Unit 1: Cells

2IB Biology
Fall 2023
Biology: the science of life

With your partner, think of a way to appropriately finish

this sentence:
“In IB Biology, we will learn about life. Life is …”
If you opened the dictionary to the word life, what
would the definition say? Two minutes to discuss with
your partner before sharing out with the class.
There is a difference between living and
the non-living. How are we able to
know the difference?
● Individually read through the 14 definitions
of life in Table 1 (document on OneNote).

● Select the definition that you personally

find most appealing.

● Be prepared to discuss your selection.

What do all forms of life have in common?
All living organisms, from the smallest
bacterium to the largest whale, share certain
characteristics of life.
What are some functional
characteristics that you think all living
things have in common?

Spend two minutes independently

listing ideas before sharing with the
group.
 Functions of all living organisms

• Metabolism
• Response to stimuli
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Nutrition
• Excretion
• Homeostasis
• Movement Paramecium (40x magnification), a freshwater
cilliate

Example: Paramecium caudatum, a unicellular, eukaryotic heterotroph

How a Paramecium Eats! Video:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sn3MTYNe8mM
 Identifying the functions of life

◎ With your partner, examine the collection of images on

OneNote representing the functional characteristics of
life.
◎ Try to identify which of the eight functional
characteristics are shown in some of the images.

◎ Be prepared to discuss your choices with the rest of the

class!
A2.2.1 Cells as the basic structural unit of all living organisms

Robert Hooke (1662)

• Observed honeycomb of empty compartments in cork he called
“cellulae” with a microscope he had built

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1660s)

• Developed a working microscope to observe living cells he called
“animalcules”

• Improvements in microscopy later led to the branch of biology which

deals with the study of cells called cytology, and the cell theory which
has three principles:

1) All organisms composed of one or more cells.

2) Cells are the smallest unit of life.
3) All cells come from pre-existing cells.

• Video: Wacky history of cell theory:

https://youtu.be/4OpBylwH9DU
 A2.2.4 Structures common to cells in all living organisms

• All cells include the following components:

- DNA as their genetic material, a large molecule made

of smaller building blocks called nucleotides
- cytoplasm, composed mainly of water (cytosol) where
most chemical reactions take place
- a plasma membrane, composed mainly of lipids that
surround the cytoplasm
 A2.2.5 The prokaryote cell and A2.2.6 The
eukaryote cell

• Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

(i.e., compartmentalization), and are between 10-100 micrometers
in size.
– Examples of eukaryotic cells: plant and animal cells

• Prokaryotic cells do not contain nuclei or membrane-bound

organelles (i.e, no compartmentalization), are much smaller than
eukaryotic cells, ranging from 1-10 micrometers in size.
- Examples of prokaryotic cells: bacteria and blue-green algae

• Cell structure and function video:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8&feature=youtu.
be
The Plant Cell
The Animal Cell
 A2.2.2 Cells and the microscope

Microscopes increase:

1) magnification is the number of times larger an image appears.

2) resolution is resolving power, or the mininum distance two points can be
apart and still be distinguished as two separate points.

Compound or light microscopes can resolve structures that are separated by

more than 1 micrometer (NB: 1 mm = 1000 micrometers = 10-3 m: ) up to
2000x actual size of specimen.

Electron microscopes such as transmission electron microscopes (TEM) and

scanning electron microscopes (SEM) use beams of electrons that have a
shorter wavelength than light, so can resolve structures at 1 nm (10 -9 m) up
to 500,000x actual size of specimen.
Bacterium, with labelled features
(Image provided by: ceiba.cc.ntu.edu.tw)
The head and the right eye of a fly (Image provided
by: Goran Drazic)
 Calculation of size and/or magnification
General formula to calculate actual size of a specimen:

size of image or drawing

Power of magnification = actual size of specimen

Example #1: The length of an image is 30 mm. It represents a structure that

has an actual size of 3 μm. Determine the magnification of the image.

Step 1: Convert to all units to meters (m) using scientific notation:

Size of image 30 mm = 30 x 10 -3 m
Actual size of specimen 3 μm = 3 x 10 -6 m

Step 2: Use the formula above to calculate magnification:

Magnification = (30 x 10 -3 m )/(3 x 10 -6 m) = 10,000 x
Example #2

The diameter of an
image of a frog blood
cell is measured to
be 47.5 mm.

The power of
magnification used
was 1000x.

