Cell Structure and Function

沈芯伃

醫學科學研究所 教授
醫學系皮膚學科教授
國際醫學研究碩博士學位學程 主任
皮膚暨化妝品研究中心 主任
 Outline

01 Study ways - microscrpes 05 Mitrochondria & Chloroplasts

02 Eukaryotic cell’s intenal 06 Cytoskeleton

membranes

Eukaryotic cell’s genetic Extracellular components &

03 07
instructions connections

04 Endomembrane system

2
© Pearson Education Ltd.
 The Fundamental Units of Life

● All organisms are made of cells

● The cell is the simplest collection of matter
that can be alive
● Cells can differ substantially from one another but
share common features
INTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD OF THE CELL

● The microscope was invented in the 17th century

● Using a microscope, Robert Hooke discovered
cells in 1665
● All living things are made of cells (cell theory)
 Biologists use microscopes and the tools of
biochemistry to study cells

Cells are usually too small to be seen by the naked eye

Microscopy
● Microscopes are used to visualize cells
● In a light microscope (LM), visible light is passed through
a specimen and then through glass lenses
● Lenses refract (bend) the light so that the image is
magnified
 Three important parameters of microscopy

01 Magnification, the ratio of an object’s image

size to its real size

02 Resolution, the measure of the clarity of the image, or

the minimum distance of two distinguishable points

03 Contrast, visible differences in brightness between

parts of the sample
 Light microscopes can magnify effectively to about
1,000 times the size of the actual specimen

 Various techniques enhance contrast and enable cell

components to be stained or labeled

 The resolution of standard light microscopy is too low

to study organelles.
 The light microscope enables us to see the overall
shape and structure of a cell

Image seen by viewer

Eyepiece
Ocular lens

Objective lens
Specimen
Condenser lens
Light source

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 The size range of cells

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 ● Illustration is an important way to represent what
scientists see through microscopes

• The anatomist Santiago Ramón y

Cajal (1852-1934) was trained as an
artist
– He drew these retina nerve cells

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Electron microscopes were invented in the 1950s

 They use a beam of electrons instead of light

 The greater resolving power of electron microscopes
 allows greater magnification
 reveals cellular details
Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs)

● Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a beam of

electrons onto the surface of a specimen, providing
images that look 3D

● Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) focus a beam

of electrons through a specimen
● TEMs are used mainly to study the internal structure of
cells
Recent advances in light microscopy:

 Labeling individual cells with fluorescent markers improve

the level of detail that can be seen
 Confocal microscopy and deconvolution microscopy
provide sharper images of three-dimensional tissues and
cells
 New techniques for labeling cells improve resolution
Scanning electron microscope Transmission electron microscope
(SEM) (TEM)

Cilia 纖毛

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Exploring microscopy

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Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that
compartmentalize their functions

The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is

one of two types of cells: prokaryotic or eukaryotic

Prokaryotic ： Bacteria and, Archaea

古生菌

Eukaryotic : Protists , Fungi, Animals, and Plants

單細胞生物 菌類
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Basic features of all cells:

 Plasma membrane
 Cytosol ( Semifluid substance）
 Chromosomes (carry genes)
 Ribosomes (make proteins)
 Cell Fractionation

● Cell fractionation takes cells apart and separates the

major organelles from one another
● Centrifuges fractionate cells into their component parts
● Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine the
functions of organelles
● Biochemistry and cytology help correlate cell function
with structure
Research method:
cell fractionation Homogenization
Tissue
cells
Homogenate

Centrifugation

1,000 g Supernatant poured into next tube

10 min
20,000 g
20 min

80,000 g
Pellet rich in 60 min
nuclei and
cellular debris 150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
(and chloroplasts)

Pellet rich in
Differential “microsomes” Pellet rich in
centrifugation 微粒體
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 Natural laws limit cell size

At minimum, a cell must be large enough to house the parts it

needs to survive and reproduce

The maximum size of a cell is limited by the amount of surface

needed to obtain nutrients from the environment and dispose
of wastes
 A small cell has a greater ratio of surface area to
volume than a large cell of the same shape

30 µm 10 µm

Surface area Total surface area

of one large cube of 27 small cubes
= 5,400 µm2 = 16,200 µm2
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© Pearson Education Ltd.
Prokaryotic cells are small and structurally simple

There are two kinds of cells: prokaryotic and

eukaryotic
● Prokaryotic cells are small, relatively simple cells
● They do not have a nucleus
 A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell

● A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that

divide the cell into compartments—the organelles

● The basic fabric of biological membranes is a

double layer of phospholipids and other lipids

● Plant and animal cells have most of the same

organelles
The plasma membrane

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Prokaryotic cells

•No nucleus
•DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
•No membrane-bound organelles
•Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane
 A prokaryotic cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane
and is usually encased in a rigid cell wall

– The cell wall may be covered

by a sticky capsule
Prokaryotic
– Inside the cell are its Ribosomes flagella
Capsule
DNA and other parts 鞭毛
Cell wall
Plasma membrane

Nucleoid region (DNA)

Pili
© Pearson Education Ltd. 菌毛
 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional
compartments

 All other life forms are made up of one or more

eukaryotic cells
 These are larger and more complex than prokaryotic
cells
 Eukaryotes are distinguished by the presence of a true
nucleus
30
 ENDOPLASMIC
Eukaryotic cells RETICULUM (ER)
Animal cell Rough ER Smooth ER
Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus NUCLEUS
Flagellum
Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane

CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes
Microvilli

Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome
Lysosome

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Mitochondrion
 The plasma membrane controls the cell’s
contact with the environment

 The cytoplasm contains organelles

 Many organelles have membranes as boundaries
 These compartmentalize the interior of the cell
 This allows the cell to carry out a variety of activities
simultaneously
 Nuclear envelope
Plant cell NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Rough ER
Chromatin
Smooth ER

Ribosomes

Golgi Apparatus Central vacuole

Microfilaments
CYTOSKELETON
Microtubules

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma membrane
Chloroplast
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
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 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are
housed in the nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes

● The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a

eukaryotic cell
● Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to
make proteins

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Nucleus contains most of the DNA

ONLY?
 The Nucleus: Information Central

● The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes.

● The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating

it from the cytoplasm

● The nuclear envelope is a double membrane; each

membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
 1 μm Nucleus

Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough
ER
Pore
Surface of complex
nuclear envelope
Ribosome
(TEM)

Close-up
0.25 μm

Chromatin
of nuclear
envelope
0.5 μm

Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

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ORGANELLES OF THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM

The nucleus is the cell’s genetic control center

● The largest organelle is usually the nucleus

● The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by the
nuclear envelope
● The nuclear envelope is a double membrane; each
membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
● The nucleus is the cellular control center-It contains
the DNA that directs the cell’s activities
● In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units
called chromosomes
● Each chromosome contains one DNA molecule
associated with proteins, called chromatin
● Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes
as a cell prepares to divide
● The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the
site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
40
 Ribosomes: Protein Factories

 Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal RNA

and protein
 Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations:
 In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
 On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the
nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)
40
© Pearson Education Ltd.
 The endomembrane system regulates protein
traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell

The endomembrane system consists of

 Nuclear envelope
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Vacuoles
 Plasma membrane

These components are either continuous or

connected via transfer by vesicles
 The Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Biosynthetic Factory

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than

half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells

The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope

There are two distinct regions of ER:

 Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
 Rough ER, whose surface is studded with ribosomes
© Pearson Education Ltd.
 Functions of Smooth ER

The smooth ER

 Synthesizes lipids
 Metabolizes carbohydrates
 Detoxifies drugs and poisons
 Stores calcium ions
 Functions of Rough ER

The rough ER
 Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins

(proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)

 Distributes transport vesicles, secretory proteins

surrounded by membranes
 Is a membrane factory for the cell
 The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and
Receiving Center

The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous

sacs called cisternae

The Golgi apparatus

 Modifies products of the ER
 Manufactures certain macromolecules
 Sorts and packages materials into transport
vesicles
© Pearson Education Ltd. 50
 Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

● A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic

enzymes that can digest macromolecules
● Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic
environment inside the lysosome
● Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are
made by rough ER and then transferred to the
Golgi apparatus for further processing
 Some types of cell can engulf another cell by phagocytosis;
this forms a food vacuole
 A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the
molecules
 Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own
organelles and macromolecules, a process called autophagy

50
 Vesicle containing
Nucleus 1 μm two damaged
1 μm
organelles

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment

Lysosome
Digestive Lysosome
enzymes Lysosome

Plasma Peroxisome
membrane Digestion
Food Mitochondrion Digestion
vacuole Vesicle
(a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy
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 Vacuoles:
Diverse Maintenance Compartments

空泡
● Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the
ER and Golgi apparatus
● Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in
different kinds of cells
● Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
● Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
● Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant
cells, hold organic compounds and water
 Central vacuole

