Chapter 7
Eurkaryotic Cells
A Tour of the Cell
HOW WE STUDY CELLS
Microscopes
1. light microscope
visible light is passed through the specimen and
through the glass lenses
lenses refract/bend the light in such a way that the
image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected
resolving power: size of a small bacterium
2. electron microscope
focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or
onto its surface
cell ultrastructure cells anatomy as revealed by
the EM
reveals organelles
disadvantage: methods used to prepare the cell kills it
or introduces structural features that do not exist in
the cell
a. transmission electron microscope
~ used to study internal ultrastructure of cells
~ uses electromagnets as lenses to focus and
magnify the image by bending the paths of the e-
~ very thin sections of preserved cells stained with
atoms of heavy metals are used
b. scanning electron microscope
~ useful for a detailed study of the surface of the
specimen
~ e- beam scans the surface, w/c is usually coated
with a thin film of gold
~ image appears to be 3D
resolving power
- measure of the clarity of the image
- minimum distance two points can be separated and still be
distinguished as two separate pts.
- Limited by the shortest wavelength of light used to
illuminate the specimen
- Inversely related to the wavelength of radiation a
microscope uses
Isolation of Organelles
Cell Fractionation
- take cells apart, separating major organelles in order to
study their functions
- instrument: centrifuge, ultracentrifuge
1. homogenization
disruption of cells
break cells apart without damaging organelles
pellet larger, heavier structures(nuclei, cellular
debris) found at the bottom of the test tube
supernatant light parts of cell suspended in liquid
found at the top of the test tube
2. supernatant from 1 is centrifuged again
pellet mitochondria and chloroplasts
supernatant
3. supernatant from 2 is centrifuged
pellet microsomes pieces of plasma membrane
and internal membranes
supernatant
4. supernatant from 3 is centrifuged
pellet rich in ribosomes
A PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE CELL
Prokaryotic vs.
Similarities
1. all have plasma membrane
phospholipid bilayer
semi-permeable
allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and wastes
to service the entire volume of the cell
have proteins attached to/embedded on it
carbohydrate side chains can be found on its outer surface
hydrophilic region phospholipid heads, exterior
proteins, parts of proteins, and carbohydrate side chains
hydrophobic region phospholipid tails
2. cytosol
semifluid substance
where organelles are suspended (eukaryotic)
3. all have chromosomes, DNA
4. all have ribosomes protein synthesizers
Prokaryotic cells
- nucleoid
region where DNA is concentrated
not bound by a membrane
- cytoplasm also known as the interior of the cell
- smaller in size
mycoplasmas bacteria, smallest cells
- plasma membrane
Eukaryotic cells
- have a nucleus
contains the chromosomes
membrane-enclosed (nuclear envelope) organelle
- cytoplasm
region between plasma membrane and nucleus
membrane-bound organelles of specialized form and fcn
are suspended in it
- bigger in size
Size is a general aspect of cell structure that relates to
function.
Metabolism depends on cell size
The smaller the object, the greater the ration of SA to
Volume
The need for a surface sufficiently large to accommodate
the volume helps explain the microscopic size of cells
Larger organisms dont have larger cells, they have more
cells
- Plasma membrane
Internal Membranes (Eukaryotic Cell)
- Partition the cell into compartments organelles
- Participate directly in metabolism
- Many enzymes are built right into the membranes
- Allows Incompatible process to go on simultaneously Cell
compartments provide diff. local environments that favor
specific metabolic fcns
- Generally consists of phospholipid bilayer and other lipids
- Diverse proteins are attached or embedded
- Each type has a unique composition of lipids and proteins
suited to that membranes fcns
THE NUCLEUS AND RIBOSOMES
The Nucleus
- genetic library of the cell
some genes can be found in mitochondria and
chloroplasts)
- enclosed by the nuclear envelope
 double membrane
consists of lipid bilayer, proteins
- nuclear envelope is perforated by pores
in its lip the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear
envelope fuse together
lined by a pore complex protein structure that
regulates the entry/exit of certain large
macromolecules and particles
- nuclear lamina
lines the nucleus side of the nuclear envelope
a netlike array of protein filaments/intermediate
filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus
- nuclear matrix
framework of fibers extending throughout the nuclear
interior
- chromatin
fibrous material where DNA + proteins are
organized
located inside the nucleus
