BIOLOGY NOTES YEAR 11

TERM 1 : MODULE 1

IQ1 : Cells as the Basis of Life

Types of Cells
Though there are many different types of cells for different organisms, they can be categorised into
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They share basic similarities, possessing a cell membrane (controls
what goes in and out), cytoplasm and ribosomes (structure that produces protein).

Prokaryotic cells are much simpler and smaller (5

micrometres max). They have no membrane surrounding
their genetic material and therefore have no nucleus.
Structures inside simply float around in cytoplasm.

Most of the genetic material forms a large loop called a

chromosome, while the ones that are separated are loops of
plasmid. Some prokaryotic cells have a cell wall, pili (hairs
to help them attach to surfaces), flagella (a tail to help with
movement) and a capsule.

Prokaryotic cells represent the kingdom Monera, divided into bacteria and archaea, which are similar in
shape and size but have different genetic material and proteins. Archaea are found in extreme and harsh
environments.

Eukaryotic cells are more complex and larger (100

micrometres max). They have a membrane bound nucleus
containing genetic material.

Eukaryotes have specialised organelles that carry out

biochemical processes. There is a theory called the
endosymbiotic theory that suggests mitochondria and
chloroplasts were once small prokaryotic cells engulfed by
larger cells.

Living organisms that contain eukaryotic cells are known as eukaryotes. They can either be unicellular
(like amoeba and euglena) or multicellular. The kingdom of eukaryotic cells are Plantae, animalia,
fungi and protista.
Microscopes
Light Microscopes involve a light source passing through a condenser lens
then through a thin specimen. It then passes through the convex objective lens
where the image is magnified and views through the ocular lens.

They can produce magnification of up to 1500X. Resolution is the smallest

distance between 2 objects to be observed as separate. The maximum
resolution for a light microscope is 200 nm. Both living and non living
specimens can be viewed.

Power Low Medium High

Magnification 40 100 400

Field of View 4500 micrometres 1850 micrometres 450 micrometres

Learn specific parts of a microscope with :

https://classroom.google.com/c/NTEyNzM3NjAyNTI4/a/NTg4MTUzODIwMDI2/details

Electron microscopes use electron beams instead of light, and electromagnets instead of glass lenses.
They give a much greater magnification of up to 1500000X and a resolution of 2nm, meaning you can see
atoms. This is due to electrons having shorter wavelengths than light.

There are 2 main types of electron microscopes, the TEM (transmission) and the SEM (scanning). TEM
involves electrons passing through the specimen, creating a 2D image. SEM involves bombarding
specimens with a beam of electrons which causes secondary electrons to be emitted from the surface
layers of the specimen. SEM has a poorer resolution of 10 nm but produces 3D images.

Disadvantages of electron microscopy include placing specimens in a vacuum for viewing, as air would
interfere with the flow of electrons. As a result, living tissue cannot be viewed. They are also extremely
expensive and require strict maintenance.

Techniques for preparing specimens for viewing

1. FIXATION: the tissue is placed into a preservative substance that kills it and preserves it, as closely to
the living form as possible.

2. EMBEDDING: tissue is embedded in a hard medium such as wax (or an even harder substance such as
resin for electron microscopy), to overcome the difficulty of cutting soft tissue into very thin sections

3. SLICING OR SECTIONING: a machine called a microtome was invented, which could cut much
thinner sections of tissue more smoothly than could be done by hand. The thinner the section, the greater
is the clarity of the image being viewed
4. STAINING: colour is produced by a variety of stains to create a contrast between the transparent
material and its background for viewing under the electron microscope.

Scaled Diagrams: Ratio of your drawing and the ratio

of the actual specimen on the dish should be the same
scale.

Organelles in Cells
SUMMARY : Organelle Summary

Diving deeper into the features of cells, all cells have

organelles which serve a function. All organelles are
enclosed in their own membrane which could be double or
single. Many organelles have maximised their surface area
to carry out their function. Organelles in eukaryotic cells
are often membrane bound, and for 2 reasons :
- To transport substances in and out of the cell
- To enhance systems by controlling a small volume

The term cytosol is used to refer to the fluid component of

the cytoplasm, while the protein filament components are
called the cytoskeleton. Protoplasm is the living content of the cell, including the nucleus and
cytoplasm.

Membranes - cell or plasma membranes

Surround the cell contents and separates them from their surroundings. It controls the water and other
chemical substances in and out of the cell through a double wall of lipids, proteins and pores. Its selective
barrier possesses a feature called semi permeable. It can also be selective of the substances that pass
between the cytoplasm and the organelles.
Cell walls : Algae, fungi and plant cells have cell walls composed of cellulose, a polymer of glucose.
They are also semi permeable. They serve the purpose of providing extra strength and support as well as
flexibility to resist pressure.

Nucleus : stores information needed to control all cell activities and is the location of most of the genetic
material. It has a double nuclear membrane with tiny pores to communicate with the cytoplasm.
The nucleoplasm is the liquid part of the nucleus where chromatin is found. Chromatin is made from
protein and nucleic acids called chromosomes, and when dividing, the chromatin splits into
chromosomes to make sure all daughter cells have hereditary information.
The nucleolus is a dense, dark region in the nucleoplasm containing large amounts of nucleic acid, some
DNA but mostly RNA. It is where the 2 subunits of ribosomes are created, which then leave through the
nucleus pores and conjoin in the cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic reticulum : A network of flattened, interconnected membranes which provides transport
for nutrients and waste between the nucleus and the cell’s environment. The large membranous sacs and
channels give it more surface area.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum are studded with ribosomes which creates a lot of proteins. The proteins
leave the ribosomes and insert themselves into spaces where they are modified to be functional.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum makes lipids and steroids needed for membranes.

Ribosomes : Make proteins from DNA instructions for cell

function/ They are small to increase surface area for rapid
production of proteins, have no membrane and are made of RNA
and protein. They are dense in the rough endoplasmic reticulum but
can be found floating in the cytoplasm.

Golgi bodies : Also is a flat membrane, but in stacks of four to ten.

It has a curved shape of one surface, where vesicles are budding off
called the forming face. The purpose of golgi bodies is to process,
package and sort proteins and lipids. They add carbohydrates and proteins to them, then provide a
membrane around the cell products to package them. The membranes given are “labelled” to determine
where they go when transported.

Lysosomes : Produced by the golgi apparatus in animal cells, they contain strong digestive enzymes that
break down large molecules of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins into smaller ones to be reused. The thick
membrane prevents the contents from killing the cell, but sometimes releases it on purpose to rid old and
damaged cells.

Mitochondria : Produces energy through cellular respiration, and

the number depends on the amount of energy needed in a cell.
Mitochondria combine oxygen and sugars during cellular
respiration to release energy in the form ATP that cells can use.

They have an outer membrane, which gives it its shape and allows
small substances in and out of the mitochondria, and an inner
membrane which is folded to increase surface area of attached
enzymes to create energy. The central fluid is called the matrix
which contains mitochondrial DNA and enzymes that allow it to
replicate.

Vacuoles : Large membrane bound sacs of fluid containing water, dissolved salts and other substances
(known as cell sap). Other than storage, vacuoles are also important because they exert pressure on the
cell wall, keeping it firm and turgid (keeping its shape).

Chloroplasts : Organelles which are green due to a pigment called chlorophyll and are only found in
plants that photosynthesise. They are responsible for photosynthesis, the manufacturing of sugars from
sunlight.
Chloroplasts belong to a group of organelles called plastids, which are biconvex in shape and contain
pigment or nutrients and vary in colour. They also contain their own DNA.

