Cell Biology: 1.

Cell Theory: Principles and Caveats

Cells are the unit of structure and function in living things; there are 3 Statements:

1. All living things are composed of cells (or cell products)

2. The cell is the smallest unit of life
3. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells through division

With modern information, Today, we can confidently add two concepts to the theory:

4. Cells contain a blueprint (information) for their growth, development, and behavior.
5. Cells are the site of all the chemical reactions of Life - metabolism.

Caveats to the Cell Theory:

Certain types of cells/tissues do not conform to a standard notion of what constitutes a cell:

1. Striated muscle fibers:

a. Muscle cells fuse to form fibers that may be very long (>300mm)
b. Special = Multiple nuclei, despite being surrounded by a single plasma membrane,
↳ Challenges the idea that cells always function as autonomous units

2. Aseptate fungal hyphae:

a. Fungi may have filamentous structures called hyphae
b. Hyphae = Separated into cells by internal walls called septa
c. Some fungi are not partitioned by septa and hence have a continuous cytoplasm,
↳ Challenges the idea that living structures are composed of discrete cells

3. Giant Algae:
a. Certain species of unicellular algae may grow to very large sizes
i. e.g., Acetabularia may exceed 7 cm in length
b. Challenges the idea that larger organisms are always made of many microscopic cells
 Functions of Life: MR SHENG

All living things carry out 7 basic functions integral to survival:

1. Metabolism – Living things undertake essential chemical reactions

2. Reproduction – Living things produce offspring, either sexually or asexually
3. Sensitivity – Living things are responsive to internal and external stimuli
4. Homeostasis – Living things maintain a stable internal environment
5. Excretion – Living things exhibit the removal of waste products
6. Nutrition – Living things exchange materials and gases with the environment
7. Growth – Living things can move and change shape or size

Because all living things carry out these seven very basic functions of life, unicellular organisms must
also be able to carry out all of these functions applicable through different structures and habitat
accommodation: 2 Examples - Paramecium & Scenedesmus

1. Paramecium (heterotroph)

Paramecia are surrounded by small hairs called cilia which allow them to move (responsiveness)

Paramecia engulf food via a specialized membranous feeding groove called a cytostome (nutrition)

Food particles are enclosed within small vacuoles that contain enzymes for digestion (metabolism)

Solid waste is removed via an anal pore, while liquid wastes are pumped out via contractile vacuoles (excretion)

Essential gases enter (e.g., O2) and exit (e.g., CO2) the cell via diffusion (homeostasis)

Paramecia divide asexually (fission) although horizontal gene transfer can occur via conjugation (reproduction)

2. Scenedesmus (autotroph)

Scenedesmus exchange gases and other essential materials via diffusion (nutrition/excretion)

Chlorophyll pigments allow organic molecules to be produced via photosynthesis (metabolism)

Daughter cells form as non-motile autospores via the internal asexual division of the parent cell (reproduction)

Scenedesmus may exist as unicells or form colonies for protection (responsiveness)

 SA: Vol Ratio
Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size

Why are Cells not infinitely big?

As the cell size increases, the surface area per unit volume decreases. Therefore, the surface area
would not allow materials to enter or leave the cell quickly enough to meet the cell's needs. As a
result, most cells are microscopic.

Cells need to produce chemical energy through metabolism to survive

↳ Requires an exchange of materials within the environment

- The rate of metabolism of a cell is a function of its mass/volume

∴ Larger cells need more energy to sustain essential functions
- The rate of material exchange is a function of its surface area
∴ large membrane surface equates to more material movement)

Volume increases Faster than Surface Area:

As a cell grows, volume (units3) increases faster than the surface area (units2), leading to a decreased
SA: Vol ratio. If the metabolic rate exceeds the rate of exchange of vital materials and wastes, the cell
will eventually die - low SA: Vol ratio. Hence growing cells tend to divide and remain small to
maintain a high SA: Vol ratio suitable for survival

Increasing SA: Vol Ratio: The higher, the more Optimal

Cells and tissues specialized for gas or material exchanges will

increase their surface area to optimize material transfer. An
example of this is the Villi within the Intestine:

Intestinal tissue of the digestive tract may form a ruffled

structure (villi) to increase the surface area of the inner lining

Benefits of a large SA: Vol ratio

- Shorter diffusion pathways → more efficient → molecules have a shorter path
- Easier to generate concentration gradients → makes diffusion more efficient