coils up as cell prepares to divide chromosomes
each eukaryotic specie has a characteristic no of
chromosomes
- nucleolus
structure found in a nondividing nucleus
granules and fibers adjoining part of the chromatin
where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and
assembled with proteins imported from the cytoplasm
into the main components of ribosomes (ribosomal
subunits)
subunits pass through the pores to the cytoplasm
form ribosomes
its no. depends on species and stage in cells
reproductive cycle
not enclosed by a membrane
- synthesizes proteins
synthesizes messenger RNA (mRNA) made
according to instructions of DN
mRNA goes to cytoplasm via nuclear pores
ribosomes translate its genetic message into the
primary structure of a specific polypeptide
Ribosomes
- particles made of rRNA and protein
- organelles that carry out protein synthesis
- composed of two subunits
large
small
- not enclosed in membrane
1. free ribosomes
suspended in cytosol
proteins made by this type will function within the
cytosol
ex of protein: enzymes that catalyze first steps of
sugar breakdown
2. bound ribosomes
attached to the outside of ER or nuclear envelope
generally make proteins that are destined for insertion
into membranes, packaging within certain organelles
(ie lysosomes), export from cell (secretion)
cells that specialize in protein secretion (pancreatic
cells, digestive enzymes) frequently have a high
proportion of this type of ribosomes
- both are structurally identical and can alternate between
the two roles
- cell adjusts the nos of each as metabolism changes
THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
- related either through
direct physical continuity or
by transfer of membrane segments as tiny vesicles
sacs made of membrane
- various membranes making up this system are not identical in
form and fcn
- thickness, molecular composition and metabolic behavior are
not fixed
1. nuclear envelope
2. ER
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Lysosomes
5. Various kinds of vacuoles
6. Plasma membrane
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- An extensive membranous labyrinth
- Consists of a network of membranous tubules and cisternae
sacs
- Separates the cisternal space (internal compartment of ER)
from cytosol
1. Smooth ER
2. Rough ER
Smooth ER
- cytoplasmic surface lacks ribosomes
- functions
synthesis of lipids
metabolism of carbo liver cells
detoxification of drugs and poison
- enzymes of smooth ER are impt to the synthesis of lipids
oils
phospholipids
steroids sex hormones, steroid hormones of adrenal
glands (cells that produce these are rich in SER)
- ex. Muscle cells
Rough ER
- ribosomes stud the cytoplasmic surface
Synthesis of Secretory Proteins
- ribosomes attached to it makes the proteins cell secretes it
- ex. Pancreas hormone insulin
- polypeptide chain grows from a bound ribosome
- the chain is threaded into the cisternal space through a pore
formed by a protein in the ER
- new protein folds into its native conformation
- gylcoproteins
many secretory proteins are of this type
proteins that are covalently bonded to carbohydrates
carbohydrate appendix oligosaccharide
- secretory proteins are formed ER keeps them separate from
proteins produced by free ribosomes
- sec. Proteins depart from ER wrapped in vesicles
membranes
bud like bubbles from transitional ER
- transport vesicles transit from one part of the cell to
another
Membrane Production
- RER is a membrane factory grows in place
- Adds phospholipids and proteins
- Polypeptide produced by ribosomes inserted into ER
anchored by hydrophobic portions
- Can make its own membrane phospholipids
- Expands and can be transferred n the form of transport - excessive leakage from a large no. of lysosomes can kill a cell
vesicles to other components of the endomembrane sys. by autodigestion
- provides a space where the cell can digest macromolecules
Golgi Apparatus safely
- Usual destination of transport vesicles - hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal enzymes are made by RER
- Center of and transferred to Golgi for further processing
Manufacturing - some lysosomes probably arise by budding from the trans face
warehousing of the Golgi
sorting - proteins of inner surface of l. membrane and digestive
shipping enzymes themselves are probably spared from destruction by
- Products of the ER (proteins and phospholipids of having 3D conformations that protect vulnerable bonds from
membranes) are modified and stored, then sent to other enzymatic attacks
destinations - digestion products pass into cytosol and become nutrients for
- Extensive in cells specialized for secretion the cell
- Consists of the cisternae - autophagy
flattened membranous sacs lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle the
stacked up cells own oganic material
its membrane separates its internal space from the happens when a lysosome engulfs another organelle or
