Topic 1: Cell Biology

Harvard Animation
 Why are cells cool?
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
wJyUtbn0O5Y
 Cell Theory
 Discuss the theory that living
organisms are composed of cells.
 The Cell Theory states that:
– All organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
– All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
– All vital functions of an organism occur
within cells.
– Cells are the most basic unit of life.
– Cells contain hereditary information. Why?
 Think and Discuss!
 Whatsort of evidence would be
needed to validate cell theory?
 Evidence for Cell Theory
 What is Evidence?
 What is a theory?
 Evidence for Cell theory:
– Living tissues= composed of cells
– Cells of an organism can
sometimes survive on their own
but smaller cell components can
NOT.
– Classic experiments showed that
spontaneous generation of life
does NOT happen.
Nature of Science (Cell Theory Trends and
Discrepancies)

Exceptions to aspects of Cell theory (Evaluate)

 Striated Skeletal Muscle– multinucleate
cytoplasm, longer than typical cells
 Some fungal hyphae- multinucleate
cytoplasm.
 Giant Algae– Single
nucleus but much
larger than a typical
cell (up to 100mm)
 Extracellular material
(material outside the
cell membrane), such
as teeth and bone,
forms a significant
part of the body.

Discuss: Do you think

these constitute
exceptions to cell
theory? Justify your
answer.
 Unicellular organisms
carry out ALL the
functions of life.
 What are the necessary
functions of life?

 Metabolism
 Response to stimuli
 Homeostasis
 Growth/development
 Reproduction
 Nutrition
 Excretion of wastes
Application: Functions of life in unicellular organisms
 Example 1: Paramecium
(mandatory!)
Function Example
Metabolism enzymes in cytoplasm, protein
synthesis, etc.
Response to uses cilia to move toward or
stimuli away from stimuli
Homeostasis contractile vacuoles maintain
water balance
Growth and It grows and changes!
development
Reproduction Both asexual (mitosis) and
sexual
Nutrition Heterotrophic (eats smaller
organisms)
Excretion of Expels wastes (ex. CO2) via
wastes diffusion.
Application: Functions of life in unicellular organisms
 Example 2: Chlorella (a type of unicellular algae) Note:
must have unicellular photosynthetic organism
Function Example
Metabolism enzymes, protein synthesis,
PHOTOSYNTHESIS etc.
Response to Photosynthetic rate changes
stimuli in response to light
Homeostasis Regulate passage of materials
across cell membrane
Growth and It grows and changes!
development
Reproduction asexual

Nutrition Autotrophic (Photosynthetic)

Excretion of Expels wastes (ex. O2) via
wastes diffusion.
 Cell Size
 Discuss: How big are cells?

Image: National Institutes of Health

 Not in New Syllabus but questions still asked in new sample exams:
 Compare the relative sizes of molecules,
cell membrane thickness, viruses,
bacteria, organelles and cells, using
appropriate SI units.
 Molecules (1 nm) (Smallest)
 Cell membrane thickness (10 nm)
 Viruses (100 nm)
 Bacteria (1 µm)
 Organelles (<10 µm)
 Most cells (<100 µm) (Largest)
 Interactive http://www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm
 Calculate
linear
magnification of
drawings.
 Scale bars:
– ex. = 1 µm
– Magnification:
×250
 To calculate
magnification:
– Magnification =
Measured Size of
Diagram ÷ Actual
Size of Object
 Explain the importance
of the surface area to
volume ratio as a factor
limiting cell size.
– The rate of
exchange of
materials
(nutrients/waste)
and energy (heat) is
a function of its
surface area.
(Why?)
– As cell size
increases, the
surface area to
volume ratio
decreases
 This can make
the exchange
rate inadequate
for large cells
– Cell size, therefore,
remains small
So, Cells can’t be very big!
 Giant alien amoeba
movie = not
accurate…
 Discussion
 Ifcells must be small, how is it
possible for organisms to be large?
 Explain that cells in
multicellular
organisms
differentiate to
carry out
specialized
functions by
expressing some of
their genes but not
others.
– Differentiation:
becoming specialized
in structure and
function. (due to gene
expression)
– Results in specialized
tissues
– Supporting examples?
– Multicellular organisms
show emergent
properties (What??)
 See ex. Next slide… Video: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/archive/title-m-z.html
 Define tissue, organ
and organ system.
 Tissue: An integrated
group of cells that
share stucture and are
adapted to perform a
similar function.
 Organ: A combination
of two or more tissues
which function as an
integrated unit,
performing one or more
specific functions.
 Organ system: A
group of organs that
specialize in a certain
function together.
 STEM CELLS
 Stem cells
– Retain the capacity to
divide*
– Able to differentiate
along different
pathways*

