characteristics that make you unique.
DNA- recipe book
GENE- recipe itself
HISTONE
- a protein that provides structural support for a
chromosome
CHROMATIN
- Interphase DNA is found in the form of
chromatin, a complex of DNA and proteins.
-Chromatin is dispersed inside the intact cell
nucleus during interphase.
CHROMOSOME
- Chromatin will sometimes need to further
condense into a highly coiled and compact
structure.

Humans have 46 individual (or 23 pairs of)

chromosomes.

INTERPHASE - GAP 2
- growth of the cell

THREE STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE

- INTERPHASE
- M PHASE
- CYTOKINESIS

cytokinesis- (cyto- cell, kinesis- separation)

INTERPHASE - GAP 1

M PHASE ( STAND FOR MITOSIS OR

MEIOSIS
- The M phase in eukaryotic organisms involves
either one of two processes, namely, mitosis and
meiosis.

MEIOSIS- sex cells or gametes

MITOSIS- somatic cells or non-sex cells

INTERPHASE - S (SYNTHESIS PHASE)
- dna replication occurs
CYTOKINESIS
- Cytokinesis is marked by the formation of a
cleavage furrow in animal cells.
- Cytokinesis is marked by the formation of a
cell plate in plant cells.
THE CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINT
- G1 -TO- S CHECKPOINT
- G2 -TO- M CHECKPOINT
- METAPHASE CHECKPOINT
G1 -TO- S CHECKPOINT
- gap 1 and synthesis checkpoint
G2 -TO- M CHECKPOINT
- g2 to mitosis and meiosis checkpoint
METAPHASE CHECKPOINT
- checkpoint of metaphase stage
CYTOKINESIS
- division of the cytoplasm
S PHASE
- cell duplicates it genetic material
STAGES OF MITOSIS
THE M PHASE
- the cell undergoes mitosis if it is somatic cell
or meiosis if it is sex cell
- it allows the cell to divide and produce new
cell
CHROMOSOME NUMBER
THE CHROMOSOME
• DNA in interphase is found in the form of
chromatin which condenses during mitosis
• Each chromosome is made up of two sister
chromatids.
HAPLOID AND DIPLOID CELLS
- The human genome has 23 pairs of
chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes in
each cell.
- 23 is the haploid numbers
- 46 is the diploid number.
- Haploid is often represented as n
- Diploid is represented as 2n
THE PHASES OF MITOSIS
Mitosis is also divided into multiple phase:
- PROPHASE
- METAPHASE
- ANAPHASE
- TELOPHASE
PROPHASE
METAPHASE
- spindle importance
- line up all of the chromosome attached in the
center of the cell
ANAPHASE Feature #3 – Reduction Division
- separates the sister chromatids apart - The chromosomes are not copied in between
the two divisions. At the end of meiosis, each
TELOPHASE cell contains one-half the genetic material.
(haploid or “n”

AFTER M PHASE

CYTOKINESIS Meiosis I comes after the G2 phase of the cell

- After telophase, cytokinesis will divide the cell cycle.
into two.
• Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis but is
closely related to it

STAGES OF MEIOSIS

CHROMATIDS
- one of the two identical halves of a
chromosome that has been replicated in
preparation for cell division.

SISTER CHROMATIDS MEIOSIS 1 IS A REDUCTION DIVISION

- two identical copies of the same chromosome
formed by DNA replication, attached to each STAGES OF MEIOSIS I
other by a structure called the centromere - PROPHASE 1
- PROMETAPHASE 1
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMATIDS - METAPHASE 1
- one of a pair of chromosomes with the same - ANAPHASE 1
gene sequence, loci, chromosomal length, and - TELOPHASE 1
centromere location
PROPHASE 1
UNIQUE FEATURES OF MEIOSIS - condensation, crossing over, and synapsis
- Homologous chromosomes pair by a process
Feature #1 – Synapsis called synapsis
- Following chromosome replication - Exchange of genetic material (crossing-over)
- process of pairing up of homologous may occur between homologous chromosomes
chromosome when the chromatids are broke

Feature #2 – Crossing Over PROMETAPHASE 1

- Crossing over is the exchange of genetic - Formation of the spindle fiber
material from homologous chromosomes
METAPHASE 1
- The paired homologous chromosomes align at
the metaphase plate

ANAPHASE 1
- Homologous chromosomes separate.
- The chromosomes move toward opposite poles
of the cells by the spindle fibers.

TELOPHASE 1
- formation of sister chromosome
- Chromosomes reach opposite poles
- In most organisms, the nuclear membrane
forms. This is followed by cytokinesis.

MEIOSIS ll IS AN EQUATIONAL
DIVISION

STAGE OF MEIOSIS ll
- PROPHASE ll
MITOSIS
- PROMETAPHASE ll
- identical genetic make up
- METAPHASE ll
- ANAPHASE ll
MEIOSIS
- TELOPHASE ll
- different genetic make up