Cell Biology

1.1 Introduction to Cells

Every living organism is composed of cells. Nothing smaller than cells can survive. They are
fundamental “building blocks”. The smallest organisms are unicellular – they consist of just one
cell. On the other hand there are multicellular organisms that are made up from many cells. So,

Cell theory
• the cell is the basic and the smallest unit of life (cells = alive, subcellular [nuclei,
mitochondria, chloroplast] components are not alive)
• all living things are composed of on or more cells (if it is alive or was once alive = it is or it
once was made of cells eg, bacteria, fungus, animals but not viruses)
• cells are made up from already preexisting cells (by division, except for the original origin
of life)

Pasteur’s experiment – bacteria did not come to life on their own, they come after interaction with
environment.

Bacteria cultures grew up when the flask

was opened to the environment.

Light microscope was invented in

1665. Cells got their name after
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who
thought that small cells looked like
a tiny animal.*

Light microscope →
specimens may be living or dead
magnifies up to 2000x

While electron microscope is very

complex to use, specimens must be
dead and fixed in plastic, they
magnifies up to 500000x (more
detailed) 👍
Exceptions to the Cell Theory
• basic unit of life: striated muscle cells are much longer than regular cells and in
consequence they contain multiple nuclei surrounded by a single, continuous plasma
membrane, which makes them “cells withing a cell’’
• giant algae are composed only of one cell, but they apparently they can grow to very large
sizes
• aseptate fungi are not divided into sections (have no cellular partitions → cell in that case is
not the most basic unit of life

All living cells (whether multicellular or unicellular) carry out these function of life:
• metabolism which is a chemical reaction inside the cell, including cell respiration to release
energy
• reproduction; cell produce offspring either sexually (involves two parents and the fusion of
haploid sex cells from each parent) or asexually (involves one parent)
• sensitivity and response is an ability to recognise and react to changes in environmental
conditions: eg movement, releasing chemicals
• homeostasis – keeping conditions inside the organism withing tolerable limits (stable)
• excretion – getting rid of the waste products of metabolism
• nutrition – obtaining energy and matter for their metabolic activities
• growth is an irreversible increase in size, all living thing can grow and develop their
lifespan; unicellular organisms will develop more distinct features as it matures

Are viruses living?

No, because they do not carry out all of the above function of life. They can not reproduce – they
trick the host cells and injects its DNA to make them reproduce cells for them.

Examples of unicellular organisms:

Paramecium
• unicellular eukaryotic organism from the kingdom Protista
• it reproduce asexually using mitosis
• thanks to the stimuli (cilia) paramecium can reverse itself when touching an object
• it ingest and digest smaller organisms in vesicles; and then expels waste products through
plasma membrane
• essential gases enter (eg. O2) and exit (eg. CO2) the cell via diffusion → homeostasis

Chlorella
• single-celled organisms that has a large chloroplast
• it is a great example to show metabolism: the chloroplast allows the energy in the sun to be
converted to chemical energy in a carbohydrate, which is the main food source for the
organism
• stored in dark place, Chlorella would not be able to go under the process of photosynthesis

Scenedesmus
• exchange gases and other essential materials via diffusion
• chlorophyll pigments allow organic molecules to be produced via photosynthesis
• daughter cells form as non-motile autospores via the internal asexual division of the parent
cell
• it may exist as unicells or form colonies for protection (responsiveness)
Cells and Cell Sizes
➢ generally small (smol), we can not see them with naked eye

Relative sizes of cells in order

1. molecules (several atoms put together) 1 nm
2. thickness of membrane 7.5 nm
3. viruses 100 nm
4. bacteria → prokaryotic cell (they do not have many complex structures inside of them) 1-5 um
5. organelles 1-10 um
6. animal cells 10-50 um
7. plant cells 10-100 um

Calculating cell size

→ x 1000 → x 1000
mm (millimetres) um (micrometres) nm (nanometres)
2 mm 2 2000 2000000
130 um 0.13 130 130000
0.032m 32 32000 32000000
7.25 0.00725 7.35 7250
← /1000 ← /1000