Chloroplasts have a double membrane which allows substances to pass between the cytoplasm and the
chloroplast. The liquid part of the chloroplast is called the stroma where stacks of membranes called
thylakoids are found. Each stack is called a granum where chlorophyll is found. The layering increases
surface area which gets more sunlight.

Cytoskeleton : Organelles are held in place by a network of tiny microtubules and microfilaments called
the cytoskeleton.

Centrioles : a pair of small, cylindrical structures composed of microtubules which hold chromosomes
when dividing.

Cell Membranes
The Fluid Mosaic Model : shows a double layer of lipids
(Lipid bilayer) with specialised protein molecules
embedded in them that can move sideways or cannot
move. The “fluid” accounts for the flexibility of the
membrane and “mosaic” talks about the attached proteins.

Membrane proteins : help control the exchange

between external and internal environments.
Transport proteins form channels that move along the
membrane and proteins with carbohydrates (carbs are
sugar) attached are called antigens or glycoproteins,
which distinguish foreign particles and destroy them.
Receptor proteins respond to certain signals and allow substances like hormones to bind to the
membrane giving communication from the cell and the outside. Adhesion proteins link cells together.

The structure increases surface area making it have more potential for biochemical reactions. DNA is
separated from the rest of the cell making sure it is protected and usable during cell division.

Lipid component : Composed of phospholipids, which have heads containing phosphate that are
hydrophilic and tails made of fatty acids which are hydrophobic. Phospholipid tails can be saturated or
unsaturated, depending on whether or not they have double bonds with carbons and fatty acids. Saturated
tails have no double bonds and as a result have straight, unkinked tails. Unsaturated tails have double
bonds and, as a result, have crooked, kinked tails.

A type of lipid called cholesterol is interspersed among the phospholipids in animal cells which makes
it more flexible, for plant cells it is a lipid called phytosterol. Flexibility is important as it allows the cell
to change shape and grow. They can break and reassemble during cell division.
Cholesterol binds the tails of the phospholipids together, controlling
how close the phospholipids are. Cholesterol changes fluidity the
opposite to how a cell would react in temperatures to help regulate
the cell.

As the temperature increases, the fluidity of cell membranes

increases. This is because the phospholipids become less closely
packed together and are able to move more freely.
As the temperature decreases, a cell membrane with a large
proportion of saturated fatty acids may solidify at a certain point. This will not occur in a cell membrane
with a large proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, because the kinks in the tails of these fatty acids prevent
the phospholipids from becoming too closely packed.

IQ2 : Cell Function

Movement of Materials in and out of cells

Substances required for cell function move to the internal environment, and waste needs to pass out into
the external environment. Homeostasis is the process by which cells maintain a stable internal
environment, even when the external environment is constantly changing.

Substances needed include gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), nutrients (sugars, amino acids, glycerol,
fatty acids and water. Substances that are called waste include urea, uric acid and excess carbon dioxide.

Membrane permeability
Polar molecules are water soluble (hydrophilic), as are ions, water and urea.
Non-polar molecules (e.g. fats and oils) are insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in other
nonpolar substances.

The permeability of a molecule depends on the molecules’ size, electric charge and lipid solubility.
The smaller the molecule, the easier it is to enter. Hydrophilic molecules have difficulty penetrating the
membrane, because water cannot touch oil (lipids). The lipid tails slow down hydrophilic molecules and
enhances the movement of lipid soluble molecules such as urea and ethanol. Electrically charged
molecules have low membrane permeability, while neutral molecules have high permeability.

Diffusion
Movement into and out of cells that do not require energy are passive movements, including the process
of diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion is the passive transport of molecules from a region of high
concentration to low concentration until equilibrium. This movement is described as movement along a
concentration gradient.
The rate of diffusion depends on the concentration gradient and temperature. If there is a greater
difference in concentration or higher in temperature, it will be steeper and faster. The shorter the
distance, the easier it is to diffuse. The more surface area the faster it is to diffuse.

When equilibrium has been reached: concentration is the

same on both sides of the membrane, and diffusion
continues now in both directions equally.

Facilitated diffusion is movement through a channel

protein specific for the substance. It can open and close.
Facilitated diffusion can also be movement of large, polar
molecules such as carbohydrates and amino acids along a
carrier protein. They must bind to the molecule, taking their
shape and changing back after it reaches its destination.

Osmosis
Special type of diffusion involving the movement of water molecules between a selectively permeable
membrane from the dilute solution to the concentrated solution. This is known as the osmotic gradient,
and water moves along it due to osmotic pressure. Net direction of water movement needs the
concentration of the two solutions.

There are three different types of ways that we can describe the concentration of solutions being
compared, Hypertonic, Hypotonic, and Isotonic. Type of Solution

Osmosis in plant and animal cells : cell membranes are permeable to water, drawing water into cells
because the cytosol is a concentrated solution containing many dissolved substances.

Active transport
is when molecules move from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration. They move
against the concentration gradient, and therefore require energy.

Active transport via carrier proteins act like pumps, and

their absence could result in illness of death.

Endocytosis is when the cell engulfs large resources,

while exocytosis is the excretion of substances.
Exocytosis works by creating membrane bound vessels
within the cell that fuses with the membrane and excretes
waste. Pinocytosis is the process of engulfing a liquid, not
to ingestion of the liquid; rather, it is the dissolved
substances, such as salts or sugars, that the cell is looking
to obtain.
Not all substances can move through the membrane, uncharged particles can easily penetrate, while
hydrophilic substances cannot pass through the hydrophobic part of the membrane. Therefore, water
cannot move through but rather rely on aquaporin channels in the membrane.

Physical factors include the size of the particles, the thickness of the membrane, and very large molecules
need to be transported through endocytosis and exocytosis.

The concentration gradient also plays a role, as the higher the concentration, the faster the diffusion. Plant
cells carry out a process called cytoplasmic streaming, which involves organelles and cytosol flowing
around the cell in a circular movement. This enables the cell to maintain a steeper concentration gradient
as materials that diffuse into the cell are rapidly moved to another area of the cell.

Surface Area and Volume

A smaller cell has a higher surface area to
volume ratio, with the distance between the
centre of the cell from the membrane being
less, allowing substances to move quicker to
and from the surface of the cell. This means
the larger the cell, the less efficiency for
substance movement. When cells get too
large, they divide.

The shape of the cell also makes a difference to the SA:V. Spherical cells have a relatively small SA:V
compared with cells of other shapes. Long, flat cells have a higher SA:V than a spherical cell with the
same volume. Folding of cells also increases the surface area for efficiency.

Cell Requirements
Organisms can be divided into two groups depending on the strategies they use to obtain organic
compounds, which are in turn their source of energy:

Autotrophs make their own organic compounds from inorganic compounds found in the soil or
atmosphere, called carbon fixation because the autotroph 'fixes' inorganic carbon into organic molecules,
such as glucose. Since they make their own energy, they are called producers, including plants that
perform photosynthesis.

Heterotrophs obtain organic compounds by consuming other organisms (directly or indirectly autotrophs)
or their products to obtain their energy. All animals and fungi are heterotrophs. Some bacteria and many
protists are also heterotrophs.

Both autotrophs and heterotrophs use organic and inorganic compounds to produce the energy required
for all biological processes. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the reactions that cells use to
transform matter into energy. Autotrophs use both photosynthesis and cellular respiration, while
heterotrophs use only cellular respiration.

Large Organic molecules are required in every living cell, called biomacromolecules. The four main
types are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.