What is the actual

size of the blood
cells in μm?
Viewing objects with a microscope
Viewing Objects with a Microscope

1. Bring the object into focus. Begin on the lowest power

objective lens, use the course focus knob to bring the
object into focus.. Center the object in the field of view
(diameter of the circle of light). Perfect the view by using the
fine focus knob.

2. If you need to view at a higher magnification, rotate the

higher power objective lens into place. You should only
need to use the fine focus knob from this time on. If further
magnification is needed, rotate the highest power objective
into place and again use the fine focus knob.
Procedure for making and viewing fresh specimens

1.Obtain a clean slide and cover slip.

2. Place the object that you wish to view onto the center of your slide.
Carefully lower your cover slip over the object.

3. Focus the slide on low power. Center the specimen being viewed in
the middle of your field of view.
4. Switch to medium and/or high power. Remember use only the fine
focus knob with both the medium and high power lenses.
5. Identify and draw the specimen.
6. Estimate the actual size of the specimen (see lab handout)
Quiz questions based on electron micrographs
Activity: Identifying and drawing eukaryotic cell organelles in electron
micrographs using the Cell Image Library (
Cell Component (cellimagelibrary.org))
Learning aims:
• Recognize features and identify these organelles in micrographs of eukaryotic
cells:
-plasma membrane and cell wall
-cytoplasm
-free 80s ribosomes
-nucleus, nuclear envelope and nucleolus
-rough endoplasmic reticulum
-Golgi apparatus
-lysosome
-mitochondria
-chloroplast
-vacuoles
-vesicles,
-centrosome (pair of centrioles)
-microtubules
-flagella

• Instructions: Select three micrographs of a eukaryotic cell from the website,

then draw and annotate some of the organelles shown above .
 A2.2.3 Advanced microscopy
• Freeze fracture and cryogenic electron microscopy have furthered
the study of cells.
• These techniques were used to falsify earlier theories about the
structure of the plasma membrane
• The use of specialized fluorescent stains in light microscopy has
allowed improved visualization the organelles of living cell.
• Video explaining fluorescence microscopy is here
• In the method called immunofluorescence, specific antibodies can
be imaged inside the tissues where viruses are attacking.
• Immunofluorescence was used to study the effect of antibodies on
the spiked proteins of the SARS-CoV-2 virus:

The Cellular Characterization of SAR

S-CoV-2 Spike Protein in Virus-Infect
ed Cells Using the Receptor Binding
Domain Binding Specific Human Mon
oclonal Antibodies | Journal of Virolog
y (asm.org)
Electron Micr
oscopy | Cry
o SEM - life s
cience | Che
mical Resear
ch Support (
weizmann.ac
.il)
Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane
(Singer-Nicholson, proposed in 1972)
A2.2.8 Comparison of three types of eukaryotic cells
 A2.2.9 Atypical eukaryotes
Examples of multinucleate cells in fungal
hyphae,
human red blood cells and skeletal muscle
cells
and slime molds

Brainless Slime Molds Navigate Mazes and

Make Decisions | NOVA | PBS
Micrograph of human blood smear
Electron micrograph of human
skeletal muscle
 A2.2.7 Unicellular organisms

• Unicellular organisms are

made up of only one cell that
carries out all of the
functions needed by the
organism,while multicellular
organisms use many
different cells to function.
• Unicellular organisms
include bacteria, protists,
and yeast.
A2.2.5 Features of the prokaryotic cell

Examples of prokaryotes: Bacteria like Escherichia coli

and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
 B2.1.1 & 2 Cell membrane structure
•The plasma or cell membrane surrounds the cell cytoplasm and functions as
an interface between the living interior of the cell and the non-living exterior.

•The plasma membrane is partially permeable (selectively permeable), this

means that some particles can pass into and out of the cell, while others
cannot.
• The fluid-mosaic model proposed by Seymour Singer and Garth Nicholson in
1972 states that membranes are made up of phospholipid bilayers with
proteins embedded in the bilayer.
• They used the electron microscope to find evidence for their model, and thus
to falsify the earlier Davson-Danielli model, which stated that cell membranes
were completely covered by a layer of globular proteins.

• Each phospholipid contains one glycerol

molecule, two fatty acids, and a phosphate
group.

• Phospholipids are amphipathic, which

means they have both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic properties.

•The polar phosphate group is hydrophilic,

enabling it to interact with water, while the
non-polar fatty acid tails are hydrophobic,
and so do not interact with water.