Calculating magnification
Magnification = size of image / actual size
! before you calculate you need to convert to equal units, however magnification has no units

Calculation actual size

Actual size = size of image / magnification
!do not leave the answer with big decimal places, the digit has to be between 1 and 1000
eg. 0.0018 mm → 1.8 um (x1000)

When attempting to draw microscopic structures, the following conventions should be followed
→ a title should be included to identify the specimen (eg. name of organism, tissue or cell)
→ a magnification or scale should be included to indicate relative size
→ identifiable structures should be clearly labelled (drawings should only reflects what is seen, not
idealised versions

Limiting cell size

• cell size is limited by the surface are to volume ratio
• the “volume” is the inside of the cell, where most of the chemical reaction of life occur
(metabolism, waste products) – larger cells require more energy to sustain essential
functions
• the “surface are” represents the membrane around the outside of the cell, which is
responsible of moving materials in and out of the cell. Large membrane surface equates to
more material movement
• As cells get larger their surface area to to volume decreases (volume ratio grows quicker)
• for cells it is more efficient to copy and divide than grow very large
• larger organisms do not have larger cells – they just have more of them
exceptions
regularly-shaped cells have greatly smaller surface area to volume ratio, but special large cells can
increase their surface are by:
➢ changing their shape to be long and thin (neuron)
➢ having folds in the cell membrane (villi have ruffled structure), they can diffuse materials
more efficiently as they would have flat shape

Cell reproduction and differentiation

Cells can reproduce for a couple of reasons. Cells copy themselves when growing in multicellular
organisms. Singular cell do not get any bigger, they just reproduce. Also while injury heath cells
reproduce themselves to replace the dead/damaged cells. Lastly in single-cell organisms cell
reproduce asexually – they just copy themselves.
Multicellular organisms grow by adding more cells. They start a life as a single cell. This result of
sexual reproduction is called a zygote. Cells in one organisms have identical sets of DNA, because
they originated from the zygote. The zygote reproduces very rapidly, resulting in a collection of a
lot of identical cells.

Process of cell differentiation

1. Soon after conception (fertilisation), the cluster of identical cells is exposed to hormones.
2. Hormones reach certain parts of the cluster of cells
3. The hormones cause certain genes to be expressed but not others.
4. Having certain cells genes turned “on” and others turned “off” causes cells to develop into
different types.
Different hormones act on different cells and they cause different genes to be expressed in the
cluster of cells

As was mentioned, cells have identical and complete set of DNA because they all came from the
single-celled zygote. Specialised cells only express certain genes, while others remain inactive.
They have the same genes but not all of them are expressed. For example in liver cells, only liver
genes are expressed, the skin genes are going to be turned off. However n skin cells only skin genes
are expressed and every other ones are unexpressed.

Gene packaging
Within the nucleus of an eukaryotic cell, DNA is packaged with proteins to form chromatin.
• Active genes are usually packaged in an expanded form called euchromatin that is
accessible to transcriptional machinery
• inactive genes are typically packaged in a more condensed form called heterochromatin
(saves space, not transcribed)

Specialised cells
• when cells are already specialised, the expressed genes remains expressed forever, while
others are turned off
• cells produced by these specialised cells will have the same on and off genes and will be the
same type of differentiated cell
• for example cells produced by breast cell, will only became breast cells. Once cells are
differentiated they are differentiated forever.
Emergent properties are characteristics that result from the interaction of specialised cells in
multicellular organisms. A multicellular organism is much more efficient and can carry out more
functions than all the parts working as individuals. Specialised cells can work together, so they can
accomplish more than they can individually.

In multicellular organisms:
Cells may be grouped together to form tissues; organs are then formed from the functional grouping
of multiple tissues; organs that interact may form organ system capable of carrying out specific
body functions; organ systems collectively carry out the life functions of the complete organism.