- Carbohydrates are in a ratio of 1:2:1 for carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates are
classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on the amount of
monomers linked.
- Lipids are made from mostly carbon and hydrogen and few oxygen and are needed for energy
storage and structure for hormones and membranes.
- Nucleic acids are the building blocks of DNA and RNA, made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and phosphorus.
- Proteins form the structure of cells, tissues, and membranes. Some have functional roles,
controlling all reactions in the cell.

Inorganic materials are gases, minerals and water, minerals accelerate chemical reactions, gases fuel
photosynthesis, and water is the main median for all reactions.

ATP and ADP cycle : Atp has 3 phosphates, with one being loosely bonded. When the loosely bonded
phosphate breaks off, it is used for energy.

Catabolic is breaking down things, while anabolic is synthesising things together.

Enzymes
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction, by lowering the activation energy. When the catalyst is biological,
we call it an enzyme. Enzymes are critical in biological systems- many biochemical reactions would
occur at so slow a rate as to be negligible. Furthermore, enzymes allow biochemical reactions to be
“switched on and off” as required. Enzymes lower the activation energy required for the reaction.

Enzymes are proteins and are specific depending on the reaction, therefore they are named after their
function. They have an active site, which is the location of substrate binding. The active site is a pocket or
groove formed by the folding of the enzyme. The substrate/s bind to the active site, forming an
enzyme-substrate complex, and the reaction occurs but is released when the reaction is complete.

The lock and key model suggest the active site is a perfect fit to only a specific enzyme, and proposes that
the proximity of reactants in the active site increases rate of reaction.

the active site undergoes a conformational change when the substrate binds.
This allows the active site to fit closely around the substrate, stressing the
bonds thus increasing rate of reaction. The induced fit model also explains
why some enzymes are able to catalyse reactions with a wide range of
substrates.
Enzyme activity is very sensitive to temperature and pH.
Too high temperature causes the enzyme tertiary structure held by bonds to break. The same goes for pH,
except the graph for pH is symmetrical.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the plants using light energy trapped in the chlorophyll to break apart water and carbon
dioxide molecules, to make oxygen, energy storing glucose and water molecules.

There are 2 phases, the light dependent phase and the light independent phase.

The light dependent phase occurs in the grana, absorbing light energy by the thylakoid membrane. The
split of water from H2O to oxygen, released in the atmosphere, while hydrogen is carried onto the next
stage. ATP is made in this stage.

The light independent phase occurs in the stroma of the chlorophyll. It combines carbon dioxide with the
hydrogen ion to form glucose, and ATP is the energy needed. Glucose can be converted by plants to make
complex carbohydrates, lipids and/or proteins. They are for the plant to grow, but also to be eaten by
heterotrophs.

Cellular Respiration
All organisms break down glucose as a source of energy by oxygen, or the absence of oxygen.

Anaerobic cellular respiration is when the cell cannot get enough oxygen, but can still release energy in
the cytosol of cells. Two biochemical pathways other than oxygen are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid
fermentation.

Aerobic respiration is a chain of biochemical

reactions that happen in the presence of oxygen.
The first step is glycolysis. It occurs in the cytosol
and breaks down glucose to make two pyruvates.
The kerb cycle involves the pyruvate molecules to enter the matrix of the mitochondria, and the
hydrogen removed from pyruvate molecules to be turned into NADH. The pyruvate molecule turns into
ATP.
The electron transport chain includes the NADH to make 32 ATP molecules.

Photosynthesis Aerobic respiration

Location in cell Chloroplast Cytosol and mitochondria

Purpose Energy capture Energy release

Exo or endo? Endothermic- requires solar energy Exothermic

Reactants Water and carbon dioxide Glucose and oxygen

Products Glucose and oxygen Water, carbon dioxide and ATP

Organism that perform Autotrophs All

Removal of products and waste : single cells can remove waste directly from the membrane, while
multicellular cells need to excrete. Waste includes water and carbon dioxide.

TERM 2 : MODULE 2

IQ1 : Cellular Arrangements of Organisms

Unicellular Organisms
All prokaryotic cells and most protists of eukaryotic cells
are unicellular. The cell membrane is exposed to the
environment, therefore all interactions are direct, without
complex systems. They can come together and make a
colony.

Colonial organisms are made of a group of identical

single-celled organisms, capable of existing by themselves,
but together they can achieve complexity.

Some colonial organisms are capable of coordinating with

other cells in the group for efficiency. However, they differ
from multicellular organisms because they have little
coordination.
Multicellular Organisms
Made of different types of eukaryotic cells to perform specialised functions for efficient functioning. They
cannot live alone and are larger in size, meaning lower SA:V ratio. Passive transport is not sufficient for
function and relies on functioning organisation. To be truly multicellular, they must have specialised cells
that are responsible for specific functions (one of which must be reproduction). They have the same DNA,
connected and dependent on each other for survival.

Unicellular Colonial Multicellular

Single cells Many cells Many cells

prokaryotes eukaryotes eukaryotes

One cell carries all function to Work together to perform Cells are specialised with
live functions to live specific functions to live

Function is carried within cell Carried out by individuals with Carried out at a cellular, tissue,
specific roles in colony organ and system level

Microscopic, surface area to macroscopic Macroscopic, more cells is

volume ratio forces it to be small bigger body

Short lifespan due to the amount Long lifespan, energy is shared Long lifespan, work is dispersed
of energy needed to sustain itself among the cells

Asexual, clonal reproduction Asexual, clonal reproduction, Sexual reproduction

sometimes sexual reproduction

Whole organism is involved Specific zooids are responsible Only cells responsible for
for reproduction reproduction is involved

Advantages in Multicellularity Disadvantages

Work efficient, specialised cells do not waste More cells are needed meaning more energy
energy doing everything

Longer lifespan Dependant on being a group, cannot live alone

Sexual reproduction means genetic diversity over More energy is required for reproduction
generations compared to unicellular organisms,
allowing them to adapt to environments

Less vulnerable to short term changes in the Populations take longer to adapt because of the
environment, more systems cope with change and generation length
death of cells are not too big of a deal

larger growth, allowing them to have mobility. N/A

Multicellular Organisation
Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ systems → Organisms

Cell Differentiation
Most multicellular organisms reproduce sexually, the first fertilised cell being the zygote. This cell will
undergo divisions to make embryonic (undifferentiated) stem cells, which are cells which are unassigned.
In adults, they can be found in the human brain or bone marrow. For plants, these cells are called the
meristem found at the tips of shoots or tips of roots.

Cell differentiation is when embryonic stem cells mature and differentiate into many different types of
cells. Cell specialisation is when these different cells develop suitable structural changes that allow them
to carry out specialised functions. When organisms are growing and developing cells, (with the
exceptions of sex cells) they are constantly dividing via mitosis, meaning they produce identical copies.
Plant equivalents of stem cells are plant meristematic cells.

Along with increasing surface area for their function, cells can also elongate. For example, the neuron cell
is long enough to transmit signals from a further distance. Root hair cells are longer to absorb more water
and nutrients.

Animals Plants

Specialised cells make up tissues, with different The four main types of plant tissue are
types of tissues forming organs that carry out meristematic tissue, vascular tissue, dermal tissue
particular functions within an organ system. and ground tissue.
 ● There are four main types of animal
tissue: epithelial tissue, connective tissue,
nervous tissue and muscle tissue.
● There are many different forms of each of
these types of tissues.
● The arrangement of cells into tissues,
organs and systems in multicellular
organisms maximises the efficient
functioning of the organisms.
● The interaction and cooperation between
cells, tissues, organs and systems provides
multicellular organisms with abilities that
are beyond the limitations of a single cell.