Video about cell membrane stucture is here

 B2.1.4 Integral and peripheral proteins

• Proteins are scattered throughout the membrane.

• Peripheral proteins are attached to the surface.
• Integral proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer
Types of protein usually present in a cell membrane
B2.1.10 The fluid mosaic model of a cell membrane
Example of a labelled drawing of the fluid mosaic model of
cell membrane structure

Activity: Use the information in the Khan academy video (

https://youtu.be/LXaPt9i9hqk) to make your own drawing
 B2.1.3 Simple diffusion across cellular membranes

The dots on the diagram below

Diffusion is the passive transport
of particles from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration. The movement is
due to collisions, which occur
more frequently in areas of higher
concentration.
represent molecules or ions.
After a period of time, the
particles becoming dispersed
(below). Overall, the movement
is from the area of initial high
concentration to areas that have
a lower concentration.
 B2.1.5 & 6 Membrane transport

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a partially permeable membrane

through protein channels called aquaporins.

Osmosis occurs when a solute (examples: salt, sugar, protein, etc.) cannot
pass through a membrane but the solvent (water) can pass through.

In areas where the solute concentration is high, the concentration of water

molecules is low.

In areas where the solute concentration is low, the concentration of water

molecules is high.

In general, water moves toward the area with a higher solute concentration
because it has a lower water concentration.
 Hypotonic solution
• A hypotonic solution is one that has a lower concentration of solute than the cell
solution. Cells in hypotonic solution tend to gain water.

• Animal cells can lyse (rupture) in a hypotonic solution due to the increased
osmotic pressure.

Hypertonic solution
A hypertonic solution is one that has a higher concentration of solute than the
cell solution. Cells in a hypertonic solution will lose water.

The marine environment is a hypertonic solution for many organisms. They often
have mechanisms to prevent dehydration or to replace lost water.

Elodea cells placed in

a 10% NaCl solution
lose water and shrink
(photo at right ).
•In the container on the left side of the diagram, the concentration of
water in solution is higher than the concentration inside the cell, so water
enters the cell.

•In the center drawing, water is more concentrated inside the cell than in
the solution, so water will leave the cell.

•If the solute concentration is the same inside the cell as it is outside in
solution, the amount of water that moves out will be approximately to the
amount that moves in.
 Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion involves the use of specific carrier proteins and
channel proteins to passively move particular molecules across the cell
membrane.

Substances that would not otherwise diffuse through the membrane trigger
protein channels to open momentarily. Examples: Entry of ADP molecules
into mitochondria and exit of ATP molecules from mitochondria

Video about
passive and
active transport
is here

NB: Energy is not required by the cell, because the molecule is traveling
down a concentration gradient (high concentration to low concentration).
The source of energy for the movement thus comes from kinetic energy of
the particles.
B2.1.7 Active Transport
• Active transport is used to move ions or molecules against a
concentration gradient (low concentration to high concentration).

• Active transport involves protein pumps which are embedded in

the plasma membrane, such as the sodium-potassium pump.

• Movement against a concentration gradient requires energy.

This energy comes from the metabolism of the cell as it produces
its own supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.

Examples: Transport of sodium (Na+) ions and potassium (K+)

ions in nerve cells or the kidney, absorption of glucose, amino
acids and fatty acids in the small intestine, or uptake of nutrients
by plant roots.

Animation of the sodium-potassium pump is here

 Example of active transport: the sodium-potassium pump
1. Three sodium ions inside the cell bind to a 2. An ATP molecule
protein pump embedded in the membrane bonds to the pump.

3. The ATP molecule

has three phosphates.
When phosphorylation
occurs, one phosphate
is removed forming
ADP, and energy is
released, causing the
pump to change its
shape and release the 4. Two potassium ions to enter the pump and are
three sodium ions to transported into the cell, causing the ADP to detach from the
the outside of the cell pump, and the protein pump returns to its original shape.
Examples of active transport: endocytosis and exocytosis
• Other active transport mechanisms (i.e., use energy in the
form of ATP) for getting materials across the plasma
membrane are:

• 1) Endocytosis: uptake of materials into cells by enclosing the

materials in vesicles (membrane-bound sacs).