Stem cells
➢ unspecialised cells that have the ability to differentiate into specialised cell of any type
➢ they are referred as pluripotent → they have potential fo differentiate into many types of
cells
➢ Adult stem cells: very limited, can be found in certain adult tissues that can become a
limited number of types of cells eg. bone marrow. They are partially differentiated and can
become only of some types of cells. Bone marrow from adult can be transplanted into
another adult in order to grow new blood cells for the recipient who might be suffering from
a blood cancer like leukemia.
➢ Embryonic can be used to replace damaged cells that results from injuries or disease.
Scientists grow embryonic stem cells and direct their differentiation so that they can become
a particular type of tissue.
➢ Stargardt’s disease → results that the retinal cells in the eye not being able to process
vitamin A properly (light perception). Comes from inheritance of two recessive genes from
parents. Research of this disease was taking not already differentiated embryonic cells and
exposing them to hormones. Next they are directed to develop into retinal cells which are
then placed in the person suffering from the disease.
➢ Parkinson’s disease → a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system caused by the
death of dopamine-secreting cells in the midbrain. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter
responsible for transmitting signals involved in the production of smooth, purposeful
movements. The suffering one’s exhibit tremors, rigidity, slowness of movement and
postural instability. They are treated by replacing dead nerve cells with living, dopamine-
producing ones.
➢ Diabetes is another therapeutic example; replacing non-functioning islet cells with those
capable of producing insulin in type 1 diabetics

Types of Stem Cells

There are four main types of stem cells present at various stages of human development:
Totipotent – Can form any cell type, as well as extra-embryonic (placental) tissue (e.g. zygote)
Pluripotent – Can form any cell type (e.g. embryonic stem cells)
Multi potent – Can differentiate into a number of closely related cell types (e.g. haematopoeitic
adult stem cells)
Unipotent – Can not differentiate, but are capable of self renewal (e.g. progenitor cells, muscle stem
cells)
 Benefits
✔ reduction in human suffering, because we can cure diseases and replace tissues damaged by
injury
✔ reduce the need for organ transplant
✔ reduction in need for medicines

Potential Drawbacks
✗ have to use human embryos, which results in the death of the embryo and some people
consider this as taking a human life
✗ cultural and religious objections

1.2 The Ultrastructure of Cells

Guidelines for IB Drawings

• size should match complexity
• show correct positioning and proportions
• no sketch lines → continuous line
• start with pencil, then use pen over the final draft
• labels must be included, even if description only says “Draw…”
• label lines are straight and do not cross each other
• stay in a given answer box

All cells can be classified to one of two broad categories:

➢ prokaryotes (eg. bacteria)
➢ eukaryotes (eg. plants, animals or fungi)

Prokaryotic cells
• much smaller and simpler than eukaryotes
• originated before eukaryotes
• do not enclose their DNA in nucleus; they
simply lack nucleus
• do not have membrane-bound organelles
• bacterias are representative
• classified into two distinct domains:
archaebacteria (found in extreme
environments eg. high temperatures or pH)
and eubacteria (traditional bacteria including most known pathogenic forms (eg. E. Coli)

Functions of prokaryotes cell structures:

• cell wall: protects the cell and maintains its shape
• plasma membrane/cell membrane: is found inside of the cell wall; it controls movement of
materials into and out of the cells
• nucleoid: region of cytoplasm that contains the free DNA
• Cytoplasm: internal fluid component of the cell; site for cellular processes and reactions
(prokaryotes cell are not compartmentalised, all cell processes occur in the cytoplasm. The
efficiency of the cell is limited since the chemical reactions are not separated)
 • Pili: hair-like extensions that enable adherence to surface (attachment pili). By that they can
allow bacterial cells to attach to each other and exchange DNA.
• Flagella: long, slender projections containing a motor protein that enables movement
• Ribosomes: found in every type of cells, but in prokaryotic cell they are a size of 70S. They
produce a lot of protein, and their function is protein synthesis. The are found in large
numbers in cell.
• Nucleoid Region: the bacterial chromosome is a single, circular loop of DNA. DNA is not
wrapped around proteins. It is not enclosed in a nucleus, but the region that it is found in is
called nucleoid.
• Plasmids: DNA molecules that are not connected or associated with the regular chromosome
and may help the cell adapt to changes in its environmental
• slime capsule: a thick polysaccharide layer used for protection against desiccation (drying
out) and phagocytosis

Division of prokaryotic cells

They reproduce asexually in a process called binary fission. The single circular chromosome is
replicated and the two copies of chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell. Both of the
replicated cells contain one copy of the chromosome what makes them identical.

