Cells

Overview: The Fundamental Units of Life

• All organisms are made of cells

• The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can live
• Cell structure is correlated to cellular function
• All cells are related by their descent from earlier
cells
To study cells, biologists use microscopes and the
tools of biochemistry
• The discovery and early study of cells progressed with the
invention of microscopes in 1590 and their improvement in
the 17th century.
• Microscopes vary in magnification and resolving power, or
resolution.
– Magnification is the ratio of an object’s image to its real size.
– Resolution is a measure of image clarity. It is the minimum
distance two points can be separated and still be
distinguished as two separate points.
– Resolution is limited by the shortest wavelength of the
radiation used for imaging.
 10 m
Human height
1m
Length of some
nerve and

Unaided eye
muscle cells
0.1 m
Chicken egg

1 cm

Frog egg
1 mm

Light microscope
100 µm
Most plant and
animal cells
10 µm
Nucleus
Most bacteria

Electron microscope
Mitochondrion
1 µm

Smallest bacteria
100 nm
Viruses

Ribosomes
10 nm
Proteins
Lipids
1 nm
Small molecules

0.1 nm Atoms
 Light Microscopy
• In a light microscope (LM), visible light passes
through a specimen and then through glass
lenses, which magnify the image
• Techniques developed in the 20th century have
enhanced contrast, staining or labeling cell
components so they stand out.
 Electron Microscopy
• Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs)
are used to study subcellular structures
• Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a
beam of electrons onto the surface of a
specimen, providing images that look 3-D
• Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
focus a beam of electrons through a specimen
• TEMs are used mainly to study the internal
structure of cells
 TECHNIQUE RESULTS
1 µm
(a) Scanning electron Cilia
microscopy (SEM)

(b) Transmission electron Longitudinal Cross section

microscopy (TEM) section of of cilium
cilium 1 µm
 Cell Fractionation
• Cell fractionation takes cells apart and
separates the major organelles from one
another
• Ultracentrifuges fractionate cells into their
component parts
• Cell fractionation enables scientists to
determine the functions of organelles
• Biochemistry and cytology help correlate cell
function with structure
Technique: Cells are homogenized in
a blender to break them up. The
resulting mixture (homogenate) is
centrifuged. The supernatant (the liquid
above the pellet) is poured into another
tube and centrifuged at a higher speed
for a longer period. This process is
repeated several times. This “differential
centrifugation” results in a series of
pellets, each containing different cell
components.
Results In early experiments,
researchers used microscopy to identify
the organelles in each pellet and
biochemical methods to determine their
metabolic functions. These identifications
established a baseline for this method,
enabling today’s researchers to know
which cell fraction they should collect in
order to isolate and study particular
organelles.
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes
that compartmentalize their functions

• The basic structural and functional unit of every

organism is one of two types of cells:
prokaryotic or eukaryotic
• Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and
Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells
• Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of
eukaryotic cells
 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells

• Basic features of all cells:

– Plasma membrane
– Semifluid substance called cytosol
– Chromosomes (carry genes)
– Ribosomes (make proteins)
• Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
– No nucleus
– DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
– No membrane-bound organelles
– Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
 Fimbriae

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasma membrane

Bacterial Cell wall

chromosome
Capsule
0.5 µm
(a) A typical Flagella (b) A thin section
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium
Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)
• Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
– DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous
nuclear envelope
– Membrane-bound organelles
– Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma
membrane and nucleus
• Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than
prokaryotic cells
 Eukaryotic Cell Structure
• Includes Protist, fungi, plant, and animal cells
• Larger than prokaryotic cells.
• Diameter ranges from 10 to 100 µm (versus 0.2 to 2.0 µm)
• Nucleus: Protects and houses DNA.
• Membrane-bound Organelles: Internal structures with specific
functions.
• Compartmentalization of Function: Organelles allow special
locations for different chemical reactions and functions.
‒ Separate and store compounds
‒ Store energy
‒ Work surfaces
‒ Maintain concentration gradients
Membrane-Bound Organelles of Eukaryotic Cells

• Nucleus
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
• Golgi Apparatus
• Lysosomes
• Vacuoles
• Chloroplasts
• Mitochondria
Animal Cell (cutaway view of generalized cell)
Plant Cell (cutaway view of generalized cell)
Examples of Eukaryotic cells
Examples of Eukaryotic cells
Differences and similarities between Prokaryotic
cell and Eukaryotic cell
Differences and similarities between
Plant cell and Animal cell