*The above
characteristics are
necessary for
embryonic
development and make
stem cells suitable for
some therapies…
 Therapeutic Use of Stem Cells
 Many possibilities (in research phase) to repair damaged tissues
etc.
 Actual uses
 Restore neural insulation tissue in rats.
 Embryonic stem cells to treat Stargardt’s macular
dystrophy (an eye disease).
 Stem cells from umbilical cord blood or from bone marrow
for leukemia patients.
 Application: Stargardt’s disease (mandatory)
 Background: Stargardt’s disease 
– the most common form of inherited juvenile macular degeneration.
– progressive vision loss
– death of photoreceptor cells in the macula (central part of the retina)
– Due to mutation in a gene that controls a transport protein in retinal
cells.

Stem Cell Treatment:

• Injection of retinal cells
(derived from embryonic
stem cells)
• Encouraging results:
No rejection, no tumors,
vision improvement as
retinal cells attached
 Application: Leukemia
 Background: Leukemia 
– A cancer in bone marrow that
produces excessive white blood
cells

Stem Cell Treatment:

1. Extract healthy bone
marrow fluid (usually
from pelvis)
2. Extract stem cells and
freeze them
3. Chemotherapy to kill
cancer cells
4. Return stem cells to
bone.
5. Cures leukemia in many
cases
 Sources and Ethical Issues (see p. 15 of book for
more…)
– Sources and
ethical/technical issues:
 Embryonic
 placenta/umbilical
cord
 Many other tissues
have stem cells
 totipotent/omnipotent
vs. pluripotent vs.
multipotent, etc.

Video (Stem Cells Breakthrough):

Video: Stem Cell Breakthrough
Nova Science Now
 https://drive.google.com/file/d/11h2
ViSvgI_AXs0rgyyM9kkokrF9omh0c/vi
ew?usp=sharing
Full video (13 min) available here
on myDrive (saved mp4 file)

https://ca.pbslearningmedia.org/resou
rce/nsn08.sci.life.stru.stemcell2/stem-
cells-breakthrough/
Shorter version (5 minutes)
Microscopy and Types of Cells
 Explain three
advantages of
using light
microscopes.
 NOTE: not in new
syllabus…
– color instead of
monochrome (black
and white) images.
– large field of view.
– Facilitate preparation
of sample material.
– Allow for the
examination of living
material and the
observation of
movement.
– Relatively
inexpensive
 Outline the advantages of using
electron microscopes.
1) much higher resolution and magnification than light
microscopes.
– Resolution refers to the ability to distinguish two objects
as separate entities.
– Magnification refers to the ability to increase the size of
a viewed object.
2) Allow us to see cell ultrastructure.
Types of Electron Microscopes: (not in syllabus)
 Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) provide images of the
specimen's surface
 Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) provide images of
a sample's interior. The resolution of an SEM is approximately half that of a TEM.

TEM SEM
Cell Types
 Prokaryotic Cells
 Simple cell Structure
 No Compartmentalization (No
Nucleus, no membrane-bound
organelles)