cytosol small amount of cytosol
- vesicles concentrated in the vicinity of the Golgi are organic monomers are returned to cytosol for reuse
engaged in the transfer of material between Golgi and ex. Human liver cell
other structures cell continually renews itself
- has a distinct polarity membranes of cisternae at - programmed destruction of cells by their own lysosomal
opposite ends having different enzymes impt for devt of multicellular organisms
thickness - lysosomal storage diseases
molecular composition a variety of inherited disorders
affect lysosomal metabolism
2 poles hydrolytic enzyme doesnt function
1. cis face lysosomes become so engorged with indigestible
receiving substances begin to interfere with other cellular
usually located near the ER activities
contains a team of enzymes different from trans face Pompes disease liver is damaged by accumulation of
2. trans face glycogen
shipping Tay-Sachs lipid-digesting enzyme is missing/inactive
gives rise to vesicles pinch off and travel to other brain is impaired by an accumulation of lipids
site
phagocytosis
Manufacturing - engulfing smaller organisms or other food particles
- manufactures and refines its products in stages - how amoebas and other protists eat
- secreted polysaccharides (pectin, noncellulose polysac.), - food vacuole fuses with a lysosome food is digested
macromolecules - macrophages
human cells that carry out phagocytosis
Procedure for Transport destroys bacteria and other invaders
- transport vesicles ER to Golgi
- vesicle that buds from ER will add its membrane and Vacuoles
lumen (cavity) to the cis face by fusing with the Golgi - membrane-bounded sacs
membrane - larger than vesicles
- function in cell maintenance
Shipping
- sorts the products 1. food vacuoles
- targets the products for various parts of the cell formed by phagocytosis
- molecular identification tags 2. contractile vacuoles
have been added to the Golgi products freshwater protists
aid in sorting pumps excess water out of the cell
- transport vesicles budded from the Golgi may have 3. central vacuole
external molecules on their membranes that recognize found in mature plant cells
docking sites on surface of specific organelles or plasma enclosed by a membrane tonoplast
membrane develops by the coalescence of smaller vacuoles
derived from ER and Golgi
Lysosomes contains cell sap
- membrane-bounded sac of hydrolytic enzymes that the versatile compartment
cell uses to digest macromolecules hold reserves of impt organic compounds
- lysosomal enzymes
main repository of inorganic ions K and Cl
hydrolyze proteins, polysaccharides, fats, and nucleic
disposal sites for metabolic by-products
acids
some contain pigments that color the cell
work best at pH 5
- lysosomal membrane maintains low pH by pumping H+
from the cytosol (pH 7) into the lumen of the lysosome
 may also help in protection against predators
containing cpds that are poisonous/unpalatable to
some animals
role in plant growth as it absorbs water, it
elongates the cell with min. investment in new
cytoplasm greater ration of membrane surface to
cytosolic volume
comprises > 80% of plant cell
tonoplast
- part of endomembrane system
- semi-permeable
- soln inside the vacuole is different from cytosol
OTHER MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
Mitochondria
- main energy transformers of cells
- sites of cellular respiration generation of ATP by
extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels with
the help of oxygen
- enclosed by membranes made by free ribosomes and
ribosomes in the mitochondrion
- not part of endomembrane system
- also contains a small amount of DNA programs the
synthesis of proteins made on its own ribosomes
- semi-autonomous organelles that grow and reproduce
within the cell
- found in nearly all eukaryotic cells
- its no in cell is correlated with cells level of metabolic
activity
- enclosed by 2 membranes phospholipid bilayer with
embedded proteins
1. outer membrane
smooth
2. inner membrane
convoluted
cristae inner foldings
divides the mit. Into 2 internal compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
enzyme that makes ATP is made into the inner
membrane
large surface area due to cristae enhances
productivity of respiration
Intermembrane space
- narrow region between the inner and outer membranes
Mitochondrial matrix
- enclosed by the inner membrane
- contains different enzymes, mitochondrial DNA and
ribosomes
- Functions
Chloroplasts
- found only on green plants and algae
- sites of photosynthesis
- convert solar to chemical energy
absorb sunlight
synthesis of organic cpds from CO2 and H2O
- enclosed by membranes made by free ribosomes and
ribosomes in chloroplasts
- not part of endomembrane system
- also contains a small amount of DNA programs the
synthesis of proteins made on its own ribosomes
- semi-autonomous organelles that grow and reproduce
