GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 NOTES 6.

Energy flow occurs within cells; metabolic and biochem

processes occur

Postulates of the Cell Theory Parts of the cell

Biology Animal cells and plant cells have features in common, such as a
● Greek “bios” and “logos,” which means the ‘study of life’ nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, ER, and ribosomes.
● Studies the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and
distribution of living organisms MicrotubulesSupports and shapes the cell
● Manifestation of respect for life and the envi
● For transportation
Historical Timeline (1600s)
Actin Filaments
King Charles II ● Provides mechanical support for the cell’s shape and movement
● Commissioned a microscopic investigation in 1661 (more on
insect anatomy) Intermediate Filaments
● Provides mech support for coming into contact with other cells
Robert Hooke
● English Botanist who examined oak cork with a compound Plant cell
microscope and saw boxes. ● Eukaryotic cells with membrane-bound organelles.
● He called these boxes “cellulae” - Latin for ‘small rooms’ ● Larger than animal cells, mostly similar in size and rectangular or
● Published Micrographia cube shaped.
● Contains a cell wall, a large vacuole and plastids.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
● Dutch naturalist and craftsman who made >500 microscopes. Animal cells
● Discovered animalcules (protozoa, nematodes, rotifers, ● Eukaryotic cells enclosed by a plasma membrane
bacteria, and spermatozoa) ● Constitutes a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles,
● His microscopes were presented to the Royal Society of centrioles, cilia, flagella, and lysosomes.
England. ● Size varies and shape is irregular.
● All animal cells have one complete set of genes which helps in
Historical Timeline (1800s) protein formation.

Robert Brown Vacuole

● Scottish botanist who discovered the nucleus ● Stores water, food, ions, enzymes, and metabolic/toxic wastes
● A large and membrane-bound chamber in plant cells.
Matthias Schleiden ● Small and membrane-bound in animal cells.
● German botanist who studied plant morphology and ● Secretes, excretes, and stores.
physiology
● Co-founder of the cell theory Chloroplast
● Traps solar energy to produce food during photosynthesis
Theodor Schwann
● German physiologist who founded modern histology Leucoplast
● Co-founder of the cell theory ● Storage for proteins (proteinoplasts), starches (amyloplasts), and
oils (elaioplasts)
Rudolf Virchow ● Found in endosperms, tubers, roots, and other non-photosynthetic
● German pathologist who pioneered the concept of parts of plants.
pathological processes
● “Cells originated from pre-existing cells” Cilia and Flagella
● Extension of the cell membrane that allows for cell movement
Historical Timeline (1900s) ● Made of microtubules

Janet Plowe Peroxisomes

● Biologist who discovered the cell membrane in 1931 ● Contains enzymes for the digestion of fatty acids and alcohol

Lynn Margulis Cell/Plasma Membrane

● American biologist who revolutionized the endosymbiotic ● Supports and protects the cell.
theory - “mitochondria came from bacteria-like organisms” ● Semi-permeable outer lining that controls the movement of
materials in/out of cells.
Cell Theory ● Forms a barrier between cell and its environment.
● Universally accepted past and modern principles ● Maintains homeostasis.
1. Living things are made of eukaryotic/prokaryotic cells ● Encloses cell organelles.
2. Cells are the basic unit of life in terms of structure and function.
3. Cells come from pre-existing cells Cell Wall
4. DNA or hereditary info is passed on during cell division ● Only in plant cells.
5. Cells have the same basic chemical composition ● Made of cellulose.
● Allows diffusion of gasses in and out of the cell.
● Located outside the cell membrane
● Provides rigidity, strength, and protection against mechanical
stress and infection.
Centrosome Chloroplast
● Small body near the nucleus where centrioles are made. ● Bound by two membranes.
● Organizes microtubules during cell division. ● Flattened structures that look like a stack of coins.
● Site of photosynthesis in plants
Centriole ● Releases oxygen.
● Cylindrical organelle made of microtubules for cell division ● Elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll -
● Contains spindle fibers absorbs energy from sunlight.

