Chapter 0

Cell Structure an
d Function
 Cell Structure 2
and Function
Outline

Cell Theory
Cell Size
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Organelles
­ Nucleus
­ Endomembrane System
­ Cytoskeleton
­ Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella
 Cell Structure 3
and Function
Cell Theory
A unifying concept in biology
Originated from the work of biologists
Schleiden and Schwann in 1838-9
States that:
All organisms are composed of cells
­ German botanist Matthais Schleiden in 1838
­ German zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839
All cells come only from preexisting cells
­ German physician Rudolph Virchow in 1850’s
Smallest unit of life
Organisms and 4
Cells
Sizes of Living 5
Things
 Cell Structure 6
and Function
Cell Size
Most much smaller than one millimeter (mm)
Some as small as one micrometer (m)
Size restricted by Surface/Volume (S/V) ratio
Surface is membrane, across which cell
acquires nutrients and expels wastes
Volume is living cytoplasm, which demands
nutrients and produces wastes
As cell grows, volume increases faster than
surface
Cells specialized in absorption modified to
greatly increase surface area per unit volume
 Surface to Volume Ratio 7

TotalSurfaceArea
TotalSurfaceArea
(HeightWidthNumberOfSidesNumberOfCubes)
(HeightWidthNumberOfSidesNumberOfCubes)
96 cm
96 cm
2
2 192 cm
192 cm
2
2 384 cm
384 cm2
2

TotalVolume
TotalVolume
(HeightWidthLengthXNumberOfCubes)
(HeightWidthLengthXNumberOfCubes)
64 cm
64 cm
3
3 64 cm
64 cm
3
3 64 cm
64 cm3
3

SurfaceAreaPerCube/VolumePerCube
SurfaceAreaPerCube/VolumePerCube
(SurfaceArea/Volume)
(SurfaceArea/Volume)
1.5/1
1.5/1 3/1
3/1 6/1
6/1
science Microscopy Today: Cell Structure 8
and Function
focus
Compound Light Microscope

Light passed through specimen

Focused by glass lenses

Image formed on human retina

Max magnification about 1000X

Resolves objects separated by 0.2 m, 500X

better than human eye
 Microscopy Today:
science Cell Structure 9
and Function
focus
Transmission Electron Microscope
Abbreviated T.E.M.
Electrons passed through specimen
Focused by magnetic lenses
Image formed on fluorescent screen
Similar to TV screen
Image is then photographed
Max magnification 1000,000s X
Resolves objects separated by 0.00002 m,
100,000X better than human eye
science Microscopy Today: Cell Structure 10
and Function
focus
Scanning Electron Microscope
Abbreviated S.E.M.
Specimen sprayed with thin coat of metal
Electron beam scanned across surface of
specimen
Metal emits secondary electrons
Emitted electrons focused by magnetic lenses
Image formed on fluorescent screen
Similar to TV screen
Image is then photographed
 Microscopy Today:
science Cell Structure 11
and Function
focus
Immunofluorescence Light Microscope
Antibodies developed against a specific
protein
Fluorescent dye molecule attached to
antibody molecules
Specimen exposed to fluorescent antibodies
Ultra-violet light (black ligt) passed through
specimen
Fluorescent dye glows in color where antigen
is located
Emitted light is focused by glass lenses onto
human retina
Allows mapping distribution of a specific
protein in cell
science Microscopy Today: Cell Structure 12
and Function
focus
Confocal Microscopy
Narrow laser beam scanned across
transparent specimen

Beam is focused at a very thin plane

Allows microscopist to optically section a

specimen
Sections made at different levels

Allows assembly of 3d image on computer

screen that can be rotated
science Microscopy Today: Cell Structure 13
and Function
focus
Video-enhanced Contrast Microscopy
Great for specimens with low contrast, like
living cells
Image is captured by TV camera instead of
eye
Image is then “tweaked” by adjusting contrast
Darkest part of image is made black
Lightest part of image is made white
All parts in between made shades of gray
Also allows various shades to be converted to
different colors for more contrast
 Microscopy Today:
science Cell Structure 14
and Function
focus
Phase Contrast Microscopy
Great for transparent specimens with low
contrast, like living cells
Some organelles have higher density than
others
Speed of light is affected by density
Light passes more slowly through high
density than low density
Light waves entering a specimen “in phase”
exit some parts of the specimen out of phase
Microscope shows only light that is slower or
faster
Causes transparent organelles to “glow”
Microscopy and Amoeba proteus 15
Microscopy and Cheek 16
Cells
 Prokaryotic Cells: Cell Structure 17
and Function
Domains
Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
Structurally simple
Two domains:
Bacteria
­ Three Shapes
 Bacillus (rod)
 Coccus (spherical)

 Spirilla (spiral)

