GENERAL BIOLOGY

LECTURE
YOU GOTTA FOCUS!
UNIT 1: THE CELL THEORY FELIX DUJARDIN
THE CELL DISCOVERIES AND CELL THEORY • A French biologist who discovered the
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE “PROTOPLASM” which is a semi-transparent living
• is the most useful instrument in studying about the substance known as Sarcode, in which later in was
parts of a cell. changed to protoplasm.

ROBERT HOOKE CYTOPLASM

• An English Scientist, 1665, when he conducted a study
about the cell by slicing a very small piece of cork (oak
cork) and observed it under his crude microscope.
• He observed the small partitions, room-like structures
and he called it “CELL”.
CELL
• Is the protoplasm enclosed by the plasma membrane
of cell, excluding the nucleus in eukaryotic cells and
cellular DNA in prokaryotic cells.
PROTOPLASM
• Is the colorless material comprising the living part of a
cell, including the cytoplasm, nucleus, and other
organelles.

MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN
• A German botanist discovered the cells in plant only.
• He concluded that all plants are made up of cells.

THEODOR SCHWANN
CRUDE MICROSCOPE • A German zoologist who discovered “cell in animal”.
• He concluded that all animals are composed of cells.
• These evidences lead a further study about the cell
theory and considered as a gratefully help in the
conceptualization of the cell theory.

RUDOLF VIRCHOW
ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
• He discovered a living organisms known as
ANIMALCULES.
• A Dutch naturalist known as Anton van Leeuwenhoek
who was an expert in grinding lenses and he was able
to observed, discovered the tiny living organisms he
named “ANIMALCULES”, from the DROP OF RAIN
WATER.
• Some of the tiny animalcules are known as
BACTERIA.
• A German Physician who justified the creation of new
cells were came from other cells.
• “All living cells come from existing cells.
CELL THEORY
1. Cells are the building block and the functional unit of all
living organisms. It includes the life cycle, metabolic
activities and the ability to transfer character traits.
(Robert Hooke)
2. All living organisms are containing one or more cells.
(Matthias Schleiden & Theodor Schwann)
3. Cells arise from the pre-existing cells. (Rudolf
Virchow)

ROBERT BROWN
• Discovered the carrier of genetic materials called
“NUCLEUS”.
• In 1831, he is a botanist who discovered the Center
part of the cell known as Nucleus in Plant cell.
• He defined Nucleus as the transmitter, controller of
information and carrier of genes.
UNIT 2:
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
• Due to advancement of technology the study of cell and its
structure broadens, this helps us to understand how cells
work and how it affects our daily life.
• Also, we are now able to dissect and identify the different
part of cell and its functions.
• This part of cell are called ORGANELLES.
BASIC FEATURES OF ALL CELL TYPE
As we all know, there are many types of cell but despite of their
differences a typical cell is consist of three major parts.
• Cell membrane / Plasma Membrane
• Cell nucleus
• Cytoplasm

