Cell Biology: 1.

The structure of biological membranes makes them fluid and Dynamic

Phospholipid Bilayer: Phospholipids form bilayers in Water → Amphipathic properties

Structure of Phospholipids:

- Consist of a polar head (hydrophilic)

- Glycerol + Phosphate molecule
- Consist of two non-polar tails (hydrophobic)
- 2x fatty acid (hydrocarbon) chains

Note: Because phospholipids contain both hydrophilic and

lipophilic regions, they are classed as Amphipathic

Arrangement in Membranes:

- Phospholipids when mixed with water naturally arrange

into a bilayer Formation
- The hydrophobic tail regions face inwards and are
shielded from the surrounding polar fluids
- Two hydrophilic head regions associate with the cytosolic
and extracellular fluids respectively

Properties of the Phospholipid Bilayer:

The bilayer is held together by weak hydrophobic interactions between the tails

Hydrophilic / hydrophobic layers restrict the passage of many substances

Individual phospholipids can move within the bilayer, allowing for membrane fluidity and flexibility

This fluidity allows for the spontaneous breaking and reforming of membranes (endocytosis / exocytosis)

Attraction between Tails, the centre of phospholipid bilayer and head = Makes membrane Stable
 Membrane Proteins: Structure and Functions

Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane, and function

Phospholipid bilayers are embedded with proteins, which may be either permanently or temporarily
attached to the membrane - this is because proteins move:

- Integral proteins are permanently attached to the membrane and are typically
transmembrane (they span across the bilayer) - Are Found inside
- Peripheral proteins are temporarily attached by non-covalent interactions and associate with
one surface of the membrane - Surface

Structure of Membrane Proteins: Amino Acids are localised according to Polarity

- Non-polar (hydrophobic) amino acids associate directly with the lipid bilayer
- Polar (hydrophilic) amino acids are located internally and face aqueous solutions

Note: Transmembrane proteins typically adopt one of two tertiary structures: Single helices / helical
bundles or Beta barrels (common in channel proteins)

Integral and Peripheral Proteins: Membrane Protein Structure

 Functions of Membrane Proteins: JETRAT

Membrane proteins can serve a variety of key functions:

Junctions – Serve to connect and join two cells together

Enzymes – Fixing to membranes localizes metabolic pathways
Transport – Responsible for facilitated diffusion and active transport
Recognition – May function as markers for cellular identification
Anchorage – Attachment points for cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
Transduction – Function as receptors for peptide hormones

Examples of Membrane Proteins with Function:

Brownian Motion:

Particles in the air will move from high to the low concentration gradient. “Brownian motion refers to
the random movement displayed by small particles suspended in fluids. It is commonly referred to as
Brownian movement”. This motion results from the collisions of the particles with other fast-moving
particles in the fluid.
 Cholesterol: Component of Animal Cell Membranes

Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes, where it functions to maintain integrity and
mechanical stability. It is absent in plant cells, as these plasma membranes are surrounded and
supported by a rigid cell wall made of cellulose.

Cholesterol Function and Structure:

- Cholesterol is an amphipathic molecule ∴ Has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions

- Cholesterol’s hydroxyl (-OH) group = hydrophilic
→ Hydroxyl aligns towards the phosphate heads of phospholipids
- Remainder of Molecule (steroid ring and hydrocarbon tail) is hydrophobic
→ Associates with the phospholipid tails

Cholesterol in mammalian membranes reduces membrane fluidity and permeability to some solutes

Phospholipid bilayers are fluid, in that the phospholipids are in constant motion relative to one
another. Cholesterol interacts with the fatty acid tails of phospholipids to moderate the properties of
the membrane:

- Cholesterol functions to immobilize the outer surface of the membrane, reducing fluidity
→ Reduces movement of phospholipid molecules
- Makes the membrane less permeable to tiny water-soluble molecules
- Functions to separate phospholipid tails, and so prevent crystallization of the membrane
- Helps Secure peripheral proteins by forming high-density lipid rafts → Anchors the protein.
 Fluid Mosaic Model: Drawing and Explanation

Cell membranes are represented according to a fluid-mosaic model because they are:

- Fluid – the phospholipid bilayer is viscous and individual phospholipids can move position
- Mosaic – the phospholipid bilayer is embedded with proteins ∴ mosaic of components

Components of the Plasma Membrane: Include in Drawing

Phospholipids = Form a bilayer with phosphate heads facing outwards and fatty acid tails facing inwards

Cholesterol = Found in animal cell membranes and functions to improve stability and reduce fluidity

Proteins = May be either integral (transmembrane) or peripheral and serve a variety of roles
 Function of Fluid Mosiac Model: Components

Peripheral Protein:
Peripheral membrane protein is a protein that is found temporarily attached to the cell or
mitochondrial membrane. Peripheral membrane proteins attach to the membrane but are not
embedded in it. The peripheral membrane proteins function in support, communication, enzymes,
and molecule transfer in the cell.