Prokaryotic
Draw a generalized
Cells
prokaryotic cell as seen in
electron micrographs
 The diagram should include:
– the cell wall,
– plasma membrane,
– cytoplasm,
– Pili
– Flagella
– Ribosomes (70S)
– nucleoid ( region
containing naked DNA).
 State one function for
each of the following: the
cell wall, plasma membrane,
cytoplasm, Pili Flagella,
Ribosomes, nucleoid
 Cell Wall: Maintains the cell's
shape and give protection.
 Plasma Membrane: Regulates
the flow of materials
(nutrients, waste, oxygen,
etc.) into and out of the cell.
 Cytoplasm: Holds and
suspends the cell's ribosomes
and enzymes.
 Pili: Adhering to surfaces
 Flagella: Motility
 Ribosome: Protein synthesis.
 Nucleoid region: Contains the
cell's genetic material (naked
DNA)
 Binary Fission
 Prokaryotic cells
divide by binary
fission
– Asexual
– splits directly into
two equal-sized
offspring, each with
a copy of the
parent's genetic
material.
  State that prokaryotes
show a wide range of
metabolic activity including
fermentation,
photosynthesis and
nitrogen fixation. (note:
from old syllabus
EX.
 Cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae)--photosynthesis.
 Bacteria can convert organic
substances into other organic Cyanobacteria
substances. (i.e., glucose to
lactic acid during
anaerobic respiration)
 Nitrogen fixation– convert N
2
in air to ammonia.
Video:
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3
401/04.html

Bacteria
 Eukaryotic Cells
 Morecomplex cell Structure
 Compartmentalization
 Eukaryotic Cells
Draw a diagram
to show the
ultrastructure
of a
generalized
animal cell
(liver cell) as
seen in
electron
micrographs.
 Should include
free ribosomes,
rough and
smooth ER,
lysosome, Golgi
apparatus,
mitochondria,
and nucleus.
An Animal Cell
 Define organelle.
 An organelle is a
discrete structure
within a cell, and
has a specific
function.
State one function of each of
these organelles: ribosomes,
rough endoplasmic reticulum,
lysosome, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondrion and nucleus.

 Nucleus: contains genetic

material
 Ribosomes (80S): protein
synthesis
 Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (rER): Packages
proteins
 Golgi apparatus: Modifies,
stores and routes products of
the endoplasmic reticulum.
 Lysosome: digests old cell
parts, macromolecules (food)
and engulfed viruses/bacteria
 Mitochondrion: cellular
respiration.
 Explain how vesicles are
used to transport
materials within a cell
between the rough
endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, and
plasma membrane.
 Proteins synthesized by
ribosomes
 enter the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
 Vesicles bud from rER and
carry the proteins to the
Golgi apparatus.
 Golgi apparatus modifies
the proteins.
 Vesicles bud off from the
Golgi apparatus and carry
the modified proteins to
the plasma membrane.
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/vesicl
 Skill: Interpret electron micrographs

 ID organelles
 Deduce function of specialized cells
 Hints
 Lysosomes = dark circles
 Vesicles or vacuoles= light circles
 Golgi = surrounded by vesicles, with
separate sacs
 Mitochondria= look for cristae (folds
of inner membrane)
ER vs. Golgi
Plant Cell (Palisade mesophyll
for example)_
lysosomes
Liver cell electron micrographs

 1. Nucleus
2. Mitochondria
3. Cell border
4. Nucleoli
5. Red blood cell
Types of Eukaryotic Cells: Plant
vs. Animal Cells (not in syllabus directly)

 Look at the diagrams of plant and

animal cell diagrams(see p. 114/ch.7
of Campbell…)
 What differences do you see?
Describe three differences between plant
and animal cells. (not in syllabus directly)

Only plant cells have:

 Cell walls
 Chloroplasts
 Large central vacuoles and
tonoplast
 Plasmodesmata
 Starch granules for storage of
carbohydrates

Only animal cells have:

Centrioles
Lysosomes
Glycogen for storage of carbohydrate

Also: Plant cells usually have much

less cholesterol in their plasma
membranes.
 Roles of extracellular components
(2.3.6) (not in syllabus directly)

 Animal cells
– Extracellular
matrix (secreted
glycoproteins)
 Support
 Adhesion
 Movement

 Plantcell wall
(see next slides)
 Plant cell wall (not in syllabus directly)