IQ2 : Nutrients and Gas Requirements

Chemosynthetic autotrophs are prokaryotic and obtain their energy from carbon fixation from inorganic
chemical reactions.

Autotroph Structure
Most autotrophs are plants, either being vascular or nonvascular.
Vascular plants have a transport system to move things to other
parts of the plant, while non-vascular plants have a simple system
of osmosis and diffusion, such as moss and liverworts.
The organs of a plant can be grouped into 3 systems, the shoot
system, the root system and sometimes the vascular system.
The shoot system is the part that’s above ground, supporting the
plant and enables transport of substances across the plant, like exchanging gases, carrying photosynthesis
and reproduction. This includes the leaves, stem and reproduction organs.
The root system is the part underground, responsible for absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. This
includes the root and root hairs.
Complex Plants are plants that have specialised tissue for transporting water and nutrients, called
vascular systems. It is needed for transport and made from xylem and phloem vessels.

There are 4 main types of tissues in a plant:

The meristematic tissue is found at the tips of roots and

shoots. In woody plants, it can be found in buds and in a
ring around the stem. In this area, cells can divide to
produce new growth and cell differentiation to produce
specialised cells.
The dermal tissue protects the plant tissue and can be
found on the outer layers of the stem, roots and leaves. The
epidermal layer is the outermost part of the dermal tissue. It
secretes a waxy layer called the cuticle, vital to reducing
water loss from a plant. They can also have hairs that trap a layer of air next to the leaf, preventing the
flow of air and decreasing the evaporation of water. They can also be harmful to the insects which eat
them.
The vascular tissue in a plant is responsible for transport of substances around the plant and is found in
the roots, stem and leaves. There are 2 main types, the xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and
mineral salts from the root to the leaves. Phloem transports the production of photosynthesis around the
plant.
The ground tissue contains a variety of cell types that are specialised for food storage, support and
photosynthesis.

Transportation of Substances in Plants

Term Definition

Adhesion The attraction between unlike materials. The cohesion - tension theory suggests
water rises in plants due to adhesion to the capillary walls of plants and the
cohesion between water molecules.

Cohesion Attraction between like materials. Hydrogen bonds between water molecules in
the xylem

Diffusion Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration

Evapotranspiration Evaporation losses from transpiration and soil. Too much causes plant stress.

Guard Cells Encircles the stomata and closes when water is left too quickly

Osmosis Diffusion of water through a semi - permeable membrane

Plasmolysis Shrinkage of protoplasm from cell wall.

Root Pressure Forces water into the xylem and transpiration pulls it up according to cohesion -
tension theory.

Mesophyll Allows exchange of gases in photosynthesis and transpiration.

Stomata Small openings in the leaves, located in the lower dermis. They allow water to
evaporate when surrounding air is less moist than the mesophyll.

Transpiration The process of water loss through the stomata. The upwards movement of water
from roots to leaves is called the transpiration stream.

Turgor Measure of cell firmness

Xylem Tube-like network of cells that distributes water around a plant

Xylem is responsible for the transport of water and

nutrients upwards from the roots. It is reliant on
transpiration, which drives water upwards.
Xylem cells are dead, and join together to create vessels that are uninterrupted allowing water and mineral
ions to pass easily. The lignin that forms the walls is strong and prevents the tube collapsing, gaps in the
lignin allow water to leave the vessels and pass between them. The lignin is also waterproof to prevent
water from adhering too much to the surface.

Phloem transports sucrose and amino acids around the plant, called translocation. Phloem cells are living
and join end to end and go in both directions. Phloem tissue is present towards the periphery of the
vascular bundles and is less in quantity than the xylem tissue.

Comparison Xylem Phloem

Type of transport Passive Active

Location mainly located in the centre of the mainly localised towards the periphery
vascular bundles. of the vascular bundles.

forms most of the bulk of the wood. forms most of the bulk of the bark.

Found in Leaves, roots, stems stems and leaves which later grow in the
roots, fruits, and seeds.

Composed of xylem vessels, fibres, and tracheids. like sieve tubes, companion cells,
phloem fibres, and phloem parenchyma.

Cells dead cells except for the parenchyma living cells except for the blast fibres.
cells.

Thick walled Thin walled

Lignified cell walls (rigid and Cell wall is not lignified

woody)

Quantity the quantity of xylem tissue in the the quantity of phloem tissue is
vascular bundles is more than the comparatively less in the vascular tissue.
phloem tissue.

Function transport water and dissolved transport the prepared sugars from the
minerals from the root to different leaves to different parts of the plant.
parts.

Direction unidirectional bidirectional

Mechanical Support Physical support for plant No mechanical support

Roots absorbs water and minerals in a 4-step process :

- Active transport of minerals into root hair

- Diffusion to the pericycle
- Active transport into the vascular cylinder
 - Diffusion into the Xylem

Capillary action involves cohesion and adhesion. Cohesion happens when polar water molecules stick
together from hydrogen bonds. Adhesion happens when water molecules stick to polar surfaces. This
causes water to crawl upwards through a narrow stream with a maximum height of 10 metres.

Cohesion tension theory is a water chain effect from the cohesion of water molecules.

Pressure differences created by transpiration draws water up from the roots and into the leaves, causing
lower water pressure which draws in more water.

Evaporation at the surface on leaves keeps the water column moving. This is the strongest force in
transpiration.

Movement through Phloem

Pressure flow theory explains how sap moves in a plant from a source to a sink. The process begins with
sugar at a source pumped into phloem tube cells. Osmosis moves water into the cell and raises pressure,
which moves the sap. There are 6 types of pressure flows :

- The leaf is a source of sugar from photosynthesis

- Active transport loads sucrose into phloem cells against the concentration gradient
- The high concentration of sucrose in phloem causes water to move in from osmosis, raising
pressure and moving sap
- In a root, sucrose is converted into starch, keeping sugar moving in by diffusion
- As sugar concentration drops, water is moved out with osmosis
- This drops pressure and the difference keeps sap flowing

Gas Exchange
All organisms need to obtain gas from their environment and to get rid of wastes. There are 3 principles:
- There must be a large surface area that contacts the environment in order to perform the exchange
- The gaseous exchange surface must be moist, as the gases must dissolve in water before passing
through the membrane via diffusion.
- Membrane must be close contact to blood to carry gases between cells

For plants, leaves are flat and large, optimising surface area. Leaves also have open air spaces allowing
air to move freely through the leaf without passing through cells. Most gas exchange occurs in the
stomata and lenticels.

The waxy cuticle of leaves are non-porous but possess pores in the epidermis to allow gaseous exchange.
Stomata are bordered by two guard cells which contain chloroplasts. Stomata helps plants exchange gases
without losing too much water by the ability of opening and closing. When guard cells fill with water and
become turgid, they are stretched outwards and the pore widens. When stomata lose water, the outer walls
no longer bulge and move together, closing the pore. Lenticels are pores for gas exchange in woody parts
of plants. The diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour is relatively slow.

For animals, the exchange of gases is internal to keep the membrane moist. The exchange happens in the
alveoli in the lungs. The path oxygen takes is :
1. The air travels from the nose/mouth to the trachea which divides into the bronchi, moving into the
lungs. Hairs called cilia mitigate entry of foreign particles.
2. The bronchi divides into the bronchioles
3. The bronchioles end in clusters of tiny air sacs called alveoli.

Oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream to be transported into all cells of the body. Similarly, carbon dioxide
diffuses from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. The alveoli has a large surface area, and the
cells are long and thin which increases the rate of diffusion.

