The Fundamental Unit of Life – Cell

Cell
• The word cell is derived from the Latin word ‘cellula’ which
means a little room.
• Human body is composed of more than 200 different kinds
of cells, each specialized for distinctive functions as
memory, sight, movement and digestion.
• A cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
• Cell is the building block of which all living organisms are made.
• It is the smallest unit of life capable of all the living functions.
Discovery of Cell
• In 1665, Robert Hooke saw the cork resembled the structure of honey comb consisting of
many little compartments.
• Cork is obtained from the bark of a tree.
• Nerve cells carry message
• Hooke observed cork’s honeycombed or porous structure.
• Hooke found porous structure of cork to resemble with monasteries
and called the units, cells.
• He published his work in a book ‘Micrographia’ in 1665.

Robert Hooke’s Microscope Dead Cork cells by Robert Hooke

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek

• He made an improved microscope.
• He discovered sperm cells of humans, dogs, rabbits, frogs,
fish & insects.
Cell Theory
• In 1838, Jacob Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist proposed the idea that all plants
consist of cells.
• In 1839, Theodor Schwann, a German zoologist, proposed the idea that all animals consist
of cells.
 Omnis Cellulae a Cellula

The cell theory was refined further in 1855, when another German biologist, R. Virchow
presented the idea that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

• All organisms are composed of cells and cell products (e.g., secretions).
• All metabolic reactions take place in cells. Thus, cells are structural and functional units of
life.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells only. No cell can originate spontaneously or de novo
(anew) but comes into being only by division of already existing cells.
• Every organism starts its life as a single cell. Viruses are an exception to cell theory.
Instruments for Studying Cells
A. Light or Compound Microscope:

• The simple student’s microscope which is often used in schools is called compound
microscope.
• Many lenses are combined together and their magnification power range from 300 to
1500 times.
• It uses glass lenses.
• It uses a beam of light illuminate the object.
• Internal vacuum is not essential.

B. Electron Microscope:

• An electron microscope is a very large instrument that uses electromagnets for

magnification and electrons for illumination.
• It uses very high voltage electricity.
• It uses electromagnets.
• It uses a beam of electrons instead of light.
• Internal vacuum is essential.
Purkinje
In 1839, he coined the term Protoplasm.

Protoplasm: It is the living fluid substance present inside the cell.

Schleiden and Schwann
• They gave cell theory.
• Schleiden proposed that all plants consist of cells.
• Schwann proposed that all animals consist of cells.
Virchow
• He further explained the cell theory.
• 'All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Protoplasm
The contents of a living cell, contained within the plasma membrane, form protoplasm.
Protoplasm is usually differentiated into the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Q. What is plasmolysis? What happens to a plasmolysed cell when it is placed in water?
[NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. Shrinkage of protoplast from the cell wall in presence of hypertonic solution due to exosmosis
is known as plasmolysis. When a plasmolysed cell is placed in water, the concentration of
water in the outside medium is more than the concentration in the cell. Hence, water moves
inside the cell leading to its swelling.

Gene
• It is a distinct unit of hereditary information. Gene is inherited
from one generation to next and determines an observable
characteristic or trait of an organism.
• Genes have to carry coded information of parents to their children
or progeny, so that children remain exactly like their parents.
Generally a gene is made of DNA molecule, but sometimes it is
made of RNA molecule as observed in Tobacco mosaic Virus
(TMV)
DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid; a polymeric nucleic acid.

RNA
Ribonucleic acid; a polymeric nucleic acid.
Q. (i) Where are chromosomes present in the cell? What is their chemical composition?
(ii) How many pairs of chromosomes are present in human? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. (i) Chromosomes are present in the nucleus of a cell. Their chemical composition is of DNA,
RNA and proteins.
(ii) Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Non Cellular Organisms
• Lack any membrane
• Do not show characteristics of life until they enter a living body.
• They use host’s machinery to reproduce
Cellular Organisms
i) Prokaryotic Cells ii) Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Cell
• Nucleolus is absent.
• Membrane bound cell organelles are absent.
• Cell division takes place by fission or budding (no mitosis.)
• Size of a cell is generally small (1-10 mm)
• Nucleus is absent (Nuclear region or nucleoid is not surrounded by a nuclear
membrane).
• It contains single chromosome.
Eukaryotic Cell
• Size of a cell is generally large (5-10 mm)
• Nucleus is present (Nuclear material is surrounded by a nuclear membrane).
• It contains more than one chromosome.
• Nucleolus is present.
• Membrane bound cell organelles such as mitochondria, plastids,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
• Cell division occurs by mitotic or meiotic cell division.