within the cell
- member of plastids
- contain chlorophyll green pigment
- constains enzymes and other molecules photosynthetic
production of sugar
- lens-shaped
- its contents are partitioned from cytosol by an envelope
consisting of 2 membranes separated by a very narrow
intermembrane space
- thylakoids
another membranous system
flattened sacs
stacked like poker chips
divides the interior of the chloroplast into the thylakoid
space and stroma
- granum/grana(pl.) each stack of thylakoids
- stroma
fluid outside thylakoid
contains the chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes
- shapes are plastic
plastids
- amyloplasts colorless plastids that store amylose (starch) in
roots and tubers
- chromoplasts have pigments that give fruits and flowers
their yellow and orange hues
- chloroplasts
PEROXISOMES
- generate and degrade hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
- a specialized metabolic compartment bounded by a single
membrane
- contain enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various
substrates to oxygen H2O2
- functions of reactions
use oxygen to break fatty acids down to small molecules
transported to mitochondria as fuel for respiration
liver detoxify alchohol
- H2O2 is toxic but the peroxisome contains an enzyme that
converts it to water
- Grow by incorporating proteins and lipids made in the cytosol
- Increase their no. by splitting in two when they reach a certain
size
- Glyoxysomes
specialized peroxisomes
found in fat-storing tissues of plant seeds
contain enzyme that initiate conversion of fatty acids to
sugar emerging seedling can use as energy and carbon
source until it is able to produce sugar for itself
THE CYTOSKELETON
- network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm
- role organizing structures and activities of the cell
- give mechanical support to the cell
- maintain cell shape
impt for animal cells which dont have cell walls
its strength and resilience is based on its architecture
- provides anchorage for many organelles and cytosolic enzyme
molecules
- changing of cell shape cytoskeleton can be quickly
dismantled in one place and reassembled in another
- manipulates plasma membrane to form food vacuoles during
phagocytosis
- cytoplasmic streaming materials are circulated around
- regulation of biochemical activities within the cell
- cell motility
Cell motility
- changes in cell location
- limited movements of parts of the cell
- requires the interaction of the cytoskeleton with motor
molecules (proteins)
- motor molecules bring about the movements of cilia and
flagella, contraction of muscles
- monorails path of the vesicles to their destinations
Types of Fibers Making up the Cytoskeleton
1. microtubules
2. microfilaments
3. intermediate filaments
Microtubules
- thickest of the 3 fibers
- found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells
- hollow rods
- its wall is constructed from tubulin
globular protein
alpha and beta-tubulin
- grows in length by adding tubulin dimers to its ends
- can be disassembled
- can also serve as tracks along w/c organelles equipped
with motor molecules can move
- maintenance of cell shape compression-resisting
girders
- cell motility (cilia and flagella)
- chromosome movements in cell division
- organelle movements
Centrosomes
- a region often located near the nucleus
- where microtubules grow out compression-resisting
girders of the cytoskeleton
- centrosomes of most plants lack centrioles
Centrioles
- in animal cells occurs in pairs within the centrosome
- each composed of 9 sets of triplet microtubules arranged
in a ring
- replicate before a cell divides
- may help organize microtubule assembly though not
essential in this function
Cilia
- locomotor appendages that protrude from some cells
- if cilia or flagella extend from cells that are held in place as
part of a tissue layer, they function to move fluid over the
tissue
- usually occur in large nos. on cell surface
- beating pattern like oars alternating power and
recovery strokes generating force in a direction
perpendicular to the ciliums axis
Flagella
- locomotor appendages that protrude from some cells
- same diameter as cilia but longer
- usually limited to just one or a few per cell
- beating pattern undulating motion that generates the
same force in the same direction as the flagellums axis
Cilia and Flagella
- utlrastructure core of microtubules sheathed in an
extension of the plasma membrane
- microtubule assembly of a cilium/flagellum is anchored in
the cell by a basal body structurally identical to a
centriole
- dynein
protein
motor molecules extending from each microtubule doublet
to the next are made of this
dynein arms are responsible for bending movements of
cilia and flagella
- walking
dynein arms slide past another in opposite directions
elongating the cilium/flagellum
- lateral movement
sliding past one another limited