Eukaryotic cells
• larger cells (10-100 um)
• more complex structure → it is believed that they evolved from prokaryotic cells via
endosymbiosis
• enclose their DNA in a nucleus
• have membrane-bound organelles that carry out specific functions
• organelles compartmentalise the cell so that normally incompatible chemical reactions can
take place at the same time, hence it increases the efficiency and capabilities of the cell.
• Animal, plant, fungi, protist or protoctist cells

animal cell plant cell

Functions of Eukaryote cell structures:
• cytoplasm: is all of the area within the cell except the nucleus, this is where the organelles
are found. The fluid portion of the cytoplasm is called cytosol
• cytoskeleton: provides internal structure and mediates intracellular transport
• Plasma membrane: Semi-permeable and selective barrier surrounding the cell
• cell wall: only plant cell; provides support and mechanical strength, prevents excess water
uptake
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) are network of tubes that extend from the nucleus to the
plasma membrane. It transports materials to different ares within the cells
→ Smooth ER: has many enzymes on the surface; it produces and transports lipids (fats
which are used to make cell membrane or hormones; some of them are lipid based),
stores calcium ions, helps the liver release glucose into the bloodstream when needed.
→ Rough ER: has ribosomes on it, it helps modify and transport proteins since
ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis. It is usually placed closer to the nucleus
than Smooth ER
• Ribosomes: they do not have membrane, found in all types of cell, site of protein synthesis.
They can be found attached to Rough ER or throughout the cytoplasm. In eukaryotes their
size is 80S (70s in prokaryotic cells)
• Lysosomes: only animal cell; membrane-bound sacs that contains enzymes → which helps
break down proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and other molecules. Lysosomes find and
combine with old or damaged organelles and “recycle” their parts. Cells that are responsible
for digestion (eg. liver) have many lysosomes
• Golgi Apparatus: collecting, packaging and transporting molecules. It is located near the
rough ER, it helps them receive protein and other materials and then pack them in
membrane sacs called vesicles. Then it exit out of the other side of the Golgi. Cells that
produce a lot of products for other ares of the organism (eg. pancreas or glands) have a lot of
Golgi bodies
• Mitochondria: responsible for cellular respiration → chemical energy in food is transformed
into chemical energy in the form of ATP; they have their own DNA and ribosomes and also
double membrane (one on the outside and one folded up in the inside – they increase the
surface are to speed up chemical reactions). Cell that require lots of energy (eg. muscles)
have lots of mitochondria
• Nucleus: bound by a porous membrane called a nuclear envelope, which allows
communication while the rest of it isolates the DNA from the other reactions going on in the
cell. Nucleus store genetic material – DNA as chromatin. It is located in the centre of the
cell, and it has the dark are called the nucleolis, where the ribosomes are made.
• Chloroplast: occur only in algae and plant cells, takes part in the process of photosynthesis.
Has a double membrane and contains its own DNA and ribosomes. It is made of thylakoid
discs (which contain chlorophyll and absorb light) and stroma (fluid portion)
• Centrosomes: help with the movement of chromosomes during cell division, it is located in
all cells near the nucleus
• Vacuoles: only in plant cell; needed for storing materials, mainly water but also eg. salt and
proteins. Vacuoles in plants are often very large, because it puts pressure on cell wall and
that helps the plant cell remain rigid.
• Peroxisome: catalyses breakdown of toxic substances eg. H2O2 and other metabolites
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
➢ number varies with species (human has 46, while fruit fly only 4)
➢ chromosomes are only present during cell devision
➢ When the cell is not actively dividing, the DNA is in the form of chromatin
➢ chromatin is DNA wrapped around protein called histones.