Respiration Systems in Different Animals

When frogs are at rest, gaseous exchange happens in the membranes
of the mouth or the nostrils. When they are underwater, it occurs
through their skin. Their lungs are much simpler, though not as
efficient because they do not need to devote any energy to regulate
temperature, so oxygen requirements are less.

Aquatic animals do not need to internalise their gaseous exchange, as their membranes will never dry
out. Gills have a large surface area and water enters through their mouth to their gills. This compensates
for the fact that oxygen concentration is fewer in water. When most fish are stationary, they gulp water to
maintain water flow to their gills.

For insects, gaseous exchange takes place through the sides of their bodies through a series of pores
called spiracles, which are controlled by valves to minimise water loss. Each spiracle allows air to move
into a network of tracheal tubes which infiltrate their whole body. The tracheal tubes then form branched
structures called tracheoles, which increase surface area. From the tracheoles, the gases diffuse directly in
and out of cells.

Human Digestion
The digestive system consists of an alimentary canal that runs through the body, from mouth to anus.
Here, ingested food can be broken down and digested to absorb nutrients. There are two types of
digestion, physical and chemical.

Physical digestion uses teeth to break down food into smaller pieces to increase surface area and allow
digestive enzymes to break it faster. Chemical digestion begins with saliva to break down starches. The
oesophagus transports the broken food into the stomach, where churning motion continues mechanical
digestion as well as mixing particles with enzymes and water. The enzyme in your stomach is pepsin,
functions optimally in low pH levels. It breaks down proteins in peptides.
The mixture of partially digested food, water and enzymes travels to the small intestine. The change of
pH deactivates the enzyme and acid is neutralised. Different enzymes are released from the pancreas to
complete the digestion of carbohydrates and proteins, and start the digestion of lipids.

IQ3 : Further Transport

Transportation System in Plants

There is another type of xylem tissue called tracheids which are found in
angiosperms (flowering plants). Most gymnosperms (conifers) and
pteridophytes (ferns, horsetails, club mosses) have tracheids only. They are
dead individual cells, transport water and ions, and contain a lumen smaller
than xylem vessels.

Tracheids Vessels

Tracheids are Cylindrical structure

elongated narrow formed of rows of
tube-like dead and cells placed end to
empty cells with end. They are
hard, thick lignified walls with a large cell cavity connected by plates with pores through which
part of the xylem. water moves upwards.

They are found alone in the wood of ferns and Vessels are found in angiosperms, such as mango
gymnosperms such as pines. trees, along with tracieds.

Its purpose is to transport water and minerals and Transports water and minerals from root to leaves
mechanical support for the plant. and gives mechanical support.

The transport of sugars, amino acids and hormones around the plant occurs via active transport in the
phloem.

Transport in Animals: Open Circulatory Systems

Simple animals like insects have open circulatory systems.
They have hearts but no blood vessels, rather haemolymph
flows around the cells which is the equivalent to blood. It is
also pumped by a heart, though insects also use movements to
accelerate the process.

Transport in Animals: Closed Circulatory

Systems
Vertebrates such as birds, fish and mammals have hearts which pump blood around the body in sealed
vessels. Pulmonary circulation transports blood between the heart and lungs; systemic circulation moves
blood from the heart to the rest of the body.
The Cardiovascular System
The heart is made of Cardiac muscle, connective tissue and nerves with the function of pumping blood
around your body. It has a left and right side separated by a septum. The right hand side pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygen, and the left hand side pumps oxygenated blood around the
body from the lungs. In mammals, the heart has four chambers: the thinner-walled atria and the

thicker-walled ventricles.

The arteries are blood vessels which transport oxygenated blood from the heart. They have thick
muscular walls to withstand the high pressures
from pumping around the body. Arterioles, or
branches of the arteries, connect them to
capillaries.
Veins transport deoxygenated blood from organs to the heart. Their muscle walls are thinner and have a
larger diameter. Because they have thinner walls and lower pressure, they rely on valves to prevent the
blood from flowing in the wrong direction. Venules are the vein branches that connect to capillaries.

Capillaries exchange substances between blood and extracellular fluids. The walls are extremely thin and
narrow, meaning the erythrocytes (red blood cells) can only travel in single file. This enhances gaseous
exchange between the erythrocytes and the extracellular fluid. They transport nutrients and oxygen to
cells, and wastes such as carbon dioxide are taken away. The network of capillaries that lies between the
arterioles and the venules is called the capillary bed.

Arteries Vein Capillaries

Always carry blood out of your Always carry blood to the heart. Exchange materials between
heart. blood and extracellular fluids

Carry oxygenated blood, except Always carry deoxygenated nutrients and oxygen are
for the pulmonary artery blood, except for the pulmonary transported to cells, wastes are
vein taken away

Carry blood of high pressure Carry blood of low or negative Carries red blood cells in single
pressure file

Thick, muscular elastic walls Thinner walls Extremely thin walls

A type of supporting tissue Have less connective tissue single layer of endothelium and
called connective tissue provides associated connective tissue
strength

The channel in the blood vessel Wide Lumen Extremely narrow

that carries blood (the lumen) is
narrow

Blood is composed of :
- Plasma (approximately 55%)- the fluid portion of blood. Mostly water, but some dissolved
proteins
- Erythrocytes (red blood cells, approximately 45%). Responsible for transporting oxygen to cells,
and carbon dioxide away.
- Leukocytes (white blood cells, less than 1%)- involved in the immune system.
- Platelets (cell fragments, less than 0.01%)- promote blood clotting when injury occurs

Blood travels in the following path:

1. Deoxygenated blood enters via the vena cavae
2. Goes through the atria, then to the ventricle (right)
3. Goes out to lungs via pulmonary arteries
4. Comes back from lungs to heart via pulmonary veins (oxygenated)
5. Goes through the atria and ventricle (left)
6. Goes out to body via aorta
 7. Gets deoxygenated via capillaries, moving blood from arteries back to veins

Lymphatic System
Helps manage fluid levels within the body. When the fluid flows
through the lymph nodes, spleen or thymus, harmful substances
can be removed from the body via lymphocytes, a type of
leukocyte.

The composition of the transport medium changes as it moves

around the body, depending on the organ that it has passed
through. The mammalian kidney is a filter system that removes the
toxic urea from amino acid breakdown in the liver. Thus, we
would expect that blood leaving the liver would have a relatively
high amount of urea; once this blood has passed through the
kidneys there should no longer be any urea in the blood. Similarly,
when blood passes through endocrine glands, we would expect the
concentration of hormones to rise.

TERM 2 : MODULE 3

IQ1 : Environment and Organisms

Ecosystems
An ecosystem is a combination of all the organisms
(biotic factors) living in a community (a group of
different populations in an area or habitat) and all the
non living features (abiotic factors) with which they
interact.

Biotic and Abiotic factors differ significantly between

ecosystems. Abiotic factors create selection pressures
that select for different types of biotic factors. An
organism’s ecosystem provides it with nutrients, water, shelter and mating opportunities. Competition
between organisms to survive and reproduce results in only successful species with favourable traits to
continue living.

Selection Pressures
A change in environment often results in limited resources, increasing competition. This drives natural
selection, as individuals within the population that have random variations that make them better suited to
the new environment are more likely to survive. If their variation has a genetic basis (hereditary) then it
will be passed to offspring and only individuals to survive have that variation. The surviving population is
now different from the original population, and will be called “adapted”. This proves the importance of
biodiversity because an absence of variation will result in few to none individuals surviving. Selection
pressures can include abiotic factors (temperature) and biotic factors (competition).

Population size is important as it has a direct bearing on the ability for a population to survive. The
distribution describes where the species is found and the abundance determines how many individuals
live throughout the ecosystem.