Negatives of a large SA: Vol ratio

- Large SA: Vol ratio → mammals lose heat quickly → increase in food necessity
- Desert plants lose water quickly with flat leaves → minimize ratio to conserve water

Compartmentalization

Cell compartmentalization refers to the way organelles in eukaryotic cells live and work in separate
areas. Internal membranes facilitate cellular processes by minimizing competing interactions and
increasing surface areas where reactions occur.
 Emergent Properties: The whole is greater than the sum of its Parts

2+2=7

Multicellullar organisms are capable of completing functions that unicellular organisms could not
undertake – this is due to the collective actions of individual cells combining to create new
synergistic effects In multicellular organisms:

- Cells may be grouped to form tissues

- Organs are then formed from the functional grouping of multiple tissues
- Organs that interact may form organ systems capable of carrying out specific body functions
- Organ systems collectively carry out the life functions of the complete organism

Calculating Magnification and Actual Size: Skill

Calculation of Magnification:
To calculate the linear magnification of a drawing or image, the following equation should be used:

Magnification = Image size (with a ruler) ÷ Actual size (according to scale bar)

Calculation of Actual Size:

To calculate the actual size of a magnified specimen, the equation is simply rearranged:

Actual Size = Image size (with a ruler) ÷ Magnification

Units:
- 1 m = 1000 mm (milimeters)
- 1 mm = 1000 μm (micrometers)
- 1 μm = 1000 nm (nanometer)
 Cell Differentiation: Cells becoming Spezialised
- Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome
- Specialised tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms

Differentiation:
Differentiation is the process during development whereby newly formed cells become more
specialized and distinct from one another as they mature over time. All cells of an organism share an
identical genome – each cell contain the entire set of genetic instructions for that organism. The
activation of different instructions (genes) within a given cell by chemical signals will cause it to
differentiate. Genetically identical cells from the egg sperm complex differentiate in function,
although they contain the same information. This is because of Cell Differentiation. Although every
cell could technically make toenails, only those that end up on the feet create toenails. This principle
that Stem cells can turn into almost every tissue applies. We have 220 distinct highly specialized cell
types in the human body due to differentiation.

Gene Packaging: Euchromatin vs. Heterochromatin

Within the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell, DNA is packaged with proteins to form chromatin

- Active genes are usually packaged in an expanded form called euchromatin

↳ Accessible to transcriptional machinery ∴ Expressed
- Inactive genes are typically packaged in a more condensed form called heterochromatin
↳ Not accessible to transcriptional machinery ∴ Not Expressed

Differentiated cells will have different regions of DNA packaged as euchromatin and heterochromatin
according to their specific function as some functions will be expressed. In contrast, others will be
hidden away, as we don't want a nose to grow on our Foot.
 Stem Cells: Specialization and Therapy

What are Stem Cells?

When a cell differentiates and becomes specialized, it loses its capacity to form alternative cell types.
Stem cells are unspecialized cells with two key qualities:

1. Self Renewal: They can continuously divide and replicate

2. Potency: They can differentiate into specialized cell types

Types of Stem Cells: Four main types of stem cells present at various stages of human development

Totipotent Can form any cell type + Extra-embryonic tissue (e.g., zygote)

Pluripotent Can form any cell type (e.g., embryonic stem cells)

Can differentiate into several closely related cell types (e.g., hematopoietic
Multipotent
adult stem cells)

Unipotent Can not differentiate, but are capable of self-renewal (e.g., muscle stem cells)

Uses of Stem Cells: Embryonic Development

Stem cells are necessary for embryonic development as they are an undifferentiated cell source from
which all other cell types may be derived. For example, for Cell types that are not capable of
self-renewal, as these tissues cannot be regenerated or replaced, stem cells have become a viable
therapeutic option when these tissues become damaged. This requires:

- The use of biochemical solutions to trigger the differentiation of stem cells

- Surgical implantation of cells into the patient’s tissue
- Careful monitoring of new cells to ensure they do not become cancerous

Ethical Concerns: Stem Cell Treatment

Stem cells can be derived from one of three sources:
1. Embryos (may be specially created by therapeutic cloning
2. Umbilical cord blood or placenta of a newborn baby
3. Certain adult tissues like the bone marrow (cells are not pluripotent)