Cytoplasm Plasmodesmata
● Maintains the osmotic concentr-äüation of the cells and prevents ● Microscopic channels which traverse the cell walls of plant cells
them from bursting or shrinking. and enable transport and communication between them.
● Made of cytosol - jelly-like clear substance that fills 90% of the cell
Plastids
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) ● Storage for starch for synthesis of fatty acids and terpenes.
● Membrane-bound organelle which makes, processes, and
transports lipids, proteins and other materials. Golgi Apparatus
● Carries materials through the cell ● Looks like ER
● Aids in protein synthesis. ● Located near the nucleus.
● Large network of thin and folded interconnecting membrane ● Modifies, packs, and exports proteins as vesicles.
tunnels. ● Flattened stacks of membrane bound sacs.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Lysosome

● Covered with ribosomes ● Membrane-bound vesicles in animal cells that contain enzymes.
● Makes proteins. ● Digests old cell parts and larger food molecules.
● Detoxifies the cell.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
● Continuous with the outer nuclear membrane.
● Transports materials through the cell and produces and digests Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
lipids and membrane proteins.

Mitochondria
● Double membrane-bound organelle with numerous folds. Prokaryote
● Site of aerobic cellular respiration ● From Greek “Pro” and “Karyon,” meaning ‘before’ and ‘nut’.
● Converts glucose to (ATP) ● Classified into two domains: Archaea and bacteria
● One of the largest organelles ● First organisms to exist
● Spherical or rod-shaped ● Simple and 0.1-5.0 micrometers in diameter.
● Storage for Calcium ions ● Has a nucleoid (clump of genetic material)
● Performs metabolic tasks: signaling, regulation, and apoptosis ● Does not have membrane-bound organelles
● Flagella consists of two protein building blocks
Nucleus ● Has a capsule or a slimy layer for protection from host factors
● Membrane-bound organelle ● Cell wall is usually present and chemically complex (bacteria have
● Spherical in shape. peptidoglycan)
● Directs most cell activities ● Plasma membrane has no carbohydrates and sterols
● Contains hereditary material and helps in protein synthesis. ● No cytoskeleton and cytoplasmic streaming
● Ribosomes measure 70 Svedberg units
Nucleolus ● Single circular chromosome arrangement without histones
● Darkly stained ● Divides through binary fission
● Aids in protein formation and RNA synthesis. ● Reproduces through conjugation (transfer of DNA fragments)

