WEEK 1:

Syllabus:
● Investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms
- Modelling the structure and function
Overview
- Cell membrane
- Fluid Mosaic Model
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What do cells contain?
Mitochondria, Nucleus, Cell wall, ribosomes, organelles, cell membrane.

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic have NO membrane-bound organelles and are not multicellular - no nucleus. While
Eukaryotic cells have organelles and are multicellular. - eg secretary vesicles. Humans are
multicellular with 37 trillion cells in their body making humans Eukaryotes.
*Organelles are small structures of cells surrounded by a membrane.

Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane):

Define: A cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer that is semipermeable in order to regulate in and
out movement of material entering and exiting the cell.

Function:
- Encloses cellular content and maintains the cell shape
- The selective barrier to the external environment controls the movement of items in and out of
the cell.
- The cholesterol making the cell membrane flexible creates channels for proteins to move in
and out of the cell.
- It enables cells to work together as eukaryotes are multicellular organisms.
- Cells membrane is SEMIPERMEABLE, allowing nutrients to enter and waste to exit the
cell. Eg. Oxygen enters while CO2 leaves.
- Waste products: Organelles (ribosomes, mitochondria, damaged DNA) must all be excreted
from the cell.

Structure: Fluid Mosaic Model.

-The cell membrane is a ‘mosaic’ of proteins,

phospholipids and cholesterols.
- Phospholipids create a bilayer with a head and
a tail.
- The head containing phosphate is hydrophilic
or POLAR (like water)- uneven distribution of
-The tail is made of fatty acid side chains and is
hydrophobic and NON-POLAR (water hater).

● Cholesterol embedded in the membrane gives flexibility to the cell wall by pushing
phospholipids apart to let small proteins and H20 cells enter.
● OUTSIDE CELLS: Peripheral protein -- INSIDE CELL: Integral proteins.
WEEK 2:
- Fluid Mosaic Models
- Use of models
- Simple diffusion
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Role of lipid components:
● Lipids allow membranes to repair themselves and grow during the cell division process
● Glycolipids (lipids attached to the carbohydrate chain) maintain the stability of the cell
membrane and recognise cells as their own.
Cholesterol: In between the phospholipid tails is cholesterol found in the hydrophobic region.
Cholesterol (a type of lipid) makes the membrane more flexible and fluid- decreasing the structural
integrity.

Role of proteins:
● Integral Proteins (intrinsic proteins- INside of the cell membrane): permanently embedded in
the cell membrane.
- They are called transmembrane proteins when they span both phospholipid layers. From the
hydrophilic region to the hydrophobic region (inner cell).
● Peripheral Proteins (Extrinsic Proteins)- are temporarily part of the cell membrane and bind
to integral proteins or penetrate into one surface of the cell membrane.

Role of Carbohydrates:
● Usually linked to protruding proteins (forming glycoproteins) or lipids (forming
● glycolipids) on the membrane's outer surface via carbohydrate chains.
● Recognises adhesion between cells

The fluidity of cell membrane: The bilayers are free to move

PHOSPHOLIPIDS:
● Rotate on an axis to interact with neighbours
● Lateral Movement
● Transverse movement- flip-flop movement between inner and outer leaflets.
● The bilayers are asymmetrical as the phospholipids flip from one leaflet to other.
- The Outer leaflet is close to the extracellular fluid while the inner leaflet is facing the
cytoplasm.

WHY ARE PHOSPHOLIPIDS FLUID?

● The phospholipids can move to allow the cell membrane to remain fluid and mobile
 ● For eg., if you are cut or injured the phospholipids work to fill in any gaps by moving from
the outer leaflet to the inner leaflet in order to repair the body.

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL: Candy models vs Paper Model

Models allowed depicting variations via Colours, texture, and materials representing specific
components.
Models couldn’t depict The cyclical nature of the phospholipids, all the proteins, and the transverse
movement or complexity of the model.