Abiotic factors such as temperature range, light and water availability affect the distribution and
abundance of organisms by causing fluctuations and change in population number and movements.

Biotic factors that determine population sizes include :

- Availability of food
- Number of competitors
- Number of mates
- Number of predators
- Diseases
Population Changes

Individuals of the same species in a population have a range of characteristics. Members of a population
which survive and reproduce carry the traits most suitable for habitat conditions. If selection pressures in
an environment changes, individuals whose traits are no longer suited for the change will struggle to
survive and reproduce. This will cause a change in species diversity.

Examples of Population Changes :

Species Change

Peppered Moth The peppered moth normally rests on lichen covered trees (lichen is a white-ish
mould). It depends on its speckled white colour to camouflage. There is also a darker
form but in smaller numbers.

During the industrial revolution, dark moths increased rapidly in areas where smoke
and soot blackened the trees. The peppered moth is pecked off trees by birds, and in
polluted areas, the darker moth is camouflaged while the speckled moths are seen.

Cane Toad The cane toad was originally native to south and central America but was brought to
 Australia to control cane beetle populations. They quickly spread across Australia,
transforming original populations of 102 toads to a now estimated 200 million. This
is due to their unique combination of structural and behavioural features which
thrive in Australia :
- They mainly feed at night
- Ground dwellers
- Will eat anything which fits in their mouth
- Absorb water through skin
- No predators
- Breed all year round, laying 30,000 eggs at a time that hatch in 2-3 days

They have also undergone adaptations like behavioural traits (cannibalism, hopping
in straight lines), physiological traits (speeding up tadpole development), and
structural (longer legs).

They contain toxins that kill many native animals which try to eat them. Glands on
their shoulders contain bufotoxin, which acts on the central and nervous system
causing rapid heartbeat, hypersalivation, convulsions and paralysis.

Some predators are more tolerant to the toad’s toxins, and some are reluctant to eat
toads. This makes cane toads a selection pressure because those predators will
survive and reproduce. (for example, smaller head red bellied snakes, quolls stopped
eating toads).

IQ2 : Adaptation and Survival

Adaptations
An adaptation is a characteristic that an organism has inherited to make it better suited for its
environment. An organism does not intentionally change or intentionally produce offspring with these
changes. An adaptation is a result of change or variation that arises, at random, when cells divide and
replicate during the process of reproduction.

The three types of adaptations that are found in organisms are:

- structural adaptation ; physical features, on both the inside and outside of the organism
- physiological adaptation ; relate to the biochemical processes and internal processes carried out
by an organism
- Behavioural adaptation ; organisms perform in response to a stimulus

Structural Adaptation in Plants

Xerophytes have structural adaptations to maximise the absorption and storage of water to minimise the
loss of water. Succulents have adapted flesh stems or leaves and are able to swell up and retain moisture
when they are able to, then survive using the moisture during dry periods.
Eucalypts and banksias have coarse, leathery leaves with a thick coating of wax (cuticle) to protect them
from excessive sunlight, provides insulation, has reflective properties and reduces the amount of
evaporation that sometimes occurs through thinner leaf cuticles. This also ensures the epidermal cells are
waterproof, preventing water loss from the surface cells.

Leaf shapes are important too, cypress pines have tiny cylindrical leaves that have a small surface
area-to-volume ratio which reduces water loss through transpiration.

Structural Adaptations in Animals

Animals have structural adaptations depending on their environment. For example,

- large ears to increase surface area to release heat in arid environments

- small body to be able to borrow
- Animals in cold climates tend to have fur or blubber to help insulate them against the cold, such
as the fairy penguin
- Aquatic organisms have adaptations to help them move through the water, such as fins or webbed
feet
- Many birds have bright or elaborate feathers to impress mates
- Animals will have different colours for camouflage, to indicate that they’re poisonous, or to
mimic poisonous organisms.
- Spikes and spines to deter predators, like the Thorny Devil
- wombat gives birth to an underdeveloped joey, which remains in the rear-opening pouch for five
months. The pouch orientation ensures the joey is protected from dirt that would otherwise fill the
pouch if it was forward-facing. Because the pouch is facing backwards, the joey has a higher
chance of survival.

Physiological Adaptations in Plants

Plants can also have physiological adaptations so that

they can tolerate high salinity levels. Some plants can
actively pump out salt, whilst others may let high
levels of salt accumulate in leaves or bark, which is
then shedded.

Salt-tolerant plants (for example, seagrass and

mangroves) are able to maintain metabolic functioning even though their cells accumulate sodium and
chloride ions. They minimise salt toxicity by increasing their water content in large vacuoles.

In contrast, salt-avoidant plants (salt excluders) minimise the salt concentrations of cells through
structural and physiological adaptations such as stopping salt from entering at the roots.

Many responses of plants to temperature change (such as leaf fall and flowering-tulip bulbs) are the result
of temperature and/or light changing the concentration of hormones in plants. Responding to temperature
change and the regulation of internal temperatures is important not only for the individual plant, but also
for the continuation of the species.

Physiological Adaptations in Animals

- Minimise water loss by excreting highly concentrated urine. The desert hopping mouse is able to
reabsorb most of the water from their urine back into their bloodstream. They also use the water
produced as a by-product of cellular respiration (about 0.56 grams per gram of carbohydrate).
- Torpor is an adaptation that involves organisms slowing their metabolic processes
- Aestivation (opposite of hibernation) is torpor but in hot weather, can be performed by many
types of organisms. The cane toad aestivate by burrowing underground and sealing itself in a
water-tight mucus cocoon
- Hibernation (ability to store energy)

Behavioural Adaptations in Plants

- Mimosa pudica is a houseplant which responds to touch ; when a leaf is touched, it folds inwards
defending itself.
- The venus flytrap relies on insect nutrition, and responds rapidly when a small insect touches
sensory hairs (also physiological)
- turgor pressure - keeps plant cell vacuoles full and pressing against the cell wall. As a result of
touch, the water flows quickly out of the vacuoles, resulting in a loss of turgor pressure and the
cells collapse. So it really is a physiological adaptation, leading to a behavioural adaptation.

Behavioural Adaptations in Animals

- Brown snakes are diurnal, but may become active at night if day is too hot
- The central netted dragon will alter its body position for greater surface area to sunrays.
- Sugar gliders produce a pungent scent to locate partners in night
- Meerkats are actively looking for predators.

Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin embarked on a journey to several continents, including south-america, africa and
australia. During his visit to the galapagos islands (18 main islands) he collected specimens of finches. He
reasoned that a group of south american finches have arrived on one of the remote islands with naturally
occurring variations (colour, beak and leg size). They gradually populated other islands with different
environmental conditions which determined which birds thrived and which finches were not adapted and
died out.

Formal explanation : These exerted different selection pressures on the finches, meaning that different
traits, such as beak length, were favoured on different islands. Over time, speciation occurred, the finches
on the different islands became different enough from one another to be considered different species. This
process- a single species forming several as they evolve to fit empty ecological niches is called adaptive
radiation.
In Australia, he noticed appearance and behavioural similarities between the platypus and the water rat,
along with the rat-kangaroo and rabbit. This led to the idea that organisms could evolve to become similar
(convergent evolution); If organisms live in similar environments, similar variation they possess would be
favoured by natural selection to survive.

Natural selection states the following:

1. There is variation within a population of a species.

Variations that pass from one generation to another are often produced in a population as a result of
mutations.

2. If a factor in the environment changes, so may what is favourable for survival

This means that characteristics that were previously neutral or unfavourable become favourable;
alternatively, a previously favourable characteristic could become neutral or unfavourable.