Closer look at mitochondria

The curves on inner membrane

increase their surface area. The
infolding are called cristae.
Mitochondria has their own DNA
and ribosomes as well as double
membrane.

Closer look at chloroplast

Granum is a bunch of thylakoid discs

stacked in one piece. Chloroplast has a
double membrane. Stroma is fluid-filled
internal space of the chloroplast that
encircles the Granum and the thylakoids.

Functions of Eukaryotic cell

Prokaryote cell Eukaryote cell
size Small (1-10 um) Larger (>10 um)
reproduction Binary fission Mitosis + meiosis
No nucleus, Have a nucleus,
organelles 70S Ribosomes, 80S Ribosomes,
no organelles are membrane-bound membrane-bound organelles present
Naked, circular loop, is not attached to
DNA Protein-bound, linear
proteins, free in the cytoplasm
Same structures Ribosomes, plasma membrane, DNA material
Being alive Both carry out all functions of life what makes them alive
A comparison of Plant Cell and Animal Cell

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cytoplasm, Plasma Membrane, Ribosomes, Vacuoles, Centrosome,
Same structures
Nucleus, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Mitochondria
• Vacuoles absent or small, • Large central vacuole,
• carbohydrates stored as • Carbohydrates stored as starch,
glycogen • No centriosoles within the
• has centriosoles within the centrosome are
Different structures
centrosome are • cell has a fixed, angular shape
• cell has a more flexible and due to cell wall
rounded shape because • Cell wall,
there is no cell wall • Chloroplast,

Outermost Layers of Cells

➢ bacteria: cell wall of peptidoglycan
➢ fungi: cell of chitin
➢ algae: cell of cellulose
➢ plants: cell wall of cellulose
➢ animals: no cell wall, has an extracellular matrix instead

Function of the Cell wall

It helps the organism maintain the correct shape and help regulate water uptake.

Animal cells lacking cell wall

Instead of cell wall, they have an extracellular matrix, which is a network of collagen fibers,
proteins and sugars on the outside of the cell that strengthen the plasma membrane and provide the
cell with support and structure.

1.3 Membrane Structure

In terms of the history of the study of the cell membrane, there are two very prominent models,
since the electron microscopy is relatively new thing.

1. Davson-Danielli model
As early as 1915, scientists were aware that the cell membrane was composed of phospholipids and
proteins. In 1935, Hugh Davson and James Danielli put forth a model that suggested that a lipid
bilayer was covered on both sides by a thin layer of protein.

Based on the structure of the

phospholipids they knew that
there had to be two layers.
When protein destroying chemicals were exposed to cell membranes, many solutes were no longer
able to pass in/out of the cell.
This model was accepted for around 20 years.

Then electron microscope was invented, technology developed and there we observed that:
• not all membrane were symmetrical, as the model suggested
• membranes with different functions also have a different composition, which the model did
not allow for
• a protein layer is not likely because is is non-polar and does not interact well with water

2. Singer-Nicolson Model (fluid mosaic model)

mosaic = made of many parts
fluid = all of those parts can move around, they are not stuck in one place

The scientists suggested that there was a double layer of phospholipids. Instead of layers of
proteins, they claimed that proteins were embedded within the lipid bilayer. All cellular membranes,
whether it is the plasma membrane or the membrane that surrounds an organelle have the same
structure.