CANDY MODEL:
Pro: Multiple distinguishable colours and textures
Cons: Limited representation of the great amounts of phospholipids and their cyclic nature of it.

PAPER MODEL:
Pros: Shows cyclical nature of phospholipids and multiple
Cons- Lacks the ability to label, lacks of distinguishability.
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SIMPLE DIFFUSION:
How do molecules cross the cell membrane?
● The cell must maintain homeostasis which is achieved by cells passing molecules in and out
of the cell membrane such as nutrients and waste products.
● The EASE in which a molecule passes through the lipid bilayers depends on size, charge and
polarity.

Substances that readily pass through the cell membrane:

● Small, uncharged molecules: Water
● Hydrophobic molecules (non-polar)
● Non-polar molecules such as benzene (equals sharing of electrons)

Substances that have difficulty passing through a cell membrane:

● Large unchanged molecules- eg. glucose (requires ATP to pass through - Not easy)
● Ions (positive or negative charges) H+
● Polar molecules- (unequal sharing of electrons)

Simple Diffusion: A type of passive transport that moves with the concentration gradient (high
concentration to low concentration). Occurs when molecules easily pass through the bilayer. Eg O2.
Demonstrates the Brownian motion which moves from high concentration to low concentration in a
natural motion, using the kinetic energy of the molecules.

Brownian Motion: Substances move from high-concentration to low-concentration areas. GO WITH

THE FLOW.
- Particles undergoing diffusion

PASSIVE TRANSPORT: SIMPLE DIFFUSION

● Movement of dissolved solids, liquids, and gases along a concentration gradient
● Select molecules cross the cell membrane for even distribution on either side of the membrane
to be in equilibrium.
● Eg. Natural example is the gas exchange between blood and air
 ● SIMPLE diffusion doesn’t require ATP

WEEK 3:
- Facilitated Diffusion
- Osmosis
- Experiments
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Types of Diffusion: Simple and Facilitated Diffusion

Facilitated Diffusion: Large molecules (glucose, amino acid) or charged particles cannot easily
pass through the phospholipid bilayer (as small, uncharged, non-polar molecules can undergo simple
diffusion).

Facilitated diffusion is a type of passive transport which means it follows the concentration gradient
of high concentration to low concentration.

Result of this: Molecules move through the cell membrane using channel and carrier proteins.
Carrier Proteins: Binds to molecules on one 1 side of the membrane and changes the shape of the
molecule. The substance is released on the other side of the cell membrane. TRANSPORT
MOLECULES.
- For instance, carrier proteins such as the integral transmembrane proteins embedded in the
cell membrane would have a high affinity for specific substances on the cell exterior and
would next undergo a change in shape to facilitate the passage of these substances to the cell
interior across the membrane barriers.

Channel Proteins: Channel proteins must narrow the passageway for specific ions. TRANSPORT
IONS.
- Channel proteins are water-filled pores that enable charged substances (like ions) to diffuse
through the membrane into or out of the cell. In essence, they provide a tunnel for such polar
molecules to move through the non-polar or hydrophobic interior of the bilayer.
 Channel Protein- creates a narrow pathway for the ion to get through the cell membrane
Carrier Protein: The protein changes shape to accommodate the shape of the molecule to get through
the cell membrane.
Osmosis: Form of simple diffusion (where small, uncharged, non-polar particles go through
the cell membrane).
Definition: Where solvent molecules (often water) move across a semi-permeable membrane.

● Passive transport: Water molecules move from high concentrations of water (low
concentration of solute HYPOTONIC) to low concentrations of water (high concentration of
solute HYPERTONIC)
● In order to reach equilibrium solvent molecules moves across a semi-permeable membrane.
● If the solution on either side of the cell membrane has the same solute concentration it is
ISOTONIC.
● In Osmosis NO ATP IS NEEDED (since it is simple diffusion)

Effect of OSMOSIS ON CELL STRUCTURE:

Animal cell: Does not have rigid cell walls hence cell size and shape vary with the concentration
of solute and solvent.