Nucleus
• It is larger in size.
• It has a covering of
membrane envelope.
• Nucleolus is present in it.
• Complete DNA is present
• DNA has histone proteins.
Nucleoid
• It is comparatively smaller in size.
double • A covering membrane is absent. It
lies free in the cytoplasm.
• Nucleolus is absent it.
• Single DNA molecule is present.
• Histones are absent.

Unicellular Organisms
• ‘Uni’ means one, ‘cellular’ means cell.
• One cell performs all the activities of organism.
• No division of labour
• Only visible under the microscope.
• Their life span is short
• Examples – Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium
Multicellular Organisms
• ‘Multi’ means many, ‘cellular means cell
• A single cell performs one or few activities of the organism.
• Division of labour with in cells.
• These organisms are visible to the naked eyes.
• Their life span is long
• Examples – Fungus, Plants and Animals

Division of Labour
Sperm, White Blood Cell, Bone Cell, Nerve Cell, Fat Cell, Heart, Stomach, Muscles, Lungs, Eye.

Organelles
• There are components of cell to perform special function.
• All cells have same organelles, no matter what their function is.
• Eg. Endoplasmic reticulum, Mitochondria, chloroplast etc.
There are 3 parts of a cell
• Plasma Membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Nucleus
Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane
• It is thin, elastic and delicate living membrane.
• It is present on the inner side of the cell wall, in plants .
• It is made up of two layers of lipid molecules along with protein molecules embedded in it.
• Also called as SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE, because it allows entry and exit of
only few substances.
• It gives shape and rigidity to the cell.
Note: Viruses do not have any membranes.

Functions of Plasma Membrane

• It gives definite shape to the cell.
• It provides protection to internal contents of the cell.
• It regulates entry and exit of substances in and out of the cell.
• The useful molecules enter the cell.
• Secretions and wastes leave the cell.
 • Selective permeability of the cellular membranes enables the cell to maintain
homeostasis, i.e., a constant internal environment inspite of the changes outside it.
Cell Wall

• It is thick, nonliving and rigid.

• It is permeable and made up of cellulose and present in plant cells only.
Functions of Cell Wall
• It determines the shape of the plant cell.
• It prevents drying up of cells.
• It protects plasma membrane & internal structures of the cell.
Protoplasm
All the components of a living cell including the cell membrane is known as Protoplasm
Cytoplasm
The Protoplasm which surrounds the nucleus is called as Cytoplasm.
Diffusion
• The spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to low
concentration is called diffusion.
• It plays an important role in gaseous exchange between the cells as well as the cells and
its external environment.
Osmosis
The movement of water molecules from a region of high a concentration to low concentration
or from a region of low solute concentration to high solute concentration is called Osmosis.

Endocytosis
It is the ingestion of material by the cells through the plasma membrane.

Phagocytosis
• It is a type of endocytosis which means ‘cell eating’.
• It is seen in protozoans like amoeba and in some sponges.

Nucleus
The nucleus is a large sphere inside the cell

• Nuclear Envelope → It is the outer and porous covering of Nucleus.

• Nucleoplasm → It is the liquid substance inside the Nucleus
• Nucleolus → It is present in Nucleoplasm and has proteins.
 • Chromatin → It is a thread like genetic material present inside the Nucleus.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
• It is a large network fo membrane-bound tubes and sheets
• Some are connected to the nuclear membrane
• They serve as channels for the transport of materials between various regions of
cytoplasm.
• They function as a cytoplasmic framework to provide surface for some of the biochemical
activities of the cell.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

• It has ribosomes attached to it.
• Their main function is to synthesize proteins.
• It is abundant in exocrine pancreatic cells and antibodies secreting plasma cells.
• It contains flattened sacs called cisternae.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

• It does not have any ribosomes attached to it
• Their main function is to manufacture proteins, lipids and fats.
• SER also detoxify poisons and drugs from the liver cells of vertebrate.
• It is abundant in liver and the testicular cells.
• It is mainly formed of vesicles and tubules.
Membrane Biogenesis
The process of building the cell membrane with the help of proteins and lipids is called
membrane Biogenesis.

Ribosomes
• They can occur freely or some may remain attached to Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER).
 • Their main function is to synthesize proteins.
• They are not bounded by membrane.
Golgi Apparatus
• It was first described by Camilo Golgi.
• It consists of a system of membrane bound vesicles.
• These vesicles are parallel to each other and are called Cisterns.
• The pack and dispatch the material made by ER inside and outside the cell.
• It stores, modify and package the products in vesicles.
• It helps in the formation of lysosomes.