3. Those with traits (genes) most suited to the new environment are most likely to survive
This means that these individuals are most likely to breed as well, meaning that they’ll pass the trait
(gene) on to their offspring- and that there will be more offspring from those with the favourable trait than
offspring from those with the unfavourable trait.

4. The trait becomes more prevalent in the population

Over time, if no further changes occur in the environment, most individuals will possess the trait.

5. Because more offspring are produced than can be supported by the resources available to a
population, those individuals that are best adapted to the environment will outcompete those who are less
well adapted. This is what is meant by the phrase “survival of the fittest”

Nothing was known about genetics in Darwin’s time; we now know that natural selection itself is driven
by mutation: that random changes arise in the genetic code, leading to individuals with different traits
(genes). Some mutations are unfavourable, some are neutral and some are beneficial , and these are the
reasons for natural selection.

IQ3 : Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

History
The Urey and Miller experiment aimed to replicate Earth’s
early atmosphere. Passing an electrical current through the
“atmosphere” led to the formation of amino acids and other
organic molecules. The use of UV light in subsequent
experiments showed that it was possible to form nitrogenous
bases, sugars and nucleotides- the fundamental chemicals of
life.
Precambrian Era
The earth was anoxic (deprived of oxygen) and the living cells were prokaryotic. Photosynthetic
cyanobacteria led to the oxygenation of the atmosphere.

The newly oxygenated Earth allowed development of more complex life (endosymbiotic theory)
including the first eukaryotes which appeared in the Proterozoic aeon.

Palaeozoic Era
In the Cambrian era, most animal phyla are present, and algal life is diverse. One of the best records is the
Burgess shale, which provides fossil evidence of many strange and extinct organisms, as well as some
more familiar to science.

Following this was the Ordovician period, where animal phyla diversified, and the first jawless fish
appeared in the fossil record, and the first simple non-vascular plants appeared. The Ordovician
terminated in a short but devastating ice age- the first mass extinction event in the history of the Earth.
Scientists estimate that approximately 85% of ocean life and 70% of terrestrial life went extinct at this
time.

Mesozoic Era
The Triassic period began the Mesozoic era. During this time, Pangaea started to break up. Mammal-like
reptiles dominated, and the first mammals appeared, as did the first dinosaurs. There was another mass
extinction at the end of the Triassic, although the reasons for it are not clear. Some have suggested that,
again, climate change was responsible.

Following this, in the Jurassic period, the breakup of Pangaea was complete and Laurasia and
Gondwanaland were formed. More coastline meant that the arid conditions decreased and humidity
decreased, and the land was re-vegetated. This increased atmospheric oxygen levels, and gymnosperms,
particularly cycads, dominated the landscape.

Biological Diversity
Refers to the variety of all forms of life. Diversity is what allows adaptations to changes to our
environment. Biodiversity exists on three different levels ;

- Genetic Diversity - total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic make-up of a species
- Species Diversity - a measure of diversity of different species in an ecological community
- Ecosystem Diversity - variation of different ecosystems found in a region

The Darwin-Wallace Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection is currently accepted. All theories of
evolution share some common basic premises ;
- Living organisms arose from common ancestors or a common life form and have changed
overtime.
- Differences that occur among groups of living organisms imply that living things change
overtime.
 - Similarities occur in living things and suggest a common ancestry - the basic chemistry, inherited
from a common life form, has remained relatively unchanged and has been passed down for
generations.

Natural Selection depends on Variation, Heritability, Over-reproduction and Competition. Formation of a

new species may occur when a population becomes isolated from the original group. Eventually, the
population becomes so different from the original population that they can no longer interbreed and
produce fertile offspring with them - the defining condition for a population to be considered a different
species. Individuals do not develop adaptations in response to environmental change, they must
already possess the random variation.

Speciation
A species is defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two members of the opposite sex are
able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring. If populations of the same species are unable to
interbreed, they are referred to as isolated. Selection pressures and genetic drift (random fluctuations in
allele frequencies, generally in smaller populations due to “sampling errors”) can lead to genetic changes
that overtime lead to the population becoming so different they cannot interbreed. This process is
speciation, when a population is considered two distinct species.

Two important examples of genetic drift are the bottleneck effect and the founder effect.
Bottleneck effect : when an initially large population is suddenly reduced in numbers, which increases
inbreeding and reduces variety in the gene pool.
Founder effect : when a small group of individuals move away from the larger population- inbreeding
increases and allele frequencies decrease- their small gene pool will not very accurately represent the
larger population from which they originated.

Speciation often depends on reducing or stopping gene flow- the exchange of genetic material between
different populations of a species, often by migration of members of the populations. Whilst gene flow
occurs, the respective gene pools will remain fairly similar. If the populations are isolated, then selection
pressures and genetic drift may lead to speciation.

Allopatric speciation is caused by a geographical barrier that prevents gene flow between populations and
over time, genetic drift leads to speciation. Isolation can be caused by tectonic activity, such as continents
breaking apart, mountains forming or bodies of water separating the populations. Darwin’s finches are
another example of allopatric speciation- the migrating finches were separated geographically onto the
different islands of the Galapagos. Once on the different islands, adaptive radiation occurred- the finches
evolved in response to the different selection pressures on the different islands.

Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium

Gradualism proposes that speciation occurs relatively constantly over time.
Punctuated Equilibrium proposes that most of the time, selection pressures remain constant, so that
species that are already well adapted to their environment and species are undergoing little or no change.
The species are at equilibrium. A sudden change in the environment, often involving a small population
being geographically isolated from the main population, leads to rapid change in a population (in relative
terms), as new characteristics are now favoured.

Types of Evolution

Convergent Evolution
The process by which different species, unrelated to
one another, evolve similar traits. We saw examples
of convergent evolution when Darwin compared the
platypus to the European water vole. These
organisms face similar selection pressures in similar
environments, and will often develop similar
analogous structures to meet the demands of the
environment.

Divergent Evolution
The process by which closely related species become more and more dissimilar. The descendants of a
single ancestor diversify into species due to different selection pressures exerted by different
environments.

Coevolution
The process of two species evolve in response to changes in each other. An evolutionary change in one
organism may also be followed by a corresponding change in another organism. Insects have been feeding
on plants since insects evolved. In response, many plants developed toxins or poisons to prevent insects
from feeding on them. Natural selection favoured any insect that could withstand the effects of the toxin.
Those insects then survived and produced a population of offspring who could also withstand the effect of
the toxin or poison.

Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies within a single species or population, caused by
natural and sexual selection, genetic drift and gene flow, generally occurring over small time scales.
Macroevolution is caused by the accumulation of microevolutionary changes that lead to speciation, and
then, beyond the species level.

IQ4 : Evidence for Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection

Biochemical Evidence
The more closely related the organisms are, the more similar their proteins and DNA will be. Proteins are
found in every living cell, and are composed of subunits called amino acids. Living things contain a
combination of about 20 different genetic amino acids with its number, type and sequence determining the
type of protein.
Similarities within amino acid sequences indicate that the organisms may share a common ancestor.
Differences imply that the organism has evolved. The number of differences is proportional to the length
of time since the organisms separated. This information constructs phylogenetic trees; branching diagrams
showing inferred evolutionary relationships.

DNA is the genetic material of all organisms inherited

by parent cells. DNA codons are composed of three
nitrogenous bases. Each codon corresponds to an amino
acid, or a stop or a start. Mutations are changes to the
DNA sequence of an organism, which may lead to a
change in the amino acid being coded for (or not). Many
mutations don’t have an effect- even though there is a
change in the base sequence, the amino acid expressed
is the same.