Nuclear Membrane Eukaryote

● Porous double membrane layer that surrounds the nucleus. ● From Greek “Eu” and “Karyon,” meaning ‘true’ and ‘nut.’
● Complex and 10-100 micrometers in diameter.
Nucleoplasm ● Has true nucleus
● Semi-fluid substance inside the nucleus ● Have membrane bound organelles
● Contains genetic material and the nucleolus. ● Flagella consists of multiple microtubules
● Glycocalyx is present in eukaryotes that don’t have a cell wall as a
Ribosomes factor for cell recognition
● Smallest and most abundant organelles. ● Cell wall is chemically simple when present. Plant cells have
● Synthesizes proteins cellulose and fungi have chitin
● Found on ER. ● Plasma membrane has sterols and carbohydrates for receptors
● Has cytoskeleton and cytoplasmic streaming
Cytoskeleton ● Ribosomes measure 70-80 Svedberg units
● Network of thin and fibrous filaments made of microtubules and ● Multiple linear chromosome arrangement with histones
microfilaments. ● Divides through mitosis
● Shapes and supports cell. ● Reproduces through meiosis
 ● Forms stroma and provides structural support
Glycocalyx
● Carbohydrate-enriched coating. Dense CT
● Fiber matrix
Cytoplasmic streaming
● Movement of fluids in plant and animal cells Dense Regular CT
● Helps transport nutrients, proteins, and organelles ● Made of type I collagen - densely packed and parallel
● Found where large amounts of tensile strength are needed;
ligaments, tendons, and aponeurosis
Cell Modifications
Dense Irregular CT
● Fiber arrangement not parallel
● Consists of collagen with less ground substance
Atom > Molecules > Macromolecules > Organelle > Cell > Tissue > ● Found in deep layers of the dermis and sclera
Organ > Organ System > Organism
Dense Elastic CT
Epithelial tissue ● Provides elastic recoil and resilience for structure and
● Lines outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels, and inner function
surfaces of internal organ cavities. ● Abundant in reticular tissue of soft organs
● Closely-joined cells with tight junctions - barriers for pathogens,
mech injuries, and fluid loss. Specialized CT
● Series of similar cells performing a specific function
Simple cuboidal ET
● For secretions Cartilage
● One layer thick ● Collagenous fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate
● Found in Kidney tubules and respiratory Bronchioles ● Cartilage cells (chondrocytes) are isolated in small lacunae
within the matrix and secretes collagen and chondroitin sulfate
Simple Columnar ET ● Cushion between bones
● One layer - taller than they are wide ● Firmly gelated consistency endows rigidity and resistance to
● Found in the Stomach and Intestines for secretions and active compression
absorption
Hyaline Cartilage (joints)
Simple squamous ET ● Has clearer-looking ground substance
● Plate-like cells for diffusion (exchange of materials)
● Found in air sacs Fibrocartilage (discs)
● Densely-layered collagen that are flattened and organized
Stratified squamous ET in rows
● Multilayered and regenerates quickly for protection
● Found in Esophagus Elastic Cartilage (Nose and ears)
● Fibers are visible in the matrix
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar ET
● Single-layered stacks of cells of varying height Bone/Osseous tissue
● Found in the lining of the respiratory tract with cilia ● Mineralized CT made by bone-forming cells (osteoblasts)
which deposit collagen.
Connective tissue (Connective tissue proper) ● Hard tissue made of collagen matrix, calcium, magnesium, and
● Found in skin and fibrous CT phosphate ions
● Made of collagenous fibers in ligaments and tendons ● Honeycomb-like matrix for rigidity
● Supports, facilitates movement, protects internal organs, stores
Loose CT minerals and fats, and hematopoiesis
● Holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to ● Central canal is surrounded by concentric circles of osteons
underlying tissue
Spongy/Cancellous/Trabecular bone
Areolar CT ● Found in long bones and surrounded by compact bone
● Surrounds blood vessels, nerve bundles, muscles, and
organs Compact/Cortical bone
● Fills spaces between organs and connects skin to ● Heavy, tough, and compact
underlying muscle
● Has elastic fibers, collagen fibers, and nuclei Blood
● Made of Plasma (extracellular fluid matrix), water, salts, and
Adipose CT dissolved proteins
● Composed of adipocytes (fat cells) ● Erythrocytes (RBC) transport Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
● Stores energy in the form of fat, provides cushion, and ● Leukocytes (WBC) for immune response
insulates the body ● Platelets for blood clotting