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CELL MEMBRANE
Also known as Plasma Membrane.
• This structure is compose of two layer of phospholipids
(Phospholipid bilayer) fats, carbohydrates and protein
materials.
Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tails
• Cell membrane’s function is to:
o Provide support and maintain cell shape.
o Regulates the flow of material inside and outside the
cell.
o Act as receptor site and functional carrier of molecule.
o And provide identification boundary.
Cell wall is made up of a semipermeable membrane that
actively facilitates the entrance and exit of materials in and out
of the cell.
Also some cell has this another sturdy layer called CELL WALL.
• This is the outermost layer of plant, fungal, and bacterial
cell. (Not present in animal cell)
• Gives additional support to the cell, prevent water loss
and enclose the cell to avoid the invasion of pathogens.
CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm lies between the cell membrane and nucleus.
• Consist of a jelly-like substance.
• Also consist of cytosol, organelles and inclusions.
• This is a place where cell expansion, growth, metabolic
activities and cell function happens.
o Cytosol – Semi-transparent fluid present in which
organelles are suspended. It also gives support
and holds the organelles in the cell.
• Floatng inside the cytoplasm are the organelles such as:
Ribosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi apparatus and many
more!
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
RIBOSOMES
• Are small rounded, dark bodies, which is contains
proteins and RNA.
• They connect amino acids to form chains of proteins.
• Ribosomes does not have a membrane.
• Can be found in cytoplasm and Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum.
• Protein synthesizer of the cell
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Interconnected tubes and flattened sacs (cisternae) that
transports vesicles to carry different substances.
• Comes in two types:
o Rough ER has a ribosomes in its flattened body.
Also manufacture and synthesize proteins.
o Smooth ER has a NO ribosomes in its flattened
body. It detoxify drugs and synthesize non-protein
substance.
GOLGI APPARATUS
• A.K.A. Golgi Bodies, Golgi complex and Dictyosomes.
• Stacks of flattened sacs that carries protein from RER to
the outside part of the cell.
• Contains enzymes that modify protein, packages and
secreted protein.
o Vesicles are the small of packs of organic
materials.
MITOCHONDRIA
• It is known as the "Power house of the cell".
• It has two layers of membranous sacs, the inside
membrane is enfolds to form cristae and encloses by a
matrix.
• This is the location wherein energy produces by
synthesis of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
• Organelle responsible for cellular respiration,
conversion of energy originating from simple sugar and
lipids into ATP energy. It regulates cellular metabolism.
VACUOLES
• Single membranous sac that stores materials and
water, releasing of cellular waste products, conducts
intercellular digestion, maintaining hydrostatic
pressure.
• Vacuole in plants is large that plays a vital role in turgor
pressure and serves as for the storage of water. While
in animals is small for the storage of food products.
LYSOSOMES
• Are known as "scavenger of the cell“
• Membranous bag structure which contain strong
hydrolytic enzymes use to digest macromolecules.
• These single-membranous organelles also digest
damage parts of the cell down by nucleic acids and
some lipids. The digested products can reuse again by
the cell for the synthesis of
cellular materials.
• The programmed of cell destruction with the use of
lysosomal enzymes is important in the process of cell
development.
GLYCOCALYX
• A.K.A. Cell Coat it is located in the outer part of cell
membrane of animal cell
• It functions for cell recognition and cellular adhesion.
• It is also responsible for tissue organization.
PEROXISOMES
• Are membranous sacs that containing oxidative
enzymes for the function of detoxifying harmful
substance
CYTOSKELETON
• Composed of collective network of protein filamentous,
thread-like structure called microtubules,
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 microfilaments which produce a strong ability to
support and maintain the cell shape.
• It is the fundamental framework of the cytoplasm
containing protein filament that assist for the organelles
to move inside.
PLASTIDS
• The largest, rounded membranous organelles that
contain DNA usually seen in plants but not common in
animal cell.
• A double-membranous structure enclosed by a
thylakoid membrane consists of chloroplasts which
contain chlorophyll use by the plants for making
coloring pigments in their food through the process of
photosynthesis.
• Chloroplast parts;
o Thylakoid is flattened membranous sacs.
o Grana refers to stacked arrangement of
thylakoid.
o Stroma space outside the thylakoid which
contains enzymes for carbohydrate synthesis.
• Different Plastids and their coloring pigments
o Chloroplastids - green pigment .
o Chromoplastids - colored pigment like red,
yellow and orange.
▪ Carotenoids – Orange
▪ Anthocyanin – Red or Blue
▪ Anthoxanthin – Pale Yellow
▪ Xanthophyll – Yellow
o Leucoplastids - white and colorless pigment
▪ Amyloplasts – Stores starch grains.
▪ Proteinoplasts – Stores protein.
▪ Elaioplasts – Stores oil substance.
CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLE
• The centriole is a small, fibrous structure and
cylindrical shape having a mass dense of protoplasm
found near the nucleus.
• Contains nine pairs of peripheral microtubules
orthogonally arrange to produce the wall of the
cylinder.
• Present only in animal cell, a pair of centrioles are
found inside centrosome which replicates when the cell
divides
PART OF NUCLEUS
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
• Consists of two-membranous layered that covers the
entire Nucleus and separates the nuclear material from
the cytoplasm.
• It contains thread-like materials called chromatin which
is located in a darker area of the nucleus.
• The nuclear membrane controls the continuous flow of
materials inside and outside the nucleus.
NUCLEOPLASM
• It is known as the nuclear sap containing fluid
substance that suspended in the internal part forming
the protoplasm of the nucleus also known as
Karyoplasm.
NUCLEOLUS
• A spherical shape made up of granular structures that
found inside the nucleus containing Ribosomal Nucleic
Acid (RNA) which rich of protein materials for the
protein synthesis and carrying hereditary traits.
CHROMOSOMES
• These are long thread stands associated with protein
materials that suddenly coiled, appear thicker, denser
and shorter when cells divide.
• Carries DNA
• Also bounded with protein which serves as packaging
of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that controls the
hereditary characteristics.
OTHER PARTS
FLAGELLA are cytoplasmic projections that made of two
central and nine pairs of peripheral microtubules which extend
from surface of cell; covered by plasma membrane; many
single-celled organisms use them for propulsion and other
function of flagella for cell locomotion.
CILIA are relatively short projections that extend from the
surface of cell and allowing the materials to move on surface of
some tissues in form of waves.
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 PROKARYOTIC VS. EUKARYOTIC CELLS AND
PLANT VS. ANIMAL CELLS ANIMAL CELL
• The distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is • Has no cell wall.
considered to be the most important distinction among • Relatively smaller.
groups of organisms. Eukaryotic cells contain • Plastids are usually absent.
membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus, • Many small vacuoles.
while prokaryotic cells do not. • Nucleus at the center.
• Differences in cellular structure of prokaryotes and • Centrioles are practically present.
eukaryotes include the presence of mitochondria and • Lysosomes are present.
chloroplasts, the cell wall, and the structure of
chromosomal DNA.
PLANT CELL
• Prokaryotes were the only form of life on Earth for
millions of years until more complicated eukaryotic • Has cell wall.
cells came into being through the process of evolution. • Relatively larger.
• Plastids are present.
• Has large central vacuoles.
• Nucleus lies on one side of cytoplasm.
• Centrioles are normally absent.
• Lysosomes are absent.

Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells
• Less complex
• No nucleus
• Mostly unicellular
• Bacterial cell wall – Peptidoglycan
• Has a long single strand of DNA plus
• 70’s ribosomes
• Asexual reproduction by fission, Sexual production
unkown
• Kingdom Monera (bacteria and cyanobacteria)
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
• More complex
• True nucleus
• Either unicellular or multicellular
• Plant cell wall – cellulose Fungi – chitin
• Has two to hundreds of chromosomes per cell
• 80’s ribosomes
• Asexual reproduction by mitosis and Sexual
reproduction by fusion of gametes
• Kingdom of Animalia, Kingdom of Plantae and
Kingdom of Fungi
UNIT 3:
TYPES OF TISSUES
• Cell in the lowest level of structure capable of performing all
life activities.
• Some organisms are unicellular, but there are some, like
us, are considered as multicellular.
• Both plants and animals show a big difference and
complexity as they evolve separately, but still, they have
cells, millions of it. And grouped those cells with same
structure and function to form tissues. Tissues group
together forms organ, then organ system and finally
organism.
4 MAJOR TISSUE GROUPS
Animals are consisting:
• Epithelial
• Connective
• Muscle
• Nervous tissue.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Form the covering of the surfaces of the body located
both in internal and external parts.
• The cells making up the epithelium are often closely
bound to one another through specialized structures
called Tight Junctions.
• They form the external skin, the inner lining of the mouth,
digestive tract, secretory glands, the lining hollow part of
every organ such as heart, lungs, eyes, ears, the
urogenital tract, as well as the ventricular system of the
brain and central canals of the spinal cord. And the
uppermost layer of the body, the skin.
• Two groups of Epithelial Tissue:
o Simple Epithelium. Epithelial tissue consists of
single layer.
o Stratified Epithelium. Epithelial tissue
composed of many layers.
• Types of Epithelial tissues;

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 Description Location Function
• Fine hair like • Nose • Move mucus
projection. • Uterus and other
• Fallopian substances
tubes across the cell,
• Egg cells ciliary action.