ISOTONIC: Cell structure remains the same when solute concentration is equal on either side of the
cell membrane.

HYPOTONIC: Cell swell and burst - Lysis. When there is a low solute concentration.

HYPERTONIC: Shrinks- Crenation. When there is a high solute concentration.

Plant cells: Have rigid cell walls
ISOTONIC: Cell structure stays the same. When solute concentration is equal on either side of the
cell membrane.

HYPOTONIC: The vacuole and cytoplasm increase in size- Turgor. Appears swollen due to turgor
pressure. When there is a low concentration of solute.

HYPERTONIC: The vacuole and cytoplasm shrink from the cell wall- Plasmolysis. When there is a
high concentration of solute

KEYWORDS:
Turgid: The condition in which the cell wall is rigid and stretched due to the absorption of water is
called turgidity.
Flacid: The state in which the cell content is shrunken is called flaccid.

WEEK 4:
- Active transport
- Endocytosis and Exocytosis
- Surface area: volume calculations
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Active Transport:
Definition: Active transport is the movement of molecules moving
from a low concentration gradient to a high concentration gradient,
moving against the concentration gradient.

Requires carrier proteins (Bind to molecules on one 1 side of the

membrane and change the shape of the molecule.) in order to span
through the membrane and facilitate transport while using cellular
energy ATP.

ATP is produced through the phosphate bonds breaking, causing the

molecules to move against the concentration gradient.
FORMS OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
ENDOCYTOSIS: (ENDO means IN)
Definition: Used to transport large molecules such as proteins and glucose. The cell membrane
encloses the molecule with an extracellular substance to form a vesicle or vacuole. (The glucose is
enclosed with extracellular liquid in a sphere-like way). The vesicle is transported through the
membrane to become a cytoplasm.

TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS:
1) Phagocytosis: (Cell eating)-
Engulfing of solids
2) Pinoctyosis: (Cell drinking)-
Engulfing of fluids
3) Receptor-Mediated: Receptor
proteins on the cell surface are
used to capture a specific target
molecule.
**In pinocytosis and phagocytosis when the vesicle enters the cell membrane, the vesicle is destroyed
but the fluids and solids are still released.

EXOCYTOSIS: (EXO - Out)

Definition: Exocytosis is the reverse process of endocytosis. It is a type of active transport of
substances moving OUT of the cell AGAINST THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT (low-high).

- This process helps to transport substances created

inside the cell egs. Antibodies, neurotransmitters and
enzymes, along with waste products such as CO2 that
must be expelled,

- Membrane-bound vesicle moves to the cell membrane

and fuses with the cell membrane. The vesicle becomes
one with the cell membrane. The contents of the
vesicle are released to the exterior part of the cell.
SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO:
Definition: The surface area (SA) divided by the volume (V) is called the Surface Area to Volume
ratio. SA: V

Purpose: Determines the efficiency of transport and exchange across the cell membrane. HENCE,
SMALLER cell = Higher SA: V meaning more efficient
LARGER cell = Lowe SA: V meaning less efficient

Why:
Smaller cubes: The distance from the surface of a small cube to its centre is smaller, hence molecules
going IN OR OUT occur at a faster and more efficient rate.
Larger cubes: Distance from surface to centre is greater, hence molecules moving in and out are less
efficient.

Calculations:
*Surface Area= Height X Width X Sides
*Volume = Height X Width X Lenght X Number of Boxes

How cells can increase their SA: V to become more efficient?

- Elongated shapes (nerve cells)
- Folding the surface of the object/ cell membrane eg. inner membrane. This is also
known as Compartmentalism. ---> Structure of folded organelles.

Adaptations to increase cell surface area:

- Root hairs: Attach to the root epidermis of plants and enhance the microvilli in the lining of
the small intestines with helps increase the Surface area of epithelial cells (Epithelial cells are
a type of cell that covers the inside and outside of the surfaces of your body. )