Reticular CT Muscle tissue

● Present in locations with high cellular content ● Long cells (muscle fibers) allow for voluntary and involuntary
● Has branched and mesh-like pattern (reticulum) due to the movement and contraction as a response to nerve signals
arrangement of reticular fibers
 Smooth Muscle
● No striations and cross stripes
● Narrow, spindle-shaped cells that
● Involuntary
● Contracts slowly and automatically
Cardiac Muscle
● For heart pumping and blood circulation
● Intercalated disk for synchronized heart contraction
● Involuntary, striated, branched, and single-nucleated
Skeletal muscle
● Striated and voluntary
● Attached to bones by bundles of collagen (tendons).
Nervous tissue
● Consist of Neurons and supporting Glial cells (Neuroglia).
● Sense stimuli and transmit electrical signals
● Controls the body through electrical signals.
● Dendrite receives impulses and axon transmits impulses.
Cell Division
Chromosome
● DNA containing structure
● Each chromosome has a matching/homologous pair
Cell Cycle
● Ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a cell is
first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division
Cell Division
● Distribution of DNA to 2 daughter cells
● Functions in reproduction, growth, and repair.
Interphase > G1 > S Phase > G2 > M Phase
● G1, S Phase, and G2 are all under the interphase, which is
the preparatory stage for the M Phase (Mitosis and
cytokinesis - splitting of the cell into two identical cells)
S Phase
● Must precede mitosis so that all daughter cells receive the
same complement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
GAP Phases
● Separate mitosis from S phase.
● Molecular signals mediate the switch in cellular activity.
Checkpoints
● Critical points where “stop” and “go” signals regulate the cell cycle
through proteins
● Animal cells have built-in “stop” signals that halt the cell cycle at
checkpoints before being overridden by “go” signals
● Ensure that DNA replication and mitosis occur when conditions are
favorable and process is working correctly.
G1 checkpoint (restriction point)
● Ensures that the cell is large enough and has enough nutrients
for the resulting daughter cells
● When a cell is given a “go” signal at this point, it proceeds to
finish the cell cycle. If not, the cell exits the cell cycle and enters
G0 (non-dividing state).
G2 checkpoint
● Ensures that DNA replication is successful
Metaphase checkpoint
● Ensures that chromosomes are attached to mitotic spindle at the
kinetochore - protein at the center of chromosomes for the
attachment of spindle fibers.
Proteins
Kinase or Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (CDK)
● Activated protein that de/activates another protein through
phosphorylation
● Gives “go” signals at G1 and G2 checkpoints upon activation
Cyclin
● Activates Kinase.
● Name is derived from cyclically-fluctuating concentration in the
cell
● Accumulates during interphase
Maturation Promoting Factor (MPF)
● Formed by aggregation of CDK and Cyclin
● Initiates mitosis at the G2 checkpoint
● Phosphorylates key proteins in the mitotic sequence
● Switches off by initiating a process which leads to the destruction
of Cyclin in the later part of mitosis
● CDK inactively persists until it associates with new cyclin
molecules synthesized during the next interphase.
Mitosis
● Process by which new cells are generated.
● Separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells
Prophase
● Prep stage; centrioles move towards opposite sides of nucleus
● Chromosomes condense into threads
● In early prophase, chromosomes become long, thin, and
intertwined filaments
● In late prophase, chromosomes are more compacted and
shorter rod-like structures.
● Nucleoli become more distinct, but disappear at the end.
Metaphase
● Thick, coiled chromosomes arrange
● Centromeres align at cell’s center to form the metaphase plate
● Spindle fibers attach the chromosomes to the centrioles.
Anaphase
● Separation of sister chromatids at junction point at the
centromere and move towards the poles.
Telophase
● Daughter cells complete migration to poles and are more difuse.
● Two sets of progeny chromosomes are assembled into two-
groups at cell’s ends.
● Chromosomes uncoil and assume their form during interphase
● Nuclear membrane forms around each chromosome group and
spindle fibers disappear.
● Nucleolus and nuclear envelope reforms
Cytokinesis
● Division of cytoplasm for one to two hours
Meiosis
● Reduces amount of genetic info
● Produces haploid gametes/spores with a set of chromosomes for
reproduction.
● During sexual rep, gametes combine in fertilization to reconstitute
the diploid complement in parental cells.
● Involves two successive divisions of a diploid nucleus. Anaphase II
● Centromeres divide, sister chromatids are pulled apart, and
First Meiotic Division (reduction division) move to opposite poles.
● Reduces the number of chromosomes

Interphase (Meiosis I) Telophase II

● Chromosomes duplicate ● Monads are at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes
● Nuclear membrane forms, spindles break down, and cytokinesis
Prophase I occurs.
● Crossing over and synapsis (pairing of homologues to form ● Results into four haploids with a recombination of chromosomes
tetrad) from parents.

Leptonema Cytokinesis
● Replicated and coiled chromosomes start to be visible ● Cleavage furrow in animal cells, cell plate in plant cells
(diploid)
Comparison between Mitosis and Meiosis
Zygonema (synapsis)
● Homologous chromosomes pair and twist (synapsis). Pair
Mitosis Meiosis
has four chromatids (bivalent tetrad)
One nuclear division Two nuclear divisions
Pachynema
● Chromosomes are shorter and thicker
Chromosomes don’t Chromosomes synapse and cross-
● Physical exchange between homologous chromosomes at synapse/cross-over over
certain regions (crossing over)
● Parts of homologous chromosomes are recombined (genetic Centromeres dissolve in mitotic Centromeres survive Anaphase I
recombination) anaphase