Pseudostratified columnar cell

• Are found in places such as the trachea and upper
respiratory tract, where their cilia and mucous
secretion help collet foreign materials so you can
cough or sneeze them out.
Squamous Cell Description Location Function
• Squamous epithelia are found in places where rapid
• False stratification • Ducts of • Filtration
diffusion is required. It is also called pavement epithelium or appearance. large • Absorption
due to its tile-like appearance.
• Free surfaces with glands • Secretion
Description Location Function
hair like projection. • Ductus • Ciliary
• Thin, scaly – • Kidney glomeruli • Diffusion • Nuclei seen at difference Action
look. • Air sacs • Filtration different level that • Trachea
• Flattened on • Lining of heart • Secretion contain goblet cells. • Throat
the surface. • Blood vessels • protection • Mouth
• Fried egg • Lymphatic
appearance. vessels CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• With • Lining of the
rounded ventral body • Connective tissue is use to connect, bind, holds, and
nucleus cavities support one part to another part of the body.
• This is the most vascularized and widely distributed
Cuboidal Cell inside the body.
• An epithelial cell shaped like a cube. This is one of the • Supporting the muscles to produce movements, protect
closely packed cells forming the epithelium. the internal organs, and connects the tissues.
Description Location Function • Characterized by a large percentage of living cells and
non-living material known as matrix which is made of
• Dice-shape/ • Kidney Tubules • Secretion ground substance and fibrous structure.
Square like ducts and
• Cells of connective tissue is widely apart with each other
shape. secretory
in a form of matrix.
• With large position of small
and spherical glands
Bone tissue
nucleus. • Egg cells
• Bone cell (osteocytes)
• Sperm cells
• Matrix: Hard or calcified
• It supports, protects, provides lever, storage,
Columnar Cell
hematopoiesis (Blood production).
• Are epithelial cells which have elongated shape with a
height about 4 times the width. They are normal part of
functional breast ducts but sometimes they develop in
unusual ways or grow more rapidly than one would
expect.
Description Location Function
• Taller rather • Digestive • Absorption
than wide. Tubes • Secretion
• Column in • Gallbladder • Reception
shape long and • Excretory • Sensory
rectangular Ducts Blood tissue
shape with • Some glands • Red blood cell (erythrocytes), white blood cell
oblong nuclei or • Bronchi (leucocytes), and platelets.
elongated • Uterine tubes • To transport materials.
nucleus contain • Uterus
goblet cells. • Nose
• Ears
• Tongues

Ciliated Columnar Cell

• Moves mucus and other substances via cilia and is
found in the upper respiratory tract. They are the
primary target of infection for common cold viruses
such as corona virus, influenza virus and rhinovirus.

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Cartilage tissue
• Chondrocytes
• Matrix: rubbery collagen, elastic fibrous secretion of
chondroitin substance.
• To support and helps to provide structures.

Adipose tissue
• Fat cells (adipocytes)
• Matrix: Reticular structure with collagen fiber.
• Storage of lipids for energy building.

Hyaline Cartilage
• Chondrocytes
• Matrix: firm cartilaginous fiber.
• To support and cushion properties.

MUSCLE TISSUE
• Muscle cells that designed for contraction and
movement.
• These can help us to do work.
• Muscle cells are also called the muscle fibers.
Fibrocartilage • Inside the muscle fiber consists of sarcoplasm
• Chondrocyte known as the cell membrane, sarcolemma as the
• Matrix: Collagenous fibers cytoplasm of the muscle cell and the cell body that
• Absorb compressive shock containing nucleus located at the center.

Skeletal muscle tissue

• Striated Voluntary Muscle
• Long cylindrical shape, bundle form, many nucleus,
many striations.
• Muscle attached to skeleton.

Elastic Cartilage
• Chondrocytes
• Matrix: elastic fiber.
• To support the external.

Cardiac muscle tissue

• Striated Involuntary Muscle
• Short branching shape, have few striations, single or
two nucleus.
• Muscle of heart.

Areolar cartilage
• Mast cell, WBC, fibroblast and macrophages.
• Matrix: Collagen fiber, elastic fiber and gel-like matrix.
• Holds and conveys tissue and organ.