 Archaea
­ Live in extreme habitats
Shapes of Bacterial 18
Cells
Prokaryotic Cells: Visual Summary 19
 Prokaryotic Cells: Cell Structure 20
and Function
The Envelope
Cell Envelopes
Glycocalyx
­ Layer of polysaccharides outside cell wall
­ May be slimy and easily removed, or
­ Well organized and resistant to removal
(capsule)
Cell wall
Plasma membrane
­ Like in eukaryotes
­ Form internal pouches (mesosomes)
 Prokaryotic Cells: Cell Structure 21
and Function
Cytoplasm & Appendages
Cytoplasm
Semifluid solution
­ Bounded by plasma membrane
­ Contains inclusion bodies – Stored granules of
various substances
Appendages
Flagella – Provide motility
Fimbriae – small, bristle-like fibers that sprout
from the cell surface
Sex pili – rigid tubular structures used to pass
DNA from cell to cell
 Cell Structure 22
and Function
Eukaryotic Cells
Domain Eukarya
Protists
Fungi
Plants
Animals
Cells contain:
Membrane-bound nucleus
Specialized organelles
Plasma membrane
 Eukaryotic Cells : Cell Structure 23
and Function
Organelles
Compartmentalization:
Allows eukaryotic cells to be larger than
prokaryotic cells
Isolates reactions from others
Two classes:
Endomembrane system:
­ Organelles that communicate with one another
 via membrane channels
 Via small vesicles

Energy related organelles

­ Mitochondria & chloroplasts
­ Basically independent & self-sufficient
Plasma Membrane 24
Hypothesized Origin of Eukaryotic 25
Cells
science Cell Fractionation, and Cell Structure 26
and Function
focus
Differential Centrifugation
Cell fractionation is the breaking apart of
cellular components
Differential centrifugation:
Allows separation of cell parts
Separated out by size & density
Works like spin cycle of washer
The faster the machine spins, the
smaller the parts that settled out
Science
Cell Fractionation, and 27
Focus Differential
Grind Centrifugation
cells
Figure 4C

Then Then
centrifuge centrifuge
Centrifuge longer even longer
@ 600 g @ 15,000 g @ 100,000 g

Sediment
Sediment Sediment
Sediment Sediment Soluble
contains contains Sediment Soluble
contains contains contains
contains portion
portionof
of
nuclei
nuclei mitochondria,
mitochondria, ribosomes, cytoplasm.
lysosomes ribosomes, cytoplasm.
lysosomes ER
ER NoNo
sediment
sediment
Animal Cell Anatomy 28
Plant Cell Anatomy 29
 Cell Structure 30
and Function
Nucleus
Command center of cell, usually near center
Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear
envelope
Consists of double layer of membrane
Nuclear pores permit exchange between
nucleoplasm & cytoplasm
Contains chromatin in semifluid nucleoplasm
Chromatin contains DNA of genes
Condenses to form chromosomes
Dark nucleolus composed of rRNA
Produces subunits of ribosomes
Anatomy of the 31
Nucleus
 Cell Structure 32
and Function
Ribosomes
Serve in protein synthesis
Composed of rRNA
Consists of a large subunit and a small
subunit
Subunits made in nucleolus
May be located:
On the endoplasmic reticulum (thereby
making it “rough”), or
Free in the cytoplasm, either singly or in
groups called polyribosomes
Nucleus, Ribosomes, & 33
ER

Figure 4.9
 Cell Structure 34
and Function
Endomembrane System
Restrict enzymatic reactions to specific
compartments within cell
Consists of:
Nuclear envelope
Membranes of endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Vesicles
­ Several types
­ Transport materials between organelles of
system
 Endomembrane System: Cell Structure 35
and Function
The Endoplasmic Reticulum
Rough ER
Studded with ribosomes on cytoplasmic side
Protein anabolism
­ Synthesizes proteins
­ Modifies proteins
 Adds sugar to protein
 Results in glycoproteins

