01-The Cell

DR.
Abdul-Rahman Adel
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The cell
Cell is the Building unit of all living things
Cell → tissue → organ → system → multi-system organism (as human)
• Tissue: group of similar cells regarding structure and function
• Organ: group of different tissue acting together (as liver)
• System: group of different organs acting together
Modern cell theory states:

■ All living things are composed of cells
■ Cells are the basic unit of all organisms
■ All cells arise from preexisting cells
➢ Most plant and animal cells have diameters between 10–100

micrometers.
➢ All cells are enclosed by a membrane that regulates the passage of
materials between the cell and its surroundings.
➢ They also contain nucleic acid, which directs the cell’s activities and
controls inheritance.
• Note that:
Any Cell of any type must have
1. Cell membrane
2. Nucleic acid
3. Ribosomes
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DR. Abdul-Rahman Adel
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Structure of the cell
1. Cell or Plasma Membrane:
• Seen by electron microscope

• It’s a selectively permeable membrane that controls what enter and
leaves the cell.
• It consists of phospholipid bilayer with protein dispersed throughout.
• Molecules of cholesterol are embedded within the membrane, making it
less fluid and more stable.
• The external surface of the plasma membrane has carbohydrate chains
attached to it that are important for cell to cell recognition
• To sum up:
Plasma membrane consists of:
I. Phospholipid bilayer
II. Integral proteins
III. Cholesterol (in animals)
IV. Carbohydrate chains
Functions of protein within living

membrane as cell membrane:
i. Acting as receptors
ii. Acting as enzymes
iii. Acting as recognition markers for immune cell
iv. Helps in cellular transport
2. Cytoplasm and Cytosol:
• The entire region between nucleus and

plasma membrane is called cytoplasm.
• Cytosol refers to semiliquid portion of
the cytoplasm.
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3. Nucleus
• The nucleus contains chromosomes made of DNA that is wrapped with
special proteins called histones into a chromatin network.
• Chromosomes contain genes
(bits of DNA that code for
polypeptides).
• The nucleus is surrounded by a
selectively permeable double
membrane or envelope that
contains pores that allow
transport of large molecules
such as RNA out of the nucleus
and into cytoplasm.
4. Nucleolus
• Its prominent region inside the nucleus of a cell that is not dividing.
• Components of ribosomes are synthesized here.
• Nucleoli are not membrane bound structure but are tangles of chromatin
and unfinished bits of ribosomes.
• One or two nucleoli are visible in non-dividing cell.
• Important Note:
Nucleolus contains 2R → RNA, Ribosomes
5. Ribosome
• This is site of protein synthesis.
• Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein (histone).
• They are suspended freely in the cytoplasm or bound to endoplasmic
reticulum.
• Important Note:
• Two organelles that contain ribosomes:
mitochondria and chloroplast
• Ribosomes are the smallest organelles in the cell,
and could only be seen by electron microscope (E.M)
• Ribosomes are formed of 2 subunits; one large while other is small
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6. Endoplasmic Reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of membrane channels that
transverse the cytoplasm.
• There are two types:

I. Rough ER: it's studded with ribosomes.
Therefore it's site of protein synthesis as well as transport
throughout the cytoplasm.
II. Smooth ER: has many functions:
1. Connects Rough ER to the Golgi apparatus
2. Synthesize steroid hormones and other lipids
3.Carbohydrate (glycogen) metabolism
4. Detoxifies the cell
7. Golgi apparatus: "shipping department of the cell"

• It lines near the nucleus and consists of
flattened sacs of membranes stacked next to
each other and surrounded by vesicles.
• It's function:
1. Modify, store and package substance
produced in the rough ER
2. Secretes these substances to other parts
of the cell and to the cell surface for export
to other cells.
3. Produces lysosomes
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8. Lysosome:
• It’ a sac of hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes enclosed by single membrane.
• It’s the principle site of intracellular digestion.
• By the help of lysosome, the cell continually renews itself by breaking
down and recycles cell parts.
• Function:
1. Contains Hydrolytic enzymes that
digest
a. Foreign bodies as virus
b. Worn out organelles
c. Large food particles as fat
2. Programmed cell death (Apoptosis)
• Plant cell don’t have lysosomes
9. Mitochondria: "power house"