Membrane structure drawing

Phospholipid
➢ it is a form of a basic structure of a cell membrane (the phospholipid bilayer); they have two
ends: the hydrophilic head and the hydrophobic tail, they are know also as a amphipathic
(have in their structure both hydrophobic and hydrophilic elements)
➢ phospholipid bilayer is composed of two layers of phospholipids; their hydrophobic tail
facing inwards and hydrophilic head outwards
➢ the hydrophilic (attracted to water) head is polar and attracted to water
➢ the hydrophobic (water-hating) tail → fatty acid tail is non-polar and is repelled by water, so
it points inward towards each other forming a strong bilayer barrier
➢ generally phospholipids control movement of the substances into and out of the cell

Cholesterol
• membranes have to be fluid and flexible to function properly
• at certain temperatures, the fluidity of the membrane changes
• animal cell membranes have molecules of cholesterol in the hydrophobic tail region, which
helps the membrane remain stable over a wider range of temperatures
• plant cells do not have cholesterol molecules in their plasma membrane (because they have
cell walls which helps them maintain shape and things like that

Proteins
• they are responsible for the diversity of membrane function
• there are two major types of proteins: integral and peripheral

Integral proteins – have amphipathic properties, This means that they are both hydrophilic (polar)
and hydrophobic (non-polar) regions on the same protein.
These proteins often help facilitate the movement of molecules across the membrane.

Peripheral proteins – they stay on the surface of a membrane, and are usually anchored to an
integral protein. They do not protrude into the hydrophobic region. Many of these peripheral
proteins are glycoproteins, which means that they have a carbohydrate chain attached to them and
are involved with cell recognition, which is particularly important in the immune system.

Membrane protein functions, integral proteins as well as peripheral proteins

➢ junctions: connect cells together
➢ enzymes: act as enzymes
➢ transport: responsible for facilitated diffusion and protein pumps
 ➢ recognition: for cells to identify each other
➢ anchorage: attachment point for the cytoskeleton
➢ transduction: receptors for hormones

Membrane protein shape

• proteins that serve as binding sites have specific shapes that match the molecules they are
binding to
• cell adhesion proteins hook together in a variety of ways
• cell-to-cell communication proteins have carbohydrate chains attached
• proteins involved in passive transport are channel-shaped
• proteins involved in active pumping have shapes that match the molecules they are pumping

Membrane properties:
➢ flexible – move and form a variety of shapes
➢ strong – the hydrophobic region hates water so much that the repelling nature keeps the
membrane together
➢ self-healing – a hole in the membrane will self-heal due to the hydrophobic region’s hatred
of water
➢ semipermeable – only some solutes may pass through the membrane

1.4 Membrane Transport

Passive Transport
• particles move from areas of high concentration to low concentration
• movement is along or down the concentration gradient
• does not require energy
• examples: (simple) diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis

Simple diffusion vs facilitated diffusion

Both are forms of passive transport they move from high concentration areas to low concentration
ares, they do not require any energy. However during the process of simple diffusion molecules
move between phospholipids and it can occur with or without a membrane, but in facilitated
diffusion molecules move through proteins that change shape to allow only certain molecules to
move through. It definitely requires a membrane.

Diffusion vs Osmosis
Osmosis is the passive movement of water across a
semipermeable membrane. Water move through
special protein channels called aqauporins. When
molecules are unable to even out their own
concentrations via diffusion, water will move
(osmosis) to help even out the concentration.
Requires a membrane because if there was no
membrane the molecules would just spread out on
their own and water would just stay put. Osmosis
definitely requires the membrane.
Osmosis solutions:
➢ hypotonic: describes a solution that has a lower concentration of solutes; water moves from
solution to cell to give in there move place to spread out
➢ isotonic: (iso – same) when the solution both sides of the membrane is equal; no movement
of water
➢ hypertonic: describes a solution that has a higher concentration of solutes; water leaves the
cell to give the molecules more place to spread out

Size and charge

Those factors determine how easily molecules move across the membrane

small and non-polar molecules large and polar molecules

ex. oxygen, carbon dioxide ex. Ions, glucose

easy → difficult

Kidney dialysis
Blood is removed from the body and passed through tubes that have selectively permeable
membranes. The membranes ensure that waste and excess water are filtered out before the blood is
returned to the body.