Glycoprotein:
Glycoproteins are proteins with a carbohydrate chain attached to them - Glyco (from Glucose).
Glycoproteins perform vital biochemical and structural functions. They enable cells to recognize
another cell as familiar or foreign, called cell-cell recognition. They also help cells attach to and bind
to other cells, called cell adhesion.

Channel Protein:
Channel proteins span the membrane and make hydrophilic tunnels across it, allowing their target
molecules to pass through by diffusion. Channels are very selective and accept only one type of
molecule (or a few closely related molecules) for transport.

Carrier Protein:
Carrier proteins bind specific solutes and transfer them across the lipid bilayer by undergoing
conformational changes that expose the solute-binding site sequentially on one side of the membrane
and then on the other.

Pump Protein:
Protein pump. – a kind of protein that is capable of pumping out compounds that could pose a threat
to the cell. An example is AcrB, a bacterial protein complex that repels a wide range of antibiotics
through its ability to capture and pump out a spectrum of structurally diverse compounds.

Cholesterol:
Cholesterol is a fat-like, waxy substance that helps your body make cell membranes, many hormones,
and vitamin D. The cholesterol in your blood comes from two sources: the foods you eat and your
liver. Your liver makes all the cholesterol your body needs.

Glycolipid:
Glycolipids are glycoconjugates of lipids generally found on the extracellular face of eukaryotic
cellular membranes and function to maintain the membrane's stability and facilitate cell–cell
interactions. Glycolipids can also act as receptors for viruses and other pathogens to enter cells. In
simple terms, glycolipids are lipids with a carbohydrate chain attached to them.

Transmembrane Proteins:
Integral proteins which form one side of the membrane to the other
 Electron Microscopy led to the proposal of the Dvason-Danielli model: Falsification

The fluid-mosaic model was not the first scientifically accepted paradigm to describe membrane
structure. Hugh Davson and James Danielli 1935, proposed the first model.

What was the Davson-Daniellie Model?

When viewed under an Electron microscope,

membranes exhibit a characteristic trilaminar
appearance - 3 Layers. Danielli and Davson
proposed a model whereby two layers of protein
flanked a central phospholipid bilayer: The model
was described as a 'lipo-protein sandwich,’ as the lipid layer was sandwiched between two protein
layers. The dark segments seen under an electron microscope were identified (wrongly) as
representing the two protein layers.

Why was the Davson-Danielli model Introduced?

1. Chemical analysis showed membranes are composed of phospholipids and proteins.

2. Evidence suggests that the plasma membrane of red blood cells has enough phospholipids to
form an area twice as large as the area of the plasma membrane
3. Experiments showed that membranes form a barrier to the passage of some substances,
despite being very thin, and protein layers could act as the barrier.

Electron Microscopy seemed to back up the Davson-Danielli model. Only in the late 1950s was other
evidence accumulated, which proved this model Wrong.
 Falsification of Dvason-Danielle Model: Discovery of Fluid Mosiac aka Singer-Nicolson Model

There were several problems with the lipo-protein sandwich Davson-Danielle model:

- It assumed all membranes were of a uniform thickness & constant lipid-protein ratio
- It assumed all membranes would have symmetrical internal and external surfaces
- It did not account for the permeability of certain substances
- The temperatures at which membranes solidified did not correlate with the proposed model

Falsification Evidence:

(1) Membrane proteins were discovered to be insoluble in water (indicating hydrophobic

surfaces) and varied in size. Such proteins would not be able to form a uniform and
continuous layer around the outer surface of a membrane.
(2) A fluorescent antibody tagging of membrane proteins showed they were mobile and not fixed
in place. Two cells' membrane proteins were tagged with red and green fluorescent markers.
When the two cells were fused, the markers became mixed throughout the membrane of the
fused cell. This demonstrated that the membrane proteins could move and did not form a
static layer (as per Davson-Danielli) - Suggested Fluidity
(3) Freeze fracturing was used to split open the membrane and revealed irregular rough surfaces
within the membrane. These rough surfaces were interpreted as transmembrane proteins,
demonstrating that proteins were not solely localized outside the membrane structure.

New Model: Singer-Nicolson

In light of these limitations, a new model was proposed by Seymour Singer and Garth Nicolson in
1972. According to this model, proteins were embedded within the lipid bilayer rather than as
separate layers. This model, known as the fluid-mosaic model, remains the model preferred by
scientists today (with refinements).