Lysosomes
• They form the waste disposal system of the cell.
• They keep the cell clean by digesting foreign, material as well is old cell organelles.
• When the cell gets damaged, lysosomes burst and digests their own cell.
• Therefore, lysosomes are known as the ‘suicide bags’ of the cell.
Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are known as Power house of the cell.
• They have double outer membrane.
• The inner membrane is folded and is called cristae
• They have their own DNA and ribosomes.
• They are absent in bacteria and red blood cells.
• They use molecular oxygen from air to oxidize the carbohydrates and fats.
• They synthesize energy rich compounds (ATP)
• ATP is the energy carrier or energy currency of the cell.
Q. What is active transport? [NCERT Exemplar]
Sol. The movement of molecules across a membrane in cells against a concentration gradient with
the help of ATP units is called active transport.

Plastids
• They are present only in plant cells.
• There are of two types-Chromoplasts (coloured plastids) and Leucoplasts (white or
colourless plastids)
• Plastids having chlorophyll are known as Chloroplasts.
• Chloroplast are the site of photosynthesis.
• Plastids also have their own DNA & ribosomes.

Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
• Vacuoles are small in animal cells & very large in plant cell (50-90% of cell volume)
• In plants, vacuoles provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell and also stores substances like
amino acids, sugars, organic acids, and some proteins.
• Covering of vacuole is called Tonoplast.
• Helps to maintain the osmotic pressure in a cell (Osmoregulation).
 Animal Cell Plant Cell
Animal cells are generally small in size. Plant cells are larger than animal cells.
Cell wall is absent. Cell wall is made up of Cellulose.
Except the protozoan Euglena, no animal Plastids are present.
cell has plastids.
Vacuoles are small and large in number Large central vacuole is present.
Has complex and prominent Golgi Simple units of Golgi apparatus are present
apparatus. (Dictyosomes).

Important NCERT Questions

Q1. Plasma membrane is made up of which two components?
Sol. Plasma membrane is made up of lipids and proteins.
Q2. What is hypotonic solution?
Sol. A solution having solute concentration lower than that of the cell sap is called hypotonic
solution.
Q3. What is hypertonic solution?
Sol. A solution having solute concentration higher than that of the cell sap is called hypertonic
solution.
Q4. What is isotonic solution?
Sol. A solution having solute concentration same as that of the cell sap is called isotonic solution.
Q5. Cell wall is made up of which component?
Sol. Cell wall is made up of cellulose.
Q6. Describe the microscopic structure of the cell.
Sol. The cork cells were the first cells to be observed. They were composed of box-like
compartments, forming a honeycomb structure. Cell organelles are found embedded in the
cytoplasm.These are smaller in size and bounded by plasma membrane.
Q7. Why do the animal cells not have cell wall?
Sol. Animals do not have rigid walls because cell walls are incompatible with the way in which an
animal moves and grow. The flaccid cell membrane provides the animal cell freedom of
mobility and formation of different tissues which is not present in plants.
Q8. Why are the Golgi bodies found in large numbers in the cells which secrete digestive
enzymes?
Sol. The main function of Golgi bodies is to release proteins or enzymes by vesicles. No other
organelle has this property. Therefore, these are largely present in secreting cells.
Q9. What are the functions of nuclear membrane?
Sol. A nuclear envelope separates the environment of nucleus from that of rest of the cell.
It protects the genetic material from damage.
It facilitates and regulates exchange of materials in and out of the nucleus.
Q10. How will absence of any one of the cell organelle affect the cell’s working?
Sol. Functions of all the organelles are inter-linked to each other and ultimately to the working of
the cell. So, if even a single link is missing, the cell ultimately suffers and die. For example,
DNA from the nucleus passes the information for protein formation to the ribosomes which
send the proteins to Golgi complex and ER for modification and transport.
Q11. If you are provided with some vegetables to cook, you generally add salt into the
vegetables. After adding salt, vegetables release water. Why?
Sol. When salt is added, a hypotonic medium is created, i.e., the concentration of salt molecules is
more outside the vegetables than inside. Hence, due to osmosis water from the vegetables
come out.
Q12. How are chromatin, chromatid and chromosomes related to each other?
Sol. Chromatin is a thin thread-like structure which is composed of DNA (deoxy ribonucleic acid)
and proteins to form a rod-like chromatid. Two similar chromatids attach to a centromere to
form a chromosome.
Q13. Write the name of different plant parts in which chromoplast, chloroplast and leucoplast
are present.
Sol. Chromoplasts are present in flowers, fruits or any other coloured part of the plant (other than
green part).
Chloroplasts are present in leaves and stem of plant (green part).
Leucoplasts are present anywhere in plant as they are colourless and store food.