 Main component= cellulose

 gives the cell wall great tensile strength and
allows high pressures to develop inside the cell.
 Functions= structure, support, protection.
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
*Contain naked DNA *DNA associated with
*DNA in cytoplasm (NO protein
Nucleus) *DNA enclosed in a nuclear
*No membrane-enclosed envelope (Nucleus)
organelles *membrane-enclosed
*70S ribosomes organelles
*80S ribosomes
 Function of Plasma Membrane
*It controls what enters and leaves the cell.
*It is semi-permeable (selectively permeable)–
allowing passage of some materials but not
others.
 Draw a diagram
of the fluid Membranes
mosaic model.
 http://www.youtu
be.com/watch?v=
Qqsf_UJcfBc
 Diagram should
show
– the
phospholipid
bilayer,
– cholesterol,
– glycoproteins,
– Integral proteins
– peripheral
proteins.
 Explain how the hydrophobic and
hydrophilic properties of phospholipids
help to maintain the structure of cell
membranes.
Phospholipids are
amphipathic (has
hydrophilic and hydrophobic
parts)

Hydrophilic
-”water loving”
-phosphate heads

Hydrophobic
-”water-fearing”
-fatty acid tails
Causes formation of bilayer
 Cholesterol
• helps stabilize the phospholipids
• Reduces fluidity of membrane
• Reduces permeability to some solutes
•
Carbohydrates and glycoproteins
help with cell communication and
recognition
 Ex. Blood types
 ABO blood groups due to surface
glycoproteins.
 Functions of membrane proteins

 Hormone binding sites.

 Enzymes
 Cell adhesion
– Attachment to the
cytoskeleton and
extracellular matrix
 Cell communication
– Signal transduction
– Cell-cell recognition
 Channels for passive
transport
 Pumps for active
transport.
 Electron carriers
 Nature of Science
 The current model of membrane structure just
discussed is the “fluid mosaic model” or “Singer-
Nicholson model.”
 Models are representations of the real world and
can be replaced or modified as new evidence is
found.
 Nature of Science
 Before the Singer-Nicholson model (1966),
there was the Davson-Danielli (1930s) model.
 Use the diagram below to describe this model
in your notes…
 Nature of Science
 Rationale for Davson-Danielli
Model
– Proteins look dark in electron
micrographs
– Two dark lines in membrane
thought to be protein layers
– Seemed to explain how
membranes could be effective
barriers, despite being thin

A micrograph from a Transmission Electron Micrograph showing a

lipid vesicle. The two dark bands are the two leaflets comprising the
bilayer.
Nature of Science
 Falsification of Davson-Danielli
Model
– Freeze-etched electron micrographs
 Showed proteins embedded in membrane
– Structure of membrane proteins =
 globular and varied in size (not
likely to form layers)
 Have hydrophobic regions…

– Fluorescent antibody tagging of

proteins = showed that proteins
moved in membrane (not in static
layers)
Membrane Transport
 Define diffusion
 Diffusion: the
passive
movement of
particles from a
region of higher
concentration to
a region of lower
concentration,
as a result of the
random motion
of particles. Animation https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=cs8ud7Eh7ko
 Define Osmosis
Osmosis: the passive movement of
water molecules, across a
selectively permeable membrane,
from a region of lower solute
concentration to a region of higher
solute concentration. (i.e. the
diffusion of water)

Remember: Lower solute

concentration = higher water
concentration!!!

http://highered.mheducation.com/sit
es/9834092339/student_view0/chap
ter38/animation_-_osmosis.html
 Osmolarity
 …the concentration of a solution expressed as the total
number of solute particles per liter (units = Osmol/Liter)
Note: usually the same as Molarity unless the solute dissociates (see next slide)

 Terms to describe relative osmolarity:

– Hypertonic (hyperosmotic)= higher solute concentration
– Hypotonic (hypoosmotic) = lower solute concentration
– Isotonic (isoosmotic) = equal solute concentration