The ethical considerations with the therapeutic use of stem cells will depend on the source:

- multipotent adult tissue may be effective for certain conditions but is limited in application
- Umbilical cord blood needs to be preserved at cost → issues of availability and access
- The greatest yield of pluripotent stem cells comes from embryos, but requires the destruction
of a potential living organism - Do we consider Embryos living?
 Stem Cell Therapy: Stargardts Disease + Leukemia

Stargardts Disease: Loss of Vision

Problem: Affects 10,000 children

- Recessive genetic Trait
- Causes an active transport Protein on photoreceptor cells to malfunction
→ photoreceptor cells to degenerate
→ dysfunctional protein can’t execute energy transport
→ progressive and eventual loss of central vision

Treatment: Embryonic Stem Cells

- Embryonic stem cells are Cultured in the laboratory to develop into mature retinal pigment
epithelium. Stem cells are treated to divide and differentiate to become retinal cells - The
Embryo is “destroyed”
→ Stem Cells are injected into the retina
→ retinal cells attach to the retina and become functional
→ central vision improves
→ Immune system is very weak in the Eye ∴ High chance of rejection

Leukemia: Blood or bone marrow Cancer

Problem: Low Survivability

- Cancer of blood or bone marrow → high levels of poor functioning white blood cells
- The 5-year survival rate for people age 20 and older is 40%

Treatment: Hemopoietic Stem Cells

- Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSC’s)
→ harvested from bone marrow, peripheral blood or umbilical cord blood
→ Chemotherapy / Radiotherapy destroys diseased white blood cells
→ New cells need to replace old ones
→ HSC’s transplanted into bone marrow
→ HSC’s differentiate into new healthy cells
- The benefit of this is that there is less risk of immune rejection because the patient's own
stem cells are used - This also means that the treatment requires more Work and Time

Other Therapeutic Examples

Paraplegia: Repair damage caused by spinal injuries to enable paralyzed victims to regain movement
Diabetes: Replace non-functioning islet cells with those capable of producing insulin: type I diabetics
Burn victims: Graft new skin cells to replace damaged tissue
 Microscopes: Light microscope vs. Electron Microscope

Light Microscopes
1. Use lenses to bend light and magnify images by roughly 100-fold
2. It can be used to view living specimens in natural color
3. Chemical dyes and fluorescent labeling may be applied to resolve specific structures

Electron Microscopes
1. Use electromagnets to focus electrons → Greater magnifications and Resolutions
2. It can be used to view dead specimens in monochrome
a. TEM passes electrons through the specimen to generate a cross-section
b. SEM scatter electrons over a surface to differentiate depth and map in 3D

Spontaneous generation of Life: Proved Wrong

The idea that life is spontaneous and simply appears is proved wrong by following experimental
examples. We know, based on cell theory, that cells appear from preexisting Cells:

- Boiling Soup in 2 Flasks to sterilize the Soup

- Keep one Lid Open and the Other Lid Closed
- Open Lid = Bacterias Grow
- Closed Lid = Bacteria don't Grow

From this experiment we can deduce, that for cells to appear, theyre needs to be some form of
preexisting life that can enter and multiply through cell division - Else, the soup remains sterile.

Adult vs. Embryonic Stem Cells

Embryonic stem cells: These stem cells come from embryos that are 3 to 5 days old → Blastocyst

These are pluripotent stem cells, meaning they can divide into more stem cells or can become any
type of cell in the body. This versatility allows embryonic stem cells to regenerate or repair diseased
tissue and organs.

Adult stem cells: These stem cells are found in small numbers in most adult tissues.

Compared with embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells have a more limited ability to give rise to
various cells of the body. Note that there are methods for altering Adult cells to have properties of
embryonic stem cells → Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell: Reprogrammed Stem Cells

Shinya Yamanaka won a Nobel prize for his work on reprogramming adult cells to an embryonic-like
state. Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells are a type of pluripotent stem cell derived from adult
somatic cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem (ES) cell-like state
through the forced expression of genes and factors important for maintaining the defining properties
of ES cells: This is a major advantage, as an IPS cell has an almost identical function to ES Stem cell.

Why are Induced pluripotent Stem cells beneficial?

1. IPS cells get rid of moral debate about whether we need Embryos for Research
- Some believe embryos are representative of Life
- Others believe embryos are a simple collection of cells