• It’s the site of cellular respiration (breaking of food molecule in order to
release ATP)
• A cell has many mitochondria.
• A very active cell may have
about 2500 of them
• It consists of outer double
membrane and a folded inner
membrane called cristae.
• Enzymes that are important for
cellular respiration are found in
cristae membrane
• Mitochondria contain its own
DNA and can self-replicate
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10. Vacuole:
• They are single membrane bound structures that store substances for
cell.
• Freshwater Protista (amoeba and
paramecium) have contractile vacuole that
pump excess water out cell
• Plant cell and human fat cell
have central large vacuole
• Note: it’s the largest
organelle in plant cell
11. Vesicles:
• They are tiny vacuoles.
• They are found in many places in cell as in axon of neuron.
12. Cytoskeleton:
• It's Complex network of protein filaments that extend throughout the
cytoplasm and give the cell its shape and enable it to move.
• It includes two types:
1. Microtubules: thick hollow tubes that make up cilia, flagella and spindle
fibers
2. Microfilaments: are made up of protein actin and help support shape of
cell.
• Function:
a. Spindle Fibers: enable Animal cells to form cleavage furrow during
cell division
b. Actin Filaments: enable Skeletal muscles to contract by sliding along
myosin filaments
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13. Centrioles and Centrosomes:
• They lie outside the nuclear membrane and organize the spindle fibers
required for cell division.
• Only animal cells have centrioles and centrosomes.
• Two centrioles, at right angle to each other, make up one centrosome
• Centriole and spindle fibers have same structures
• They consist of 9 triplets of microtubules
14. Cilia and Flagella:

• They have the same internal structure; both are made of microtubules
• The only structural difference is the length; cilia are short while flagella
are long.
• Both consist of 9 pairs of microtubules
organized around 2 singlet microtubules
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15. Plastids:
• They have double membrane and are found only in plant and algae.
• Types of plastids:
16. Cell Wall:

• It’s the one structure NOT found in animal cell.
• When a plant cell divides, a thin glue layer is formed between the two
cells, which becomes middle lamella and which keeps the two daughter
cells attached.
• There are small channels across cell wall communicating cytoplasm
between two adjacent cells called "plasmodesmata" (see absorption)
• Note:
ϖ Cell wall is found in:
1. Bacteria: formed of peptidoglycan
2. Fungi: formed of chitin
3. Plant and Algae: formed of cellulose
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Animal Cell Plant Cell

Centriole and centrosome No centrioles or centrosome
No chloroplast and other
Chloroplast and other plastids
plastids
Small vacuole Large central vacuole
Plasma membrane only Cell wall + plasma membrane
Lysosomes No lysosomes
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Ribosomes
( all cells )
Chromosomes
Non - (all cells )
membranous Centrosome
Cell Organelles
(animal only )
Cytoskeleton
( animal only )
Nucleus
Double
Mitochondria
membraned
Plastids
Membranous Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi body
Single
membrane Lysosome
Vacule
Vesicle
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1. Which structure is common to all cell types ?

A. Chloroplast
B. Plasma membrane
C. Cell wall
D. Mitochondria
E. Flagella
2. Phospholipids are NOT a major component of which of the following?

A. cell walls
B. Golgi apparatus
C. plasma membrane
D. mitochondria
E. endoplasmic reticulum
3. All of the following structure include membranes EXCEPT