- called phagocytosis if material taken in is a solid

- called pinocytosis if material taken in is a liquid

2) Exocytosis: export of materials out of cells via the Golgi

apparatus, e.g., proteins like insulin

The fluidity of the plasma membrane makes both of these

processes possible

- Animations of exocytosis and endocytosis here

 B2.3.6 Constraints on cell size

• Substances used in metabolism must be absorbed through the cell

membrane, and wastes and heat removed via the same.
• For these chemical reactions to occur, a large surface area-to-volume ratio
for the cell is needed.
 D2.1.1 Generating new cells

• In order to maintain the population of

single-celled organisms, and to maintain
growth and repair in multicellular
organisms, cells need to make copies of
themselves.

• The process of producing two cells from

one cell is called cell division.

• The role of cell division is to ensure that

genetic information is passed on to the
next generation of cells, along with
copies of all the organelles needed to
make the cell function.
Go to
Section:
 D2.1.2 Cytokinesis and D2.1.3 Cytoplasm division
• Cytokinesis is the splitting of cytoplasm in a parent cell between
two daughter cells.

• Cytokinesis occurs at the end of cell division, and results in two

daughter cells that have genetically identical nuclei.

• Cytokinesis occurs differently in plant cells and animal cells:

 D2.1.5 DNA replication and the cell cycle

G1 phase

M phase

S phase

G2 phase

• Overview of the cell cycle, which is a series of events that takes place in
Go to a cell as it grows and divides.
Section:
• DNA replication takes place during the S phase of the cell cycle
Description of phases
of the cell cycle:

G1 phase: Cell growth

(volume) and increase in
number of cell organelles

S phase: Replication
(synthesis) of DNA

G2 phase: Continued cell

growth, increase in
number of cell organelles,
and DNA condenses to
form chromosomes by
supercoiling

M phase and cytokinesis:

Cell division and the
formation of two identical
daughter nuclei
• The condensation of chromatin into chromosomes by around
proteins called histones is called supercoiling
D2.1.7 Mitosis and D2.1.8 Identifying the stages of mitosis

• Mitosis is the division of the nuclei into two genetically identical daughter
nuclei.
• Mitosis (roughly) occurs in four separate stages, or phases:

Video
explaining
the stages
of mitosis
is here
Did I get this? Answer questions #1 and #2 below
with your partner

Reference: p. 432 in the textbook

 B2.2 & B2.2.1 Organelles and compartmentalization

• Cell compartmentalization
increases the efficiency of many
subcellular processes by
concentrating the required
components to a confined space
within the cell.
• Membrane bound organelles such
as the nucleus, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, and lysosomes all
benefit from being isolated from
the cytoplasm of the cell.
• Techniques such as cell
fractionation or centrifugation
(shown at right) allows for the
extraction and study of individual
organelles.
Video explaining cell
compartmentalization is here
 B2.3 & B2.3.1 Cell specialization, reproduction and
organism development

• Multicellular organisms begin as

a single cell—a fertilized egg.
• Growing from one single cell to
trillions of specialized cells that
perform different functions is a
process that happens with the
regulation of DNA and RNA.
• Cellular differentiation is the
process by which cells become
specialized in order to perform
different functions.
• Video about cell differentiation:
(2) Cell Differentiation |
Genetics | Biology | FuseSchool
- YouTube
 B2.3.2 Stem cells

• In multicellular organisms, there are certain cells that have the ability to divide and
differentiate indefinitely called stem cells. Two types of stem cell are:

1) Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) from a fertilized egg (called a zygote, shown
at left below) or from adeveloping fetus (called a blastocyst, shown at right
below). ESCs are pluripotent, which means that they can divide an unlimited
number of times and become any tissue in the body. A fewer number of ESCs are
totipotent, and can form a complete organism.

2) Adult stem cells exist in many tissue types (for examples, in bone marrow,
skin, and navel cord blood), and are multipotent, meaning that they can
only form a limited number of cell types.

• In plants, stem cells occur in regions of cells called meristematic tissue, located near
root and stem tips.
B2.3.3 Stem cell niches

Stem cell
niches are
locations in the
human body
where stem
cell numbers,
and rates of
stem cell
differentiation,
are high.

Source: ADULT
STEM CELLS
AND THEIR
NICHES - PMC
(nih.gov)
 B2.3.5 Cell size and specialization
• Cell size is constrained by two main factors:
1) Basic processes of physiology, such as the need for materials to
move into and out of the cell (relates to SA-volume ratio)
2) Cell division apparatus, i.e., mitotic spindle will not function properly
if too large.

1) Sizes of various human cell types are shown in the table below:
• In addition to cell size, cells are specialized for their
functions.
Example: Red blood cells
• Example: Motor neurons
Example: Striated muscle fibers found in skeletal muscle