Diplonema Preserve chromosome number Halves chromosome number

● Two pairs of sister chromatids separate
● Crossing over took place Produces two daughter nuclei Produces four daughter nuclei
● Chiasma (area of contact between two non-sister chromatids)
becomes evident Daughter cells are identical Daughter cells are not identical

Diakinesis For growth and asexual rep For sexual rep

● Four chromatids of each tetrad condense
● Chiasma terminalizes/moves down chromatids to the ends.
● Delays separation of homologous chromosomes.
● Nucleoli disappear and the nuclear membrane breaks down.
Metaphase I
● Spindle apparatus is formed
● Microtubules attach to centromere
● Synapsed tetrads align at metaphase plate
Anaphase I
● Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and migrate towards
opposite poles
● Sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached.
Crossing-over
● Cellular process during meiosis when chromosomes of the same
type line up.
● When two chromosomes line up, one from the mother and one from
the father, parts of the chromosome are switched.
● The 2 chromosomes contain same but different forms of genes.
● Genetic variation helps increase species diversity which
strengthens a species' ability to respond to changing environments
(evolution).
Nondisjunction

Telophase I
● Dyads complete migration ● Chromosomes or chromatids fail to separate during meiosis
● New nuclear membranes forms and cytokinesis occurs (haploid ● In meiosis l, homologous pairs from a single pair fail to separate
- one set of chromosomes) and migrate to only one side of the cell. This leaves the other
resulting cells with an extra chromosome or a lacking chromosome.
Second Meiotic Division ● In meiosis II, separation of chromosomes is normal in meiosis I but
● Differs from mitotic division with the number of chromosomes each sister chromatids fail to separate during anaphase II.
daughter cell receives (halves) ● During fertilization, defective sperm or egg can produce an embryo
with an extra (trisomy) or a lacking (monosomy) chromosome.
Prophase II
● New spindles form around chromosomes. Chromosomal Disorders
● Nuclear envelope breaks down with chromosomes pulled at
opposite sides. Trisomy X
● Extra X chromosome that affects one in 1000 females.
Metaphase II ● Symptoms are development delays and language-based
● Chromosomes line up along equator learning disabilities; absence of a kidney (unilateral renal
● Each chromosome has sister chromatids attached to agenesis) or malformation (dysplasia), recurrent UTIs, seizures,
centromeres. constipation, abdominal pain, flatfeet (pes planus), and pectus
excavatum.