http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/site
s/0072495855/student_view0/chapte
r2/animation__how_osmosis_works.h
tml
 Skip for students: How to
calculate osmolarity
 An osmole (Osmol) is 1 mol of particles that
contribute to the osmotic pressure of a solution.
 If your substance does not dissociate into ions, 1
osmole = 1 mole
 If your substance does dissociate into ions, the
number of osmoles is different.
– Example: NaCl dissociates completely in water to
form Na+ ions and Cl− ions.
– Thus, each mole of NaCl becomes two osmoles in
solution: one mole of Na+ and one mole of Cl−.
– A solution of 1 mol/L NaCl has an osmolarity of 2
Osmol/L.
 http://socratic.org/questions/how-do
-you-calculate-osmolarity-of-a-soluti
 Osmosis is important!
A report in the 23 April 1998 issue of The New England
Journal of Medicine tells of the life-threatening
complications that can be caused by an ignorance of
osmosis.
 Large volumes of a solution of 5% human albumin are
injected into people undergoing a procedure called
plasmapheresis.
 The albumin is dissolved in physiological saline (0.9% NaCl)
and is therefore isotonic to human plasma (the large protein
molecules of albumin have only a small osmotic effect).
 If 5% solutions are unavailable, pharmacists may substitute
a proper dilution of a 25% albumin solution. Mixing 1 part of
the 25% solution with 4 parts of diluent results in the correct
5% solution of albumin.
 BUT, in several cases, the diluent used was sterile water,
not physiological saline.
 SO, the resulting solution was strongly hypotonic to human
plasma.
 The Result: massive, life-threatening hemolysis in the
patients.
Retrieved from: http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/D/Diffusion.html
Osmotic Burst of Red Blood Cells… near end of the following
clip

https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYoaLzo
bQmk
 Application: Tissue and Organ Transplants
 Organs and tissues must be bathed
in a solution with same osmolarity as
the cytoplasm (to prevent osmosis).
 Skill: Estimate Osmolarity
 Note:usually you’ll use a best-fit line
or curve…
 Explain passive transport across membranes in terms
of diffusion.
 Simple diffusion
 facilitated diffusion.
– No ATP used
– Channel proteins
(integral membrane
proteins)
– Down concentration/
electrochemical gradient
– Specific
 ex. Ion Channels in

neurons https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=IX-kLh3
4KcQ
Application: Facilitated Diffusion in Neurons
Focus: Potassium Channels
– Specificity due to size of channel and chemical
properties of amino acids in the pore (that potassium
binds to)
– Voltage-gated: Only open when cell is positively
charged
– Close rapidly using ball and chain mechanism (shown
below)
– Overall shape of protein also shuts channel but takes
longer
Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in
active transport across membranes.
 Active transport is the
movement of substances
across membranes using
energy from ATP.
– moves substances against a
concentration gradient.

 Carrier proteins– protein

pumps
Application: Active Transport in Neurons
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
– Uses 1 ATP to pump 3 sodium ions out of cell
and 2 potassium ions into cell.
– Using the diagram below, describe structure
and function of the Sodium-potassium pump.
Animation

https://
www.youtub
e.com/watch
?v=xweYA-IJ
Tqs
 Endocytosis
 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane
allows it to change shape, break and reform
during endocytosis
 In endocytosis part of
the plasma
membrane is pulled
inwards.
 The particle is taken
in and becomes
enclosed when a
vesicle is pinched off.
 Vesicle can then
move through the
cytoplasm carrying its
 Exocytosis
Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to
change shape, break and reform during exocytosis.

http://highered.mhe
ducation.com/olcwe
b/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?i
t=swf::535::535::/s
ites/dl/free/0072437
316/120068/bio02.s
wf::Endocytosis+an
d+Exocytosis

 In exocytosis vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane.

The contents of the vesicles are then expelled. The
membrane flattens out again.
Utilization: Kidney dialysis mimics kidney function by using
appropriate membranes and diffusion gradients

https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=IQKQ4eoKfTg
4.5 min video

http://www.muschealth.
com/video/Default.aspx
?videoId=10098&cId=2
4&type=rel
shorter video (1:45
min)