Smooth ER
No ribosomes
Synthesis of lipids
Endoplasmic 36
Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus 37
Lysosomes 38
 Endomembrane System: Cell Structure 39
and Function
The Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus
Consists of 3-20 flattened, curved saccules
Resembles stack of hollow pancakes
Modifies proteins and lipids
­ Packages them in vesicles
­ Receives vesicles from ER on cis face
­ Prepares for “shipment” in vesicles from trans
face
 Within cell
 Export from cell (secretion, exocytosis)
 Endomembrane System: Cell Structure 40
and Function
Lysosomes
Membrane-bound vesicles (not in plants)
Produced by the Golgi apparatus
Low pH
Contain lytic enzymes
­ Digestion of large molecules
­ Recycling of cellular resources
­ Apoptosis (programmed cell death, like tadpole
losing tail)
Some genetic diseases
Caused by defect in lysosomal enzyme
Lysosomal storage diseases (Tay-Sachs)
Endomembrane System: A Visual Summary41
 Cell Structure 42
and Function
Peroxisomes
Similar to lysosomes
Membrane-bounded vesicles
Enclose enzymes
However
Enzymes synthesized by free ribosomes in
cytoplasm (instead of ER)
Active in lipid metabolism
Catalyze reactions that produce hydrogen
peroxide H2O2
­ Toxic
­ Broken down to water & O2 by catalase
Peroxisomes 43
 Cell Structure 44
and Function
Vacuoles
Membranous sacs that are larger than
vesicles
Store materials that occur in excess
Others very specialized (contractile vacuole)
Plants cells typically have a central vacuole
Up to 90% volume of some cells
Functions in:
­ Storage of water, nutrients, pigments, and
waste products
­ Development of turgor pressure
­ Some functions performed by lysosomes in
other eukaryotes
Vacuoles 45
 Energy-Related Organelles: Cell Structure 46
and Function
Chloroplast Structure
Bounded by double membrane
Inner membrane infolded
Forms disc-like thylakoids, which are stacked
to form grana
Suspended in semi-fluid stroma
Green due to chlorophyll
Green photosynthetic pigment
Found ONLY in inner membranes of
chloroplast
 Energy-Related Organelles: Cell Structure 47
and Function
Chloroplasts
Captures light energy to drive cellular
machinery

Photosynthesis

Synthesizes carbohydrates from CO2 & H2O

Makes own food using CO2 as only carbon

source

Energy-poor compounds converted to enery

rich compounds
 Energy-Related 48
Organelles:
Chloroplast Structure
 Energy-Related Organelles: Cell Structure 49
and Function
Mitochondria

Bounded by double membrane

Cristae – Infoldings of inner membrane that

encloses matrix

Matrix – Inner semifluid containing respiratory

enzymes

Involved in cellular respiration

Produce most of ATP utilized by the cell

 Energy-Related 50
Organelles:
Mitochondrial Structure
 Cell Structure 51
and Function
The Cytoskeleton
Maintains cell shape

Assists in movement of cell and organelles

Three types of macromolecular fibers

Actin Filaments

Intermediate Filaments

Microtubules

Assemble and disassemble as needed

 The Cytoskeleton: Cell Structure 52
and Function
Actin Filaments
Extremely thin filaments like twisted pearl
necklace
Dense web just under plasma membrane
maintains cell shape
Support for microvilli in intestinal cells
Intracellular traffic control
For moving stuff around within cell
Cytoplasmic streaming
Function in pseudopods of amoeboid cells
Pinch mother cell in two after animal mitosis
Important component in muscle contraction
(other is myosin)
The Cytoskeleton: 53
Actin Filament
Operation
 The Cytoskeleton: Cell Structure 54
and Function
Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate in size between actin filaments
and microtubules
Rope-like assembly of fibrous polypeptides
Vary in nature
From tissue to tissue
From time to time
Functions:
Support nuclear envelope
Cell-cell junctions, like those holding skin
cells tightly together
 The Cytoskeleton: Cell Structure 55
and Function
Microtubules
Hollow cylinders made of two globular
proteins called  and tubulin
Spontaneous pairing of  and tubulin
molecules form structures called dimers
Dimers then arrange themselves into tubular
spirals of 13 dimers around
Assembly:
Under control of Microtubule Organizing
Center (MTOC)
Most important MTOC is centrosome
Interacts with proteins kinesin and dynein to
cause movement of organelles
The Cytoskeleton: 56
Microtubule
Operation
 Microtubular Arrays: Cell Structure 57
and Function
Centrioles
Short, hollow cylinders
Composed of 27 microtubules
Microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping
triplets
One pair per animal cell
Located in centrosome of animal cells
Oriented at right angles to each other
Separate during mitosis to determine plane of
division
May give rise to basal bodies of cilia and
flagella
Cytoskeleton 58
:
Centrioles
 Microtubular arrays: Cell Structure 59
and Function
Cilia and Flagella
Hair-like projections from cell surface that aid
in cell movement
Very different from prokaryote flagella
Outer covering of plasma membrane
Inside this is a cylinder of 18 microtubules
arranged in 9 pairs
In center are two single microtubules
This 9 + 2 pattern used by all cilia & flagella
In eukaryotes, cilia are much shorter than
flagella
Cilia move in coordinated waves like oars
Flagella move like a propeller or cork screw
Structure of a 60
Flagellum
 Cell Structure 61
and Function
Review
Cell Theory
Cell Size
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Organelles
­ Nucleus
­ Endomembrane System
­ Cytoskeleton
­ Centrioles, Cilia, and Flagella
 Ending Slide Chapter 04

Cell Structure an
d Function