Klinefelter syndrome
● Affects males’ physical and cognitive development
● Symptoms are underdeveloped prostate gland and testes
(shortage of testosterone leads to delayed or incomplete
puberty, lack of facial and body hair, breast enlargement, and
small penis), big hands and feet, long arms and legs, delayed
speech and language development, and learning disabilities
● Some variants have more than one extra chromosome in each
cell, associated with severe abnormality.
Down syndrome
● 21st chromosome has three instead of two chromosomes due to
random mistakes during the formation of reproductive cells of
one of the parents, mostly in eggs.
● Occurs in one out of 800 newborns
● Symptoms: short stature, round head, flat face, slanting eyes,
stubby fingers, wide gap between the first and second toes, short
neck, short arms, short legs, low muscle tone, loose joints,
defects in the heart, intestine, and breathing, delayed mental
development, and behavioral problems
● Gradual decline in mental abilities at around the age of 50
Turner Syndrome
● Monosomy having only an X chromosome in females.
● Symptoms: underdeveloped ovaries, uterus, and oviducts
● Those with this lose normal ovarian function during childhood
and do not experience puberty at a normal age.
● Symptoms: short and broad chest, webbed neck and puffy
hands and feet.
Plasma Membrane
Plasma Membrane
● Amphiphilic
● Protects cell from external envi, mediates cellular transport, and
transmits cellular signals.
● Principal components are lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol),
proteins, and carbohydrates.
● Protects intracellular components from extracellular envi.
● Mediates cellular processes; regulates materials in and out of cell.
● Carries markers that allow cell recognition and signal
transmission through receptors.
● Selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules
Fluid Mosaic Model or Fluid Mosaic of Lipids and Proteins
● Bilayer of phospholipids with hydrophobic, fatty acid tails in contact
with each other.
● Cell membrane is studded with proteins which transport materials
in or out of the cell. Carbohydrates are attached to some proteins
and lipids on the outward-facing surface of the membrane, forming
complexes identify the cell to other cells.
● Describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of
components.
● Includes phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and glycoproteins
and glycolipids (sugar chains attached to proteins/lipids), resulting
in a fluid character (fluidity)
Davson-Danielli Sandwich Model (1935)
● Membrane is made of a phospholipid bilayer sandwiched between
two protein layers.
Fluidity of the membrane
● Due to temperature, the unsaturated fatty acid tails configuration,
cholesterol embedded in the membrane, and the mosaic nature of
the proteins and protein-carbohydrate combinations are not firmly
fixed in place.
Fluid Nature of the CM
● Phospholipids can move within the bilayer
● Most lipids and some proteins drift laterally
● A molecule rarely flip-flops transversely across the membrane
● As temperatures cool, membranes switch from fluid to solid state.
● Temp at which a membrane solidifies depends on types of lipids.
● Membranes rich in unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid than those
rich in saturated fatty acids.
● Membranes must be fluid to work properly
● The steroid, cholesterol, has different effects on membrane fluidity
at different temps. At warm temps, cholesterol restrains movement
of Phospholipids. At cool temps, it maintains fluidity by preventing
tight packing.
Structural Components of the Cell Membrane
Phospholipids
● Main fabric of the membrane
● Most abundant lipid is amphipathic
Cholesterol
● Tucked between hydrophobic tails
● Dampens effects of temp
Integral/Intrinsic Proteins
● Embedded in phospholipid bilayer
● Transports substances through membrane
● Interacts extensively with hydrocarbon chains of membrane
lipids
● Can be removed with detergents that disrupt the membrane
● Alpha Helix and Globular forms
● Penetrate and bind tightly to lipid bilayer
● Some intrinsic proteins present sugar side chains on the cell's
outer surface.
Peripheral/Extrinsic Proteins
● Found in inner or outer surface of the phospholipid bilayer, but
not embedded
● For cell recognition
● Removed with a high-salt wash
● Loosely bound to hydrophilic (polar) surfaces, which face the
watery medium inside and outside cell.
Carbohydrate Chains
● Attached to proteins/lipids on extracellular side of the membrane
that forms glycoproteins and glycolipids
● For cell recognition and effective interaction with aqueous envi
Terminologies
Amphiphilic or Amphipathic
● Molecule with polar/charged area and nonpolar/uncharged area
capable of interacting with hydrophilic and hydrophobic envis
Glycolipid
● Carbs and lipids
Glycoprotein
● Carbs and proteins
Receptor
● Protein on a cell wall that binds with specific molecules so that
they can be absorbed into the cell.
Cellular Signaling/Recognition’s relation to the Plasma Membrane
● Proteins can be receptors (receivers of extracellular inputs and
activators of intracellular processes) or markers (for cell
recognition) signaling processes that influence tissue and organ
formation during early development and “self”-versus-“non-self”
distinction of the immune response later on.