http://www.howstuffworks.com/question17.htm
 1.5 The Origin of Cells
 Understanding 1:
– Cells can only be formed by
division of pre-existing cells
(Cell Theory)
 Review Pasteur’s experimental
evidence (discuss).
 Spontaneous generation does
not now occur on earth.
 1.5 The Origin of Cells
 Understanding 2:
– The first cells must have
arisen from non-living
material.
– Hypothesized to have
occurred over hundreds
of millions of years (in
stages)
– One key line of
evidence= universal
genetic code (with some
minor variations)
In the news: “Artificial Life”
(Evaluate)
 Necessary Events for Origin of Cells
(Hypothetical)
 Production of
simple organic
molecules
(amino acids,
sugars, etc.)
– Miller-Urey
Experiment
– Produced
some organic
molecules
(including
some amino
acids).
 Necessary Events for Origin of Cells
(Hypothetical)
 Polymer assembly
(DNA, proteins etc.)
 Hypothesis:
– Deep sea vents may
have provided
energy for
polymerization
 Necessary Events for Origin of Cells
(Hypothetical)
 Membrane formation
 Hypothesis:
– Phospholipids
formed bilayers to
make small
membrane-enclosed
areas with different
internal chemistry
compared to
environment.
 Necessary Events for Origin of Cells
(Hypothetical)
 Development of hereditary molecules
 Problem: DNA requires protein enzymes to replicate,
but instructions for proteins are encoded by DNA
 Hypothesis:
– RNA may have been first genetic material since it
can act as a catalyst as well as confer genetic info.
 1.5 The Origin of Cells
 Understanding 3:
– The origin of eukaryotic cells can be
explained by endosymbiotic theory.
 Endosymbiotic Theory
 The idea: Larger prokaryotes ingested smaller
prokaryotes that have evolved into mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
 Endosymbiotic Theory Evidence
Both mitochondria and chloroplasts:
 Have their own circular naked DNA (like bacteria)

 Have their own 70S ribosomes

 Use their DNA and RNA to synthesize some of their own proteins
 Can only reproduce by division (binary fission)

But… not capable of living on their own

 TOK Connection
 Biology is the study of life, yet life is
an emergent property. Under what
circumstances is a systems approach
productive in biology and under what
circumstances is a reductionist
approach more appropriate? How do
scientists decide between competing
approaches?
1.6 Cell Division
 Interesting Video on Molecular machines of Cell
division (Veritasium)

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
X_tYrnv_o6A
 Essential idea
Cell Division is
essential but
must be
controlled.

Discuss: Why is
it essential?
Why must it
be controlled?
 Growth, tissue repair, and asexual
reproduction involve cell
division/mitosis.
 Cell Division
The cell-division cycle
(cell cycle) involves
interphase, mitosis, and
cytokinesis.
 Cell Cycle:
– Interphase: normal cell life
and metabolism.
– Mitosis: Division of the
nucleus into two genetically
identical daughter nuclei.
– Cytokinesis: The cell finishes
dividing and the cytoplasm
splits between the two
daughter cells. Usually
happens after mitosis
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcon
tent/animations/content/mitosis.html
 Interphase is an active period in the
life of a cell when many processes
occur:
– Examples:
 DNA Replication
 protein synthesis (transcription and
translation)
 Increase in number of mitochondria and/or
chloroplasts etc.
 Interphase continued…
 Stages of Interphase
– G1 = growth of cell, protein synthesis
– S = replication of DNA
– G2 = growth of cell, increase in organelles,
preparation for cell division.
 Describe the events that occur in the four
phases of mitosis…

Prophase
 Chromatin supercoils
to form distinct
chromosomes.
– (Each chromosome
contains two identical
sister chromatids,
attached to each
other at the
centromere region.)
 the mitotic spindle
(made from
microtubules) starts
growing (going from
pole to pole).
 The nuclear envelope
breaks down.
 …Describe the events that occur in the
four phases of mitosis…