Cytosol

Central
Nucleus vacuole

Cell wall

Chloroplast

5 μm
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 The Endomembrane System

The endomembrane system is a complex

and dynamic player in the cell’s
compartmental organization
 Relationships among organelles of the
endomembrane system

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分發
Many cell organelles are related through the
endomembrane system
The endomembrane system is a collection of
membranous organelles 分發

 These organelles manufacture and distribute cell

products
 The endomembrane system divides the cell into
compartments
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is part of the
endomembrane system
60
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum makes membrane
and proteins
● The rough ER manufactures membranes
● Ribosomes on its surface produce proteins
Transport vesicle 4
buds off

Ribosome

Secretory
(glyco-) protein
inside transport
Sugar 3 vesicle
chain

Glycoprotein
1 2 ROUGH ER

Polypeptide
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 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a
variety of functions

● Smooth ER synthesizes lipids

● In some cells, it regulates carbohydrate
metabolism and breaks down toxins and drugs
 SMOOTH ER

ROUGH ER

Nuclear
envelope

Ribosoms

SMOOTHER ROUGH ER

© Pearson Education Ltd. 60

The Golgi apparatus finishes, sorts, and
ships cell products

 The Golgi apparatus

，
consists of stacks of
membranous sacs

 These receive and modify ER products, then send

them on to other organelles or to the cell membrane
 Lysosomes digest the cell’s food and wastes

LYSOSOME

Lysosomes are sacs of Nucleus

digestive enzymes
budded off the Golgi

Figure 4.11A

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Lysosomal enzymes

– digest food
– destroy bacteria
– recycle damaged organelles
– function in embryonic development in animals
 Rough
ER

Transport vesicle
(containing
inactive
hydrolytic enzymes)
Plasma
membrane Golgi
apparatu
s

Engulfment
of particle Lysosome
engulfing
damaged
“Foo organelle
d”
LYSOSOMES

Digestion
Food
vacuole

Figure 4.11B

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 Vacuoles function in the general maintenance of the cell

Plant cells contain a large

central vacuole
The vacuole has
lysosomal and storage
functions Central
vacuole

Nucleus
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 A review of the endomembrane system
● The various organelles of the endomembrane system
are interconnected structurally and functionally
Transport Transport vesicle
vesicle from Golgi
Rough ER
from ER

Plasma
membrane

Vacuole
Nucleus
Lysosome
Golgi
Smooth ER Nuclear apparatus
envelope
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 Nucleus
Nuclear
envelope

Rough ER
Smooth ER
cis Golgi

Plasma
membrane
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trans Golgi
 Peroxisomes: Oxidation

● Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic

compartments bounded by a single membrane
● Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and
convert it to water
● Peroxisomes perform reactions with many different
functions
● How peroxisomes are related to other organelles is
still unknown
 Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
● Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells
● They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane
folded into cristae
● The inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
● Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in
the mitochondrial matrix
● Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that
synthesize ATP
 Mitochondrion
10 μm

Intermembrane space
Mitochondria
Outer
membrane

DNA

Inner
Free membrane Mitochondrial
ribosomes DNA
in the Cristae
mitochondrial
matrix
Matrix Nuclear DNA
0.1 μm

(a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion (b) Network of mitochondria in

Euglena (LM)

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 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that
organizes structures and activities in the cell

● The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending

throughout the cytoplasm
● It organizes the cell’s structures and activities,
anchoring many organelles
● It is composed of three types of molecular
structures
 Microtubules
 Microfilaments
 Intermediate filaments

10 μm
 Tubulin
Actin subunit Fibrous subunits subunit

25 nm

7 nm 10 nm

MICROFILAMENT INTERMEDIATE MICROTUBULE

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FILAMENT
 Components of the Cytoskeleton

Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton

 Microtubules are the thickest of the three components of
the cytoskeleton
 Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the
thinnest components
 Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a
middle range
 The Structure and Function of the Cytoskeleton

Property Microtubules (Tubulin Polymers) Microfilaments (Actin Filaments) Intermediate Filaments

Structure Hollow tubes Two intertwined strands of actin Fibrous proteins coiled into cables

Diameter 25 nm with 15-nm lumen 7 nm 8–12 nm

Protein subunits Tubulin, a dimer consisting of Actin One of several different proteins
α-tubulin and β-tubulin (such as keratins)