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Smooth muscle tissue
• Non-striated Involuntary Muscle
• Spindle in shape, no striations, single nucleus.
• Muscle of visceral organs.
NERVOUS TISSUE
• Integration and communication are the two major
functions of nervous tissue.
• Consists of two types of cells: Conducting cells and
Supportive cells.
• Primary function is to receive stimuli and send the
impulse to the and brain. The brain sends back a
response via the nerves.
• Two types of Nervous Tissue:
o Conducting Cells
▪ Neurons are specialized to transmit
information throughout the body.
▪ Respond to specific stimuli.
o Supporting Cells
▪ Transport nutrients from the blood
vessels to neurons.
▪ Guard against toxin by creating barrier to
harmful substances.
Neuroglia
• Surround neurons and provide support for and
insulation between them.
• Glial cells are the most abundant cell types in the
central nervous system.
Neurons
• Consist of two parts:
o Cell body or Soma- Contains the nucleus.
Controls the activity of neuron.
o Axon- Conducts impulse away the soma.
• Neurons are interconnected to transmit signal
throughout the Nervous system.
• Classified according to function and structure.
• Base on function:
o Afferent or Sensory Neuron- Sensory receptor
to CNS.
o Efferent or Motor Neuron- CNS to viscera,
muscle or gland.
o Interneurons- Connection between neurons.
• Base on structure:
• Unipolar- Single process emerging from the
cell body.
• Bipolar- One dendrite and one axon.
• Multipolar- Many dendrites and one axon.
UNIT 4: CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
CELLULAR TRANSPORT: AN INTRODUCTION
• TO STAY ALIVE, there must be continuous exchange of
materials between the cell and its environment.
• Necessary materials must be transported into the cell and
waste materials out of the cell.
• The plasma membrane separates the cell from its
environment.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
• It is the movement of substances through membranes
without using energy, from a region of greater or higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration and
does not require cellular energy.
• THREE TYPES: SIMPLE DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS and
FACILITATED DIFFUSION.
1.1 SIMPLE DIFFUSION
• Is the movement of substances from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
• One requirement for diffusion to occur is the
PRESENCE OF A CONCENTRATION GRADIENT.
• A CONCENTRATION GRADIENT is a difference in
concentration of a certain substance in one area and
the concentration in another adjacent area.
1.2 OSMOSIS
• Is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane. Water, like any other diffusing molecule,
moves down its concentration gradient, that is, from a
region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration. The movement can affect cell size.
• Osmosis occurs in response to the concentration of
solutes dissolved in water. The plasma membrane
separates the cytoplasm from the surrounding
medium.
• A solution exists within the cell and another outside the
cell.
ISOTONIC SOLUTION
• The concentration of solutes surrounding the cell
equals the concentration of solutes inside the cell.
• Movement of water molecules still occur but the
number of molecules moving is equal to the number of
molecules moving out.
• The size of the cell does not change.
• Ringer's solution is a solution of several salts
dissolved in water for the purpose of creating an
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 isotonic solution relative to the body fluids of an
animal. Ringer's solution typically contains sodium
chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride and
sodium bicarbonate, with the last used to balance the
pH.
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
• The concentration of solutes surrounding the cell is
higher than that inside the cell.
• In this situation, the amount of water inside cell is
higher and moves out into the surrounding solution
until the concentration of the two solutions equalize.
• If the cell is loses too much water, the cell will shrink.
(PLASMOLYSIS)
• (CRENATION) – shrinking of RBC
• Salt and sugar — they look so harmless, so basic, so
essential. ... “Too much sugar can cause insulin
resistance, obesity and diabetes. “Salt can cause
water gain and high blood pressure, which can lead to
heart failure, heart attack and stroke.”
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
• The concentration of solutes surrounding the cell is
lower than that inside the cell.
• In this situation, water moves into the cell because
there is greater concentration of water in the solution
outside.
• As a result, the cell increases in size and swells.
SWELLING in animal cells can lead to bursting.
• Plant cells, however, do not burst because they are
surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Instead, a hydrostatic
pressure develops and this is responsible for the
firmness or turgidity observed in well-watered plants.
• If you put a freshwater fish into saltwater, water
from inside their body would flow out into the highly
saline water surrounding them until they die of
dehydration.
• If you put a saltwater fish into freshwater, the
surrounding water would flow into their body until their
cells swelled up with water, eventually killing them.
• Such species of fish are known as euryhaline fish.
Salmon, bull shark, trout, shad and striped bass are
some of the examples of this specialized kind of fish.
1.3 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Is a form of passive transport that requires transport
proteins in the membrane.
• Glucose is an example of a large, polar molecule that
is transported through the membrane by facilitated
diffusion.
• Transport protein can either be carrier proteins or
channels.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Is the movement of substances from a region of lower
concentration to a region of greater concentration and
requires the expenditure of cellular energy.
• Specialized membrane provides referred to as pumps
are involved in active transport.
2.1. SODIUM-POTASSIUM Pump