 each chromosome
attaches to two
spindle microtubules
(one going to each
pole) at the
centromere.
 Individual
chromosomes line up
at the equator
 some microtubules are attached to
chromosomes and reach to the
equator; others go from pole to pole.
 …Describe the events that occur in the
four phases of mitosis…
 Anaphase
– the spindle
microtubules
pull the sister
chromatids to
opposite poles
– each sister
chromatid
becomes one
new
chromosome
of the daughter
cell.
 Telophase
– each sister chromatid (now called a chromosome), reaches its
pole
– nuclear envelope re-forms.
– Spindle microtubles deteriorate.
– Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
 Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) takes place.
Summary of
Mitosis
Summary of mitosis continued
The Cell Cycle (Interphase, Mitosis,
Cytokinesis) 3-D Animation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
xsrH050wnIA
 Explain to your partner– be
prepared to share
 Explainhow mitosis produces
two genetically identical nuclei.
(an IB standard)
 Skill: ID
phases of
mitosis in
electron
micrographs/
microscope
images
 Outline the differences in
mitosis and cytokinesis
between animal and plant
cells. (limit this to the lack
of the centrioles in plant cells
and the formation of the cell
wall.)
 Animals:
– Centrioles
– No cell wall
 Plants:
– No centrioles
– Cell wall (cell plate) is
formed between cells as
vesicles transport cell wall
materials to middle.
 Cell Cycle Control
Discuss: Why is this important?
 Cyclins= Proteins that control the cell cycle.
 Cyclins must reach a threshold concentration in
order for the cell to progress to the next stage of
the cell cycle.
 Animation:
 http://highered.mheducation.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=swf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/00724
37316/120082/bio34a.swf::Control%20of%20the%20Cell%20Cycle
 Nature of Science: Serendipity
 The discovery of cyclins was accidental.
 While researching sea urchin egg protein
synthesis, Tim Hunt noticed an protein being
made and broken down at times correlated
with cell cycle events. • TOK Discuss: Is it just luck?
 Tumors are the result of
uncontrolled cell division
and can occur in any
organ.

 Tumor: a mass of tissue

caused by abnormal cell
growth and division
– benign (don’t spread)
– malignant (do
spread). Malignant
tumors are called
cancers.
 Cancer cells do not
respond to cell cycle
regulation.
 How do Cancers form?
 Transformation– results from successive mutations
– Mutagens– agents that cause mutations (ex. high-energy
radiation or certain chemicals)
 Oncogenes: Genes that can cause cancer if mutated (b/c they
normally help control the cell cycle.)
 Metastasis – spreading of cancer cells to other areas
– The primary tumor is the original tumor. As a result of
metastasis, secondary tumors will form in other areas of
the body.
– Good animation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LEpTTolebqo
 Skill: Determine Mitotic Index
 Mitotic index =
 Utilization: Mitotic Index
 Themitotic index is an important
prognostic tool for predicting the
response of cancer cells to chemo.
 Cancer Warrior Video
 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/canc
er/
(Cancer Warrior– angiogenesis
resources)
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/
nova/cancer/program.html
(Video: Cancer Warrior--
angiogenesis)
 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/canc
er/grows.html
 Application:
Smoking and
Cancer
Correlations
https://common
s.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Cancer
_smoking_lung_
cancer_correlati
on_from_NIH.sv
g
Correlation vs. causation
• Correlation= an apparent relationship between
variables.
• Causation = a relationship between variables in
which changes in one variable cause changes in the
other variable.
• Is there a causal relationship between smoking and
lung cancer? What about smoking and other
cancers?
End of IB stuff
 State that a virus is
a non-cellular
structure consisting
of DNA or RNA
surrounded by a
protein coat.
 Characteristics of V
iruses

– not considered living

– no metabolism.
– Unable to reproduce
without a host
– Others?
 International-mindedness
 Biologists around
the world are
researching causes
and treatments of
cancer.
 EUKARYOTE CELL ULTRASTRUCTURE
Summary of the major cell organelles:
Practice: What are
the respective ORGANELLE MAIN
FUNCTIONS DIMENSIONS
magnifications of the Nucleus Cell division, 10 µm diameter
cell as a whole and of protein
synthesis
each of its organelles
in the following cell Mitochondrion Respiration
pathways
1.0 to 12.5 µm

picture? Chloroplast Photosynthetic 5 to 10 µm

pathways diameter

Lysosome Digestion, 0.5 to 3.0 µm

recycling & diameter
isolation

Golgi apparatus Secretion, Cisternae:

reprocessing, 0.5µm thick, l-
lysosome 3µm diameter
synthesis

Endoplasmic Support, Golgi 26 to 56 nm

Reticulum (ER) apparatus thick
synthesis.

Ribosome Protein 20 nm diameter

synthesis
 …State the composition and function of the plant cell wall. (SKIP
THIS SLIDE)
 Three layers:
– middle lamella (between adjacent cells– attachment)
– primary cell wall
– secondary cell wall (stronger– has lignin for strength)
 Functions= structure, support, protection.