Main functions Maintenance of cell shape
(compression-resisting “girder”);
cell motility (as in cilia or flagella);
chromosome movements in cell
division; organelle movements
Maintenance of cell shape (tension-
bearing elements); changes in
cell shape; muscle contraction;
cytoplasmic streaming in plant
cells; cell motility (as in amoeboid
movement); division of animal cells
Maintenance of cell shape (tension-
bearing elements); anchorage of
nucleus and certain other organ-
elles; formation of nuclear lamina

Fluorescence micro- 10 µm 10 µm 5 µm
graphs of fibroblasts.
Fibroblasts are a favor-
ite cell type for cell
biology studies because
they spread out flat and
their internal structures
are easy to see. In each,
the structure of interest
has been tagged with
fluorescent molecules.
The DNA in the nucleus
has also been tagged
in the first micrograph
(blue) and third micro-
graph (orange).

Column of tubulin dimers

Keratin proteins
Actin subunit Fibrous subunit (keratins
25 nm coiled together)

7 nm 8–12 nm

α β Tubulin dimer

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© Pearson Education Ltd.
 EUKARYOTIC CELL SURFACES AND JUNCTIONS

Cell surfaces protect, support, and join cells

Cells interact with their environments and each other via their
surfaces

Plant cells are supported by rigid cell walls made largely of

cellulose
纖維素 胞間連絲
 They connect by plasmodesmata, channels that allow
them to share water, food, and chemical messages

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 Walls of two adjacent plant cells

Vacuole
PLASMODESMATA
胞間連絲

Layers of one plant cell wall

Cytoplasm

Plasma membrane
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Animal cells are embedded in an extracellular matrix

– It is a sticky layer of glycoproteins

– It binds cells together in tissues
– It can also have protective and supportive
functions
 ● Tight junctions can bind cells together into leak-proof
sheets
• Anchoring junctions link animal cells
• Communicating junctions allow Tight Junction

substances to flow from cell

to cell
Anchoring Junction

Communication
Junction

Plasma membranes
of adjacent cells
Extracellular matrix
© Pearson Education Ltd.
 Tight junctions prevent fluid from moving
across a layer of cells.
Tight junction

TEM
0.5 μm

Tight junction

Intermediate
filaments

Desmosome

Desmosome
(TEM) 橋粒 1 μm
Gap
junction

Ions or small
molecules

TEM
Extracellular
matrix
Plasma membranes Space 0.1 μm
of adjacent cells between cells Gap junctions
© Pearson Education Ltd. 80
 Summary of key concepts

Cell Component Structure Function

Nucleus Surrounded by nuclear envelope Houses chromosomes, which are

(double membrane) perforated by made of chromatin (DNA and pro-
nuclear pores; nuclear envelope teins); contains nucleoli, where
continuous with endoplasmic ribosomal subunits are made; pores
reticulum (ER) regulate entry and exit of materials

(ER)
Ribosome Two subunits made of ribosomal Protein synthesis
RNAs and proteins; can be free in
cytosol or bound to ER

© Pearson Education Ltd.

 Cell Component Structure
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Extensive network of membrane-
bounded tubules and sacs; mem-
(Nuclear brane separates lumen from
envelope) cytosol; continuous with nuclear
envelope
Golgi apparatus Stacks of flattened membranous
sacs; has polarity (cis and trans
faces)
Lysosome Membranous sac of hydrolytic
enzymes (in animal cells)
Vacuole Large membrane-bounded vesicle
© Pearson Education Ltd.
Function
Smooth ER: synthesis of lipids, 2+
metabolism of carbohydrates, Ca
storage, detoxification of drugs and
poisons
Rough ER: aids in synthesis of secre-
tory and other proteins on bound
ribosomes; adds carbohydrates to
proteins to make glycoproteins;
produces new membrane
Modification of proteins,
carbohydrates on proteins, and
phospholipids; synthesis of many
polysaccharides; sorting of Golgi
products, which are then released
In vesicles
Breakdown of ingested substances,
cell macromolecules, and damaged
organelles for recycling
Digestion, storage, waste disposal,
water balance, cell growth, and
protection
 Cell Component Structure Function

Mitochondrion Bounded by double membrane; Cellular respiration

inner membrane has infoldings

Chloroplast Typically two membranes around Photosynthesis (chloroplasts are in

fluid stroma, which contains cells of photosynthetic eukaryotes,
thylakoids stacked into grana Including plants)

Specialized metabolic Contains enzymes that transfer H

Peroxisome compartment bounded by atoms from substrates to oxygen,
a single membrane producing H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide),
which is converted to H2O.

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