• HAPPENS ON ANIMAL CELLS ESPECIALLY ON
MUSCLES AND NERVES.
• HIGH K+ inside and Low Na+ outside the cell.
2.2 ENDOCYTOSIS
• The cell engulfs particles into a pouch formed by the in
folding of the cell membrane.
• The resulting pouch is then pinched off from the plasma
membrane and forms a vesicle inside the cell.
• This vesicle then fuses with a lysosome which contains
enzyme that will break and digest the engulfed
particles before these are released into the cytoplasm.
• THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
o PHAGOCYTOSIS -“cell-eating”, the cell
engulfs solid particles into much larger
vesicles, sometimes called vacuoles. Many
unicellular organisms including protozoans,
obtain food through phagocytosis.
o In HUMAN, Neutrophils and monocytes- two
types of WBC- specialize in phagocytosis.
BOTH ENGULF AND DESTROYS
UNWATED CELLS AND MATERIALS
INSIDE THE BODY.
o PINOCYTOSIS -“Cell-drinking”, it is similar to
phagocytosis except that the cell engulfs
droplets of fluid instead of solid particles, also
forming large vacuoles within it.
o This is one of the mechanisms by which cells
maintain water balance.
2.3. EXOCYTOSIS
• It is the reverse of endocytosis. Wastes and cell
products inside the cell are package in Golgi vesicles
which then fuse with the cell membrane to be
transported out of the cell.
• It is an important process for the cell to maintain a
stable internal environment.
IMPORTANCE OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
1. Allows energy-rich molecule and necessary elements
to go inside the cell.
2. Removes waste and excess substances from the cell.
3. Maintains HOMEOSTASIS.
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UNIT 5: THE CELL CYCLE
THE SERIES OF STAGES IN THE LIFE OF A CELL
CELL DIVISION
• It is an essential aspect of life.
• It enables a multicellular organism to grow and reach
the adult size, replaces worn-out or damaged cells, and
keeps the total number of cells in an adult organism
relatively constant.
INTERPHASE
• It is the longest phase in the cell cycle for most cells.
• Typically, it lasts for at least 90% of the total time
required for the cell cycle.
STAGES OF INTERPHASE
G1 (GAP 1) PHASE- 8-10 HOURS
• It is characterized by an increase in the supply of
proteins, in the number of cellular organelles
particularly mitochondria and ribosomes, and in the
size of the cell.
S (SYNTHETIC) PHASE – 6-8 HOURS
• Characterized mainly by DNA synthesis or replication.
• The cell makes another copy of its chromosomes.
G2 (GAP 2) PHASE- 4-6 HOURS
• It spans from the completion of DNA synthesis to the
start of actual cell division.
MITOSIS
• The term MITOSIS is derived from the Latin word “mito”
meaning “threads”.
• It occurs among cells during embryonic development,
growth, repair of injured tissues and replacement of
worn-out tissues.
• Certain specialized cells like nerve cells, sperm cells,
and red blood cells that have no nuclei lose their power
to divide.
• The cells which constitute the body or soma or
multicellular organisms multiply by mitosis is called
SOMATIC CELL DIVISION.
PHASES OF MITOSIS
PROPHASE
• Formation of mitotic spindle fibers.
• The nuclear membrane disappears
• The nucleoli disappear
• A pair of centrioles moves to form each pole and the
mitotic spindle forms between the poles (centrioles)
• And the replicated DNA begins to condense into
distinctive chromosomes.
METAPHASE
• Alignment of Chromosomes
• Characterized by the alignment of the chromosomes
along the EQUATORIAL PLATE of the cell.
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 MEIOSIS
ANAPHASE
• Movement of the Daughter Chromosomes
• Characterized by the separation of the chromosomes
and the movement each of the replicated
chromosomes toward opposite poles.
TELOPHASE
• Formation Of Two Daughter Nuclei
• Daughter chromosomes reach the opposite end of the
poles.
• This stage is characterized by the formation of a
nuclear envelope around each set of the
chromosomes.
• The chromosomes uncoil, and once again appear
thread-like.
• Nucleoli reappear.
• The mitotic spindle fiber disappears and the equal
division of one nucleus into two identical daughter
nuclei is completed.
PROPHASE I
CYTOKINESIS
• Division Of the Cytoplasm
• Final phase and characterized mainly by the division of
the cytoplasm.
• In plant cells, cellulose deposits accumulate along the
equator, forming a structure called “cell plate” from
which the cell wall forms. A new plasma membrane
extends across both sides of the cell plate.
• In animal cells, the cytoplasm divides by the formation
of a groove called “cleavage furrow”.
• In humans, each body (somatic) cell contains two sets
of chromosomes, with 23 chromosomes in each set.
Each of the 23 pairs is called homologous pair.
• ONE set comes from each parent cell.
DIPLOID CELL-
• a cell that contains two complete sets or homologous
pairs of chromosomes.
DIPLOID NUMBER
• the number of chromosomes in a diploid cell.
Represent by “2N”.
HAPLOID CELL
• a cell containing a single set of chromosomes.
HUMAN SEX CELLS
• (Egg and sperm) contain only half the number of
chromosomes found in the body cells. N (23)
FERTILIZATION
• a haploid sperm cell fuses with a haploid egg cell,
results in a fertilized egg, called a ZYGOTE which is
DIPLOID.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MEIOSIS
• It results in daughter cells having the number of
chromosomes (haploid number) of the parent cell.
• The resulting daughter cells in meiosis are not alike.
They do not have the same exact copies of
chromosomes.
• Produces four (4) daughter cells.
• Occurs only in reproductive cells of ovaries and testes.
PHASES OF MEIOSIS I
• Chromosomes become thick and visible.
• Chromosomes of each homologous pair are tangled
together.
• Each pair consists of a total of four chromatids,
because each chromosomes in the pair had replicated
before meiosis began.
CROSSING OVER
• is the exchange of genes between pairs of homologous
chromosomes.
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 • Each of the daughter cells produced during meiosis I
divides again during meiosis II.
• Meiosis II is just a typical Mitosis but produces a four
haploid daughter cells.