A. Nucleolus
B. Nuclear envelope
C. Endoplasmic reticulum
D. Mitochondria
E. Chloroplast
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Cells are divided into two varieties: prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Contain membrane-bound organelles
No Nucleus
such as Nucleus and
or membrane-bound organelles
Mitochondria⚠️
Chromosomes are linear;
Single, circular chromosome e.g. human body cells contain 46
chromosomes in each nucleus
Can contain plasmids No plasmids
Small Ribosomes Larger Ribosomes
Respiration can be either aerobic or
Aerobic Respiration
anaerobic
Cytoskeletal elements, like
No Cytoskeletal elements.
microfilaments and microtubules.
Most are Unicellular Some are Unicellular
(e.g. bacteria ) Most are Multicellular
Very small: 1–10 µm Larger: 10–100 µm
NO cell walls
Tough external Cell walls
(except plant cells and protists)
Important note:
❖ RBCs are considered Eukaryotic cell although its
mature form has NO nucleus because Eukaryotic 12
cell has nucleus during some portion or all of its life
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Theory of endosymbiosis
Eukaryotic cells evolved when free-living prokaryotes took up
permanent residence inside other larger prokaryotic cells.
Proof: Mitochondria and chloroplast have their own DNA
⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂⌂
A cell’s form (structure) is dictated by its function.

A nerve cell, for example, whose purpose is to conduct electrical impulses, is
long and spindly.
Cells that make up a tough peach pit

resemble square building blocks.
The human body is made of

approximately two hundred
different eukaryotic cell types, each
with a different function.
Therefore, each cell type has a
different form
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Microscopes
1. Light microscopes
• There are many tools and techniques to study cells. But, the main
tool for studying cell structure (cytology) is the compound
microscope.
• The finest microscopes have both high magnification and excellent
resolution.
• A toy microscope, which may enlarge an image 400×, has little
resolving power, so the images are blurred.
• The first microscope was developed by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in
the seventeenth century.
• How to determine the magnification power?
o Multiply the magnification of the
ocular lens or eyepiece by the
magnification of the objective lens.
o If the ocular has a magnification of
10×, which is customary, and the
magnification of the objective lens
is 40×, the total magnification is
400×.
• When you use the microscope, remember
that the image is upside-down and backward from the
actual specimen you placed onto the slide.
• Phase contrast microscope

o It is a light microscope that enhances contrast.
o It is useful in examining living, unstained cells.
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2. Electron microscope
• Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons, instead of a beam of
light, to produce superior resolving power as well as magnification
over 100,000×.
• Types
1. The transmission electron microscope (TEM)
▪ It is useful for studying the interior
of cells.
▪ The source of electrons is a tungsten
filament within a vacuum column
Disadvantages of Electron Microscope
• The tissue is no longer alive after

processing.
• Preparation of specimens is complicated., a
process that requires many hours and much
expertise.
• It is a delicate machine and requires special
engineers to maintain it.
• Only a small portion of a tissue sample can
be studied at one time.
• It costs hundreds of thousands of dollars
2. The scanning electron microscope (SEM)

▪ It is useful for studying the surface of cells.
▪ The resulting images have a three-dimensional
appearance.
TEM
study the interior of the cell
SEM
study the surface of the cell
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THE METRIC SYSTEM AND MEASURING
Length Mass
1 km (kilometer) = 1000 M (meters) 1 kg (kilogram) = 1000 g (grams)
1 M = 0.001 km or 1 × 10–3 km 1 g = 0.001 kg or 1 × 10–3 kg
1 M = 1000 mm (millimeters) 1 g = 1000 mg (milligrams)
1 mm = 0.001 M = 1 × 10–3 M 1 mg = 0.001 g or 1 × 10–3 g
1 mm = 1000 μm (micrometers) 1 mg = 1000 μg (micrograms)
1 μm = 0.001 mm or 1 × 10–3 mm 1 μg = 0.001 mg or 1 × 10–3 mg
Volume
1 L (liter) = 1000 mL
1 mL = 0.001 L or 1 × 10–3 L
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The life functions
A characteristic of all cells is that they carry out certain life

processes.
They include:
1. Ingestion. Intake of nutrients
2. Digestion. Enzymatic breakdown, hydrolysis, of food so it is small

enough to be assimilated by the body
3. Respiration. Metabolic processes that produce energy (adenosine

triphosphate or ATP) for all the life processes
4. Transport. Distribution of molecules from one part of a cell to