Active transport
• Particles move from areas of low concentration to high concentration
• movement is against or up the concentration gradient → allow cells to maintain unequal
concentration gradients
• requires energy (ATP)
• examples: protein pump (sodium-potassium pump), endocytosis, exocytosis

Sodium Potassium Pump

➢ active transport, agains the concentration gradient, requires ATP
➢ using a specific protein binds to sodium ions inside a cell
➢ Then the energy in ATP is released by breaking the third phosphate bond
➢ The energy from ATP causes the protein to change its shape, which releases the sodium ions
to the outside of the cell.
➢ Potassium ions outside of the cell bind to a different region of the same protein, which
causes the release of the phosphate group
➢ The loss of the phosphate group causes the protein to go back to it’s original shape, which
causes the potassium ions to be released into the cell.

Another example is the pump in the membrane of a liver cell that removes glucose from the blood
for storage inside the liver cells.

Endocytosis
• occurs when a part of the plasma membrane is pinched off to enclose a large molecules
• this molecules is now inside of the cell and surrounded by a membrane sac called vesicle
• the membrane re-forms around this hole due to the hydrophilic tails’ hatred of water
 • there are two types of endocytosis: pinocytosis (uptake of extracellular fluids) and
phagocytosis (intake of large particles like pathogens)

Exocytosis
• exo – outside
• the Golgi wraps large molecules in a vesicle, then that vesicle fuses with the membrane
which pushes the material to the outside of the cell

Active transport
Endocytosis and exocytosis both create temporary holes in the cell membrane. But the hydrophobic
nature of the phospholipid tails make the membrane fluid, meaning that the phospholipids
immediately rejoin to fill those holes to avoid contact with water

1.5 Origin of Cells

Cell theory review

1) All organisms are made of one or more cells
2) Cells are the smallest units of life
3) All cells come from other pre-existing cells

Number 1 and 2 were establish through microscopy and observation.

Talking about number 3, until 19th century, the idea of spontaneous generation was widely accepted,
even the scientific community. They thought that living things could arise from non-living things,
eg. mice spawn from dirty clothes and wheat

Pasteur’s Experiment
1. Boil nutrient broth and place in several flasks
2. Some flasks had access to open air, some did not
3. A sample from each bacteria was incubated to check for the presence of living bacteria
→ only the flask with the open neck (opened to the environment) grew bacterial cells; the closed
one did not grew bacteria

He proposed that bacteria grew in environment and by making it up to opened flask they produced
new cells. He stated that all cells come from other already pre-existing cells.
The problem with his observation was that it does not explain how first ever cell was made.
Although there are many possible explanations for this, the one that is most widely accepted
involves a volatile atmosphere, methane and lightening which came together to produce parts of
living things (like amino acids and DNA)

The First Cell

➢ All living things originated from a single prokaryotic cell
➢ All living things perform the same functions
➢ All living things have DNA with a similar structure

The origin of Eukaryotic cell was first explained by Lynn Margulis in 1981.

Endosymbiotic Theory
1. About 2 billion years ago, an eukaryotic cell engulfed a heterotrophic (eating its food for energy)
bacterial cell
2. The eukaryote and prokaryote formed a symbiotic relationship → they both are benefitting from
that relationship
3. Over time, that bacterial cell underwent changes to eventually become a mitochondria.
The same could be said for photosynthetic bacteria and chloroplast.

Evidence for the Endosymbiotic Theory → mitochondria and chloroplast

• are around the same size as prokaryotes
• divide by binary fission, like prokaryotes
• have their own DNA (no histones) in a circular loop, like prokaryotes
• have 70s ribosomes, like prokaryotes
• have a double membrane (from when they were engulfed)
• the genes in the DNA of mitochondria and chloroplast are most similar to prokaryotes than
the cell in which they were found

Elysia chlorotica
It is a slug that is brown during its early life stages. It feeds on algae and retains the chloroplasts
within the algae. The chloroplasts give the slug a green colour and (if the light is available) allows
the slug to become sedentary because the chloroplast produces energy/food for the slug.