● Receptors provide extracellular attachment sites for effectors
(hormones and growth factors) that trigger intracellular responses.
Cellular Transport Mechanisms’ relation to the Plasma Membrane
● The movement of a substance across the plasma membrane can
be passive (occurring without input of cellular energy) and active
(transport requires energy expenditure).
Passive Transport
Simple Diffusion
● Higher to lower concentration
● Requires concentration gradient (difference in concentration
between the two regions)
● Substances: oxygen, carbon dioxide, water
● Works well over short distances. Once molecules enter the
cell, the rate of diffusion slows and cell size becomes limited.
Osmosis
● Higher to lower concentration
● Requires concentration gradient (difference in concentration
between the two regions)
● Substances: oxygen, carbon dioxide, water
● Diffusion of the solvent across a semi-permeable membrane,
separating two solutions. (Diffusion of water).
● Direction depends on relative concentration of water
molecules on either side of the cell membrane.
● Isotonic: Water inside the cell equals the water outside the cell
and equal amounts of water move in and out of the cell.
● Hypotonic: Water outside the cell is greater than that inside
the cell, water moving into the cell may cause lysis
● Hypertonic: Water inside the cell is greater than outside.
Water moving out of the cell, may cause the cell to shrink
(plasmolysis)
Facilitated diffusion/transport or passive-mediated transport
● Higher to lower concentration
● Requires concentration gradient and carrier protein
● Substances: sugars and amino acids
● Assists the movement of large molecules.
● Does not require water for other molecules to transfer.
● Passive movement of a substance into or out of the cell
through carrier proteins or channel proteins.
● Carrier proteins: Transports non-charged molecules with a
specific shape.
● Channel proteins: Tunnel shape that transports small charged
molecules.
Active Transport
● Lower to higher concentration
● Requires carrier proteins and energy
● Substances: ions, sugars, amino acids
● Requires chemical energy to move substances across a
membrane against a concentration gradient.
● May be uniports, symports, or antiports.
Active Transport Pump
● Sodium-potassium pump
● 3 sodium ions inside the cell and 2 potassium ions outside the
cell bind to the pump to change protein complex’s shape and
allow Na+ and K+ ions to move across and be released.
● Primary active transport: energy from the hydrolysis of ATP
moves ions in or out of cells against their concentration
gradients.
● Secondary active transport: couples passive movement of
one substance with its concentration gradient to the
movement of another substance against its concentration
gradient. Energy from ATP indirectly establishes the
concentration gradient that results in the movement of the first
substance.
Bulk/Vesicular Transport
Endocytosis
● Outside to inside of cell
● Requires vacuoles
● Substances: Bacteria, other cells, and subcellular materials
● Large molecules enter the cell
● Cell membrane bends inwards or invaginates, forming a
vesicle containing the macromolecule to be transported.
Phagocytosis (Cell-eating)
● Outside to inside of cell
● Requires vacuoles
● Substances: Bacteria, other cells, and subcellular materials
● Cells take in large particles or solids through in-folding of the
cell membrane to form endocytic vesicles.
● Starts with formation and extension of membrane
pseudopodia that surround and engulf macromolecule,
packaging them in a membrane-bound vacuole.
● Digestion occurs when endocytic vesicles fuse with
lysosomes.
Pinocytosis (Cell-drinking)
● Outside to inside of cell
● Requires cell vesicles
● Substances: macromolecules
● Taking in fluids by invagination of cell membrane as solutes
or small particles in the fluid will be moved into the cell.
Receptor mediated endocytosis
● Outside to inside of cell
● Requires pits with receptor proteins
● Substances: macromolecules
● Plasma membrane becomes indented and forms a pit. The pit
lined with receptors detects specific molecules from the
surroundings. The pit will close and pinch off to form a vesicle,
carrying it inside the cytoplasm.
● Metabolites, hormones and other proteins enter through this
process.
Exocytosis
● Inside to outside of cell
● Requires cell vesicles
● Substances: macromolecules
 ● Materials for export like proteins produced in the ribosomes
and packaged in the Golgi body are secreted
● Opposite of endocytosis.
● Macromolecules to be transported are carried by vesicles to
the cell membrane. The membrane surrounding the vesicle
fuses with the cell membrane and breaks off and
macromolecule is released.

Most cells spend the majority of their energy to maintain an imbalance

of sodium and potassium ions between cell's interior and exterior and on
protein synthesis.

Selective Permeability
● The cell membrane lacks symmetry in terms of its exterior and
interior.
● Some proteins serve as anchors for cytoskeleton fibers
● Hydrophobic, non-polar and lipid-soluble materials with low
molecular weight can slip through membrane's hydrophobic lipid
core, such as fat-soluble substances, Oxygen, and carbon dioxide
(has no charge and pass through membranes by simple diffusion).
● Hydrophilic, polar substances such as ions, sugars, amino acids,
etc., need trans-membrane proteins for entry.