another or from one cell to another
5. Regulation. Ability to maintain internal stability, homeostasis
6. Synthesis. Combining of small molecules or substances into larger,

more complex ones
7. Excretion. Removal of metabolic wastes (Urine)
8. Egestion. Removal of undigested waste (Stool)
9. Reproduction. Ability to generate offspring
10. Irritability. Ability to respond to stimuli
11. Locomotion. Moving from place to place (animal cells only)
12. Metabolism. Sum total of all the life functions
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Cellular transport
The movement of a substance across the cell membrane is known as cell
transport.
The substance can move either in or out of the cells.
Cell membrane is semi-permeable, which means that some molecules can
diffuse across it but others cannot.
Active transport Passive transport

Needs energy (ATP) Needs NO energy (NO ATP)
From low to high concentration From high concentration to low

gradient concentration gradient
(against concentration gradient) (with concentration gradient)
Types:
Types:
a. Exocytosis
a. Simple diffusion
b. Pinocytosis
b. Facilitated diffusion
c. Phagocytosis
c. Osmosis
d. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
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Passive Transport
1. Simple diffusion
• The movement of particles from a higher concentration to a lower
concentration.
• The steeper the gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion.
• Example: - Humans obtain oxygen by simple diffusion across moist
membranes in alveoli, in our lungs.
2. Facilitated diffusion:
• Relies on special protein membrane channels to assist in transporting
specific substances across a membrane.
• Example: - calcium ions to be
transported by facilitated
diffusion through calcium ion
channels within the axon
membrane.
Here is some important vocabulary you should know:

1- Solvent: The substance that does the dissolving.
2- Solute: The substance that dissolves.
3- Hypertonic: Having a greater concentration of solute than another solution.
4- Hypotonic: Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution.
5- Isotonic: Two solutions containing equal concentrations of solute.
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3. Osmosis: In Osmosis
• The diffusion of water across a membrane.
• It occurs in case of semi permeable 1. Water moves not the
solute.
membrane (where water can pass through
2. Through Semi-permeable
but the salt molecules cannot)
membrane
Example: cell A has more solute than cell B.
Therefore, cell A is hypertonic to cell B
and cell B is hypotonic to cell A.
• Water will flow toward the region of higher

concentration of solute, from cell B to cell A.
• I.e., Water moves from high water conc to less
water conc.
Another Example: when we put an animal cell in different solutions, What will
happens?
• In hypertonic sol.
Water will leave the cell,
causing the cell to
shrink. i.e. plasmolysis
• In hypotonic sol.
Water flows into the cell.
This causes an animal cell to
swell and burst.
• In Isotonic Sol.
No net movement of water will take place.
N.B But in plant cell the cell wall will prevent the cell from bursting. Plant cells
merely swell or become turgid.
Don’t forget 📢📢
Water moves from Hypotonic sol. to Hypertonic Sol.
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Quick Quiz 🤔
1. An animal cell placed into 0.9 % solute solution would do which of
the following?
A. Remain unchanged Put in your consideration:
B. Swell and burst 1. Normal tonicity of human
C. Shrivel cells = 0.009 (0.9%)
D. Swell and divide 2. Distilled water means
E. Release solute by endocytosis water with no salt
2. A beaker is set up as shown. Which of the following best describes what