METAPHASE I
• The homologous chromosomes are still together.
• The pairs of chromosomes are arranged in the middle
of the cell.

ANAPHASE I
• The homologous pairs of chromosomes separate from
each other during anaphase I.
• Spindle fibers pull members from each pair of
chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell.
• Notice that each individual chromosomes still consist
of two sister chromatids.

• Klinefelter syndrome – XXY

• Turner’s Syndrome – X
• Triple X syndrome – XXX
• Edward Syndrome – Trisomy 18
• XYY

TELOPHASE I CANCER
CANCER CELLS: GROWING OUT OF CONTROL
• Depending on the type of organism, a new nuclear
• The suquential events of the cell cycle are directed by
envelope may or may not form during telophase. In
a cell cycle control system that consists of specialized
either case, cytokinesis takes place during telophase.
proteins within the cell.
• After cytokinesis, each new cell is haploid, containing
• These proteins integrate information from the
one chromosome from each pair.
environment and from the other body cells and send
“stop” and “go-ahead” signal at a certain key points.
• The abnormal behavior of cancer cells begins when a
single cell undergoes transformation, a process
whereby a normal cell converts to a cancer cell.
• Transformation occurs after a genetic change
(mutation) in one or more genes that encode for
proteins in the cell cycle control system.

BENIGN TUMOR
• Because a transformed cell grows abnormally, the
MEIOSIS II immune system normally recognizes and destroys it.
• Recall that, before meiosis began, each chromosome
replicated to become two sister chromatids.

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 • However, if the cell, evades destruction, it may
proliferate to form a TUMOR, an abnormally growing
mass of the body cells.
• If the abnormal cells remain at the original site, the
lump is called benign tumor.
• Benign tumors can cause problems if they grow larger
and disrupt certain organs, such as brain but they can
be removed by surgery.

MALIGNANT TUMOR
• It can spread into neighboring tissues and other parts
of the body, displacing normal tissues and interrupting
organ function.
• Causes cancer.
• Cancer cells may separate from the original tumor or
secrete signal molecule that cause blood vessels to
grow toward the tumor.
• The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site is
called METASTASIS.

CANCER TREATMENT
• The three (3) main types of cancer treatment are
sometimes referred to as “slash, burn, and poison”.

Slash
• surgery to remove a tumor.

Burn-radiation therapy
• Parts of the body that have cancerous tumors are
exposed to concentrated beams of high-energy
radiation. (side effects: nausea and hair loss)

Poison- chemotherapy
• Drugs are administered that disrupt cell division.

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