1.6 Cell Division

The cell cycle

Most of the cell life is spend in interphase, only small portion is spend in mitotic phase → mitosis
and cytokinesis

Interphase:
• cells are very active during interphase
• cells are performing their designated function (skin cells do skins things, pancreatic cells do
pancreas things) and they are growing
• protein synthesis is rapid during interphase due to all of the growth
 • interphase has three distinct, smaller phases: G1 (Cell growth, they perform normal cell
function), S (DNA synthesis → replication) and G2 (Cell growth; preparing for mitosis,
producing more organelles for the new cell)
• in drawing of interphase organelles can be skipped because basically they are always
present. We include only nuclear membrane, chromatin and centriosoles
• cyclins are proteins that regulate a cell’s progression through the cell cycle
• the cyclins bind to receptors and this complex must be present for the next part of the cell
cycle to begin. This serves as a checkpoint, preventing cells from moving too quickly or
progressing at all
• nerve cells (like others) lack the necessary cyclins, so they can not reproduces

Mitosis → the division of replicated genetic material. At the end of M stage mitosis produces 2
identical cells, with full set of genetic material.

During interphase, DNA is in the form of chromatin (wrapped around histone proteins). Before
mitosis can begin, the DNA must organise itself into chromosomes to prevent the loss or mix-u of
genetic material. Chromosomes form when chromatin fibers supercoil and condense to form
chromosomes.
→ histone: protein around which eukaryotic DNA is wrapped
→ nucleosome: the structure that results from DNA wrapping around histone proteins
→ chromatin: a collection of loose nucleosomes; DNA is present in its chromatin form during
interphase

Parts of a Chromosome
DNA is replicated during the S phase of interphase. By the time a cell gets to the mitosis part of the
cell cycle, each chromosome contains two copies of identical DNA called sister chromatids. They
are held together by a centromere.

Prokaryotic chromosomes: single loop with no histone proteins

Eukaryotic chromosomes: many distinct chromosomes with associated histone proteins
Phases of Mitosis withing the Cell Cycle
• Interphase
G1
S
G2
• Mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
• Cytokinesis

Stages of Mitosis
1. Prophase
Chromatin supercoils/condense into chromosomes. Nuclear envelope (membrane dissolves).
Spindle fibers begin to form. Centrosomes move towards the opposite ends of the poles.

2. Metaphase
Chromosomes move toward the middle of the cell. Spindle fibers attach to the centrosomes. No
nucleus anymore.

3. Anaphase
Sister chromatids are pulled apart. The chromatids (now called chromosomes) are pulled towards
opposite poles. Movement is due to a shortening of the spindle fibers.

4. Telophase
Each end of the cell now has a complete set of identical chromosomes, nuclear envelope starts to re-
form. Chromosomes start to uncoil back into chromatin. Spindle disappears, but cell is still
undivided yet.

Cytokinesis: the splitting/separation of the cell immediately following mitosis

In animal cell a ring forms around the middle. The ring gets smaller and eventually in contracts,
pinching the cell in two.
In a plant cell a cell plate forms in the middle. Cell plate grows until the two cells seperate.

Cancer
→ primary tumor: a mass of cells that are dividing at abnormally fast rates for no apparent reason
→ cancer: the disease that result when the primary tumor spreads to other parts of the body
→ metastasis: the spreading of cancerous/tumor cells through the body via the blood or other
mechanism
→ secondary tumor: the tumor that forms in other parts of the body after metastasis of the primary
tumor

All of our cells have genes that turn on to start cell division and those same genes turn off when cell
division is complete and no more new cells are needed.
These genes are called oncogenes. Certain substances (called carcinogens) can causes changes to
the oncogenes, which in turn changes the cell’s ability to control the rate of cell division.

Primary tumors form when:

Carcinogens or genetic mutations cause a change to the oncogene of a cell. The malfunctioning
oncogene causes the cell to continuously replicate. The mass of defective cells forms a primary
tumor.

Mitotic Index
A mitotic index is the ratio of the number of cells undergoing mitosis compared to the number of
cells in interphase (not undergoing mitosis)
→ each tissue undergoes mitosis at different rates. However, if the mitotic index is higher than the
normal rate for that type of cell, it can indicate that those cells are tumor cells.