will happen?
A. There will be net movement of water to the distilled water

compartment
B. There will be net movement of water to the protein solution
compartment
C. Equal amounts of water will move in both directions
across the membrane
D. Equal amounts of protein will move in both
directions across the membrane
E. Protein will readily move with the water across the
membrane
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Active Transport
1. Exocytosis
• It is the active release of molecules from a cell.
2. Pinocytosis: (Cell Drinking)
• The uptake of large, dissolved molecules.
• The plasma membrane invaginates around Endocytosis
tiny particles and encloses them in a vesicle
3. Phagocytosis: Receptor-
Pinocytosis Phagocytosis mediated
• It is the engulfing of large endocytosis
particles or even small organisms by pseudopods. the cell membrane
wraps around the particles and encloses them, forming a vacuole.
• EXAMPLE: This is the way human white blood cells engulf
bacteria and also the way in which amoeba feed.
4. Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
• Enables a cell to take up large quantities of very specific
substances.
• Extracellular substances bind to specific receptors on the cell
membrane and are drawn into the cell into vesicles,
• This is the way in which body cells take up cholesterol from the
blood.
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SUMMARY
• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus or other internal membranes. Bacteria
are prokaryotic cells.
• Eukaryotic cells, like the cells of our bodies, are complex, having a nucleus
and other internal membranes that form organelles.
• The first eukaryotic cells formed about 2.4 billion years ago, when small
prokaryotic cells took up permanent residence inside larger prokaryotic
cells. This process is known as the theory of endosymbiosis.
• Form relates to function. There are many different types of cells, each
with a different function. Know the function of all cell organelles: nucleus,
nucleolus, mitochondria, lysosomes, etc.
• The plasma or cell membrane is described as fluid mosaic. It is selectively
permeable, controlling what enters and leaves the cell.
• This membrane consists of a phospholipid bilayer with proteins dispersed
throughout. These proteins function as enzymes, channels, or pumps.
• Passive transport is the movement of particles moving from a region of
higher concentration to a region of lower concentration; that is, down a
gradient.
• Simple diffusion can occur anywhere.
• Facilitated diffusion requires the presence of specialized protein
channels within membranes.
• Both types of diffusion require no expenditure of energy.
• Osmosis is one type of diffusion— the diffusion of water across a
membrane.
• A cell placed in a hypertonic (more dissolved solute) solution will shrink
(plasmolysis) because water diffuses out of the cell.
• An animal cell placed in a hypotonic solution (less dissolved solute) will
swell and perhaps lyse or burst, because water diffuses into it.
• If, however, this cell is a plant cell, it will not burst because of the presence
of the limiting cell wall. It will merely swell or become turgid.
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• Active transport is the flow of molecules against a concentration gradient
and requires energy.
• Examples are exocytosis, endocytosis, phagocytosis, and receptor-
mediated endocytosis.
Your notes
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01-The Cell

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01-The Cell

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DR.

Modern cell theory states:

➢ Most plant and animal cells have diameters between 10–100

• Seen by electron microscope

Functions of protein within living

2. Cytoplasm and Cytosol:

• The entire region between nucleus and

• There are two types:

7. Golgi apparatus: "shipping department of the cell"

9. Mitochondria: "power house"

14. Cilia and Flagella:

16. Cell Wall:

Animal Cell Plant Cell

1. Which structure is common to all cell types ?

2. Phospholipids are NOT a major component of which of the following?

3. All of the following structure include membranes EXCEPT

Cells are divided into two varieties: prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

Proof: Mitochondria and chloroplast have their own DNA

A cell’s form (structure) is dictated by its function.

Cells that make up a tough peach pit

The human body is made of

• Phase contrast microscope

Disadvantages of Electron Microscope

• The tissue is no longer alive after

2. The scanning electron microscope (SEM)

THE METRIC SYSTEM AND MEASURING

The life functions

A characteristic of all cells is that they carry out certain life

2. Digestion. Enzymatic breakdown, hydrolysis, of food so it is small

3. Respiration. Metabolic processes that produce energy (adenosine

4. Transport. Distribution of molecules from one part of a cell to

5. Regulation. Ability to maintain internal stability, homeostasis

6. Synthesis. Combining of small molecules or substances into larger,

7. Excretion. Removal of metabolic wastes (Urine)

8. Egestion. Removal of undigested waste (Stool)

9. Reproduction. Ability to generate offspring

10. Irritability. Ability to respond to stimuli

11. Locomotion. Moving from place to place (animal cells only)

12. Metabolism. Sum total of all the life functions

Active transport Passive transport

From low to high concentration From high concentration to low

Here is some important vocabulary you should know:

• Water will flow toward the region of higher

2. A beaker is set up as shown. Which of the following best describes what

A. There will be net movement of water to the distilled water

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