dynein must have something to pull against
forces exterted by the d. arms causes the doublets to
curve thereby bending the cilium/flagellum
-
Microfilaments
- also called actin filaments
- thinnest in diameter
- two intertwined strands of actin globular protein
- maintenance of cell shape tension-bearing elements
form a 3D network together with other proteins just inside
the plasma membrane
gives the cortext (outer cytoplasmic layer) the semisolid
consistency of a gel
- bundles core of microvilli projections that increase the
surface area of the cell
- changes in cell shape
- muscle contraction
actin filaments arranged // to one another
actin filaments are interdigitated with myosin acts as
motor molecule by means of projections that walk along
actin filaments
results from actin and myosin fibers sliiding past one
another shortening the muscle cell
actin-myosin aggregates are responsible for localized
contractions of cells
- cytoplasmic streaming
actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations may
be involved in this process
a circular flow of cytoplasm within cells
common in large plant cells
seppds distribution of materials within the cell
- cell motility (pseudopodia)
amoeboid movement, white blood cells
extend and contract through the reversible assembly of
actin subunits into microfilaments and of microfilaments
into networks that convert cytoplasm to gel
- cell division cleavage furrow formation
Intermediate Filaments
- diameter of fiber is in the middle of the diameter of the 2
- fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables
- protein subunit from keratin family (kind of subunit depends
on cell type)
- permanent fixtures of cells
- maintenance of cell shape tension-bearing elements
- anchorage of nucleus and certain other organelles (ie.
Nucleus)
- formation of nuclear lamina lines interior of nuclear
envelope
CELL SURFACES AND JUNCTIONS
Cell Wall (Plant Cells)
- protects the plant cell
- maintains its shape
- prevents excessive uptake of water
- in specialized cells hold the plant up against gravity
- thicker than plasma membrane - in certain circumstances, proteins and RNA can also do this
- chemical composition varies from - macromolecules reach this by moving along cytoskeleton
species to species
cell type Intercellular Junctions for Animals
- basic design is consistent - these are esp. common in epithelial tissue lines internal
- microfibrils made up of cellulose are embedded in a surfaces of the body
matrix of other polysaccharides and protein 1. tight junctions
membranes of adjoining cells are actually fused
Layers of the Cell Wall forms continuous belts around the cells
1. primary cell wall prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of
first secreted by a young plant cell epithelial cells
thin and flexible
2. desmosomes
2. middle lamella also called anchoring junctions
between primary walls of adjacent cells function like rivets fastens cells together into strong
thin layer rich in pectins sticky polysaccharides sheets
glues the cells together intermediate filaments made of keratin reinforce this
strengthens the wall when the cell stops growing
3. gap junctions
3. secondary cell wall also called communicating junctions
between plasma membrane and primary wall provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal
often deposited in several laminated layers cells
protection and support special membrane proteins surround each pore wide
wood consists mainly of this enough for sugars, salt ions, amino acids, and other small
molecules to pass
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) OF ANIMAL CELLS especially common in animal embryos
- equivalent of cell wall
- main ingredient glycoproteins
proteins with covalently bonded carbohydrate
usually short chains of sugar
- collagen
most abundant glycoprotein in ECM of most animal
cells
forms strong fibers outside the cells
accounts for half the total protein in the body
embedded in a network of proteoglycans
- proteoglycans
glycoproteins of another class
rich in carbhohydrates
can form large complexes
- fibronectins
glycoproteins
some cells are attached to ECM by this
bind to receptor proteins (integrins)
- integrins
built in the plasma membrane
span the membrane
bind on their cytoplasmic side to the microfilaments of
the cytoskeleton
in a position to transmit changes in ECM to
cytoskeleton and vice versa
integrate changes occurring outside and inside the
cell

Intercellular Junctions
- help integrate cells into higher levels of structure and
function
- neighboring cells often adhere, interact, and communicate
through special patches of direct physical contact

Plasmodesmata (Plants)
- plasmodesma (s.)
- channels that perforate the cell wall
- cytosol passes through this and connects the living
contents of adjacent cells
- water and small solutes can pass freely from cell to cell