Some mutations do cause a change in the amino acid

sequence. Depending on the location in the protein, as
well as which amino acid appears instead, mutations can
have different effects. Cytochrome-C

DNA-DNA hybridisation involves separating the double stranded DNA molecule with high temperatures
(90-94 degrees) into an individual strand. It is then combined with another strand by applying heat again,
and the strong binding indicates a similar order of nucleotide bases and therefore closely related species.

Comparative Anatomy
Includes homologous structures and analogous structures.

Homologous structures include organs which have the same basic plan to their structure, but show
modifications because they are used in different ways. This is evidence of divergent evolution.

For example, the pentadactyl limbs of all vertebrates

have the same basic bone plan. Therefore, the wings of
a bird, the forearm of a lizard and the flipper of a whale
are homologous because they all share a common bone
structure suggesting a common evolutionary origin.

Analogous structures are body parts of organisms that

appear similar at first, but in-depth studies of their
anatomy show that they are vastly different in their bone structure, for example the wings of a bird and a
grasshopper. They are different and have evolved independently for a similar reason like flight.
Convergent evolution is where changes in structure are adaptations that favour the survival of these
unrelated organisms as they face similar selection pressures.
Comparative Embryology
Compares the development stages of different species, and similarities infer relationships between
organisms. This is best explained by common ancestry where all the descendants were a common form.

- The pharyngeal slits found in fish, reptile, bird and human embryos suggest a common ancestor
which lived in aquatic environments.

Biogeography
As new species arise from isolation, species which lived closer to the original species are more similar,
along with species that lived in a common area before it split up.

- the present day distribution of flightless birds suggests that these birds originated from a common
ancestor in Gondwana
- Australia’s unique mammals and flowering plants are believed to have arisen because of the
isolation of the continent.

This provides support for the concept of adaptive radiation or the diversification in organisms that
evolved from an ancestral species because of migrations into new environments. Adaptive radiation
involves the migration of organisms into new environments because they have traits that allow them to
exploit resources in the new environment and survive in new niches.

Fossil Evidence
Fossils provide direct evidence of the existence of an organism in the past. Fossils may be mineralised
remains in rock or the actual remains of the organism preserved in rock, ice, amber, tar, peat or ash.

Relative dating relies on the assumption that fossils found higher up in rock strata are younger than lower
fossils, so fossils are dated relative to each other. The actual age cannot be determined. Different
techniques include:

- Chemical analysis ; measuring the amount of chemicals in bones like uranium and iodine as the
longer they are underground, the more chemicals they exchange. Nitrogen, uranium and iodine
decrease with age.
- Stratigraphy relies on sedimentary rocks formed in layers, the lower the layer, the older it is
- Biostratigraphy involves comparing fossils in different strata. Index fossils can determine the
rock strata they are found as the occurrence of a fossil within two different rock locations indicate
the rocks containing fossil specimen were deposited at the same time
- Paleomagnetism studies the record of Earth’s changing magnetic field in rocks, sediment and
other material. Some magnetic materials in rocks lock in a record of the direction and intensity of
Earth’s magnetic field when the rock is formed. When scientists determine Earth’s past magnetic
field, they look for traces of iron oxide in the rocks. Iron oxide is magnetic and therefore when
the rock is formed will orientate in the direction of the magnetic field.
Absolute dating (or radiometric dating) enables the actual age of a specimen to be determined using the
radiometric elements in the specimen.

- Fission-track dating involves a microscope counting

tracks left by uranium fission fragments, determining
the age of the specimen by the amount of uranium
remaining and the density of fission tracks
- Potassium-argon dating measures the radioactive argon
to radioactive potassium ratio based upon the decay of
potassium-40 to radioactive argon-40.

The presence of transitional forms of organisms are those that combine the features of the old organism
with the new. For example, archaeopteryx had both teeth and feathers (transitional form between
dinosaurs and birds).

Modern Examples of Evolutionary Change

Antibiotics today are overprescribed and overused, furthermore, they are often used incorrectly. This is
leading to the development of antibiotic resistance. Bacteria are able to develop resistance to antibiotics in
more than one way:

- Vertically: new generations inherit the gene from the parent cell (acquired through random
mutation). Bacteria reproduce rapidly, so many offspring bearing a resistant gene can appear in a
short period of time.
- Horizontally (horizontal gene transfer): resistance genes are transferred directly between bacteria
(it doesn’t have to be the same species). Transposons are mobile genetic elements that can be
transferred between bacteria, and inserted either into the plasmid DNA or chromosomal DNA.
Plasmids can also be transferred between bacteria.

The root cause of antibiotic resistance is their overuse and misuse.

- The exposure to antibiotics gives bacteria the opportunity to develop resistance.

- Failure to complete a course of antibiotics may mean that not all bacteria present are killed,
allowing bacteria to develop resistance.

The use of antibiotics in agriculture to encourage growth and to prevent infections builds up reservoirs of
resistance in animals.

Emergence of antibiotic resistance in terms of evolution by natural selection:

- There is variation within a population of a species.

Some bacteria will already be resistant to a particular antibiotic, naturally, via a random mutation.
- If a factor in the environment changes, so may what is favourable for survival
If the antibiotic is administered, the gene for resistance, previously neutral, now is favourable
- Those with traits (genes) most suited to the new environment are most likely to survive
Bacteria that don’t possess the gene for resistance will be likely to die, whilst those bacteria that have the
gene are more likely to survive, and pass on the gene.
- The trait becomes more prevalent in the population
Over time, if no further changes occur in the environment, most bacteria will possess the trait. They will
pass it on to their offspring and also to other bacteria via horizontal gene transfer.

TERM 3 : MODULE 4

IQ1 : Population Changes

Interactions Between Biotic Factors

Intraspecific relationships are both positive and negative interactions between members of the same
species. The three main classes of relationships that occur between members of the same species are
mating, collaboration and competition.
Interspecific relationships involve members of different species having ecological relationships.

Term Definition

Allelopathy A relationship in which one plant reduces the growth of another one
in its vicinity by secreting inhibitory chemicals.

Competition when two animals of the same or different species attempt to use the
same ecological resource at the same time.

Predation organism which captures and feeds on another organism

Symbiotic Mutualism both organisms benefit

Relationships
(at least one Commensalism one organism benefits and the other is not affected
benefits)
Parasitism one organism is implementing harm on the other organism

Symbiosis allows for an increase in biodiversity and therefore a more resilient ecosystem. For example,
coral reefs are only possible because the coral (animals) have a symbiotic relationship with photosynthetic
algae. The reefs provide a unique environment for fish and marine invertebrates.

Ecological niche: the role of a species in an ecosystem: the set of resources it consumes and habitats it
occupies, as well as its interactions with other species.

- two or more species are competing to

occupy the same ecological niche, one will
eliminate the other (the other going
extinct, or needing to adapt to a different
niche)
 - Species that are adapted to very specific niches are at greater risk of extinction when ecological
change occurs, as their high degree of specialisation puts them at risk of not being able to adapt

In all ecosystems, there are limiting factors such as the availability of resources. Therefore, at a certain
point, the population grows with a plateau and we can say that it has reached equilibrium- births equal
deaths. This limit is referred to as the carrying capacity of an ecosystem.

Effect of Predation

In a simple relationship in which a predator feeds on

only one type of prey, an increase in the prey
population means that more food is available, and
the predator population therefore also increases.
This causes the prey population to decrease, in turn
resulting in a decrease in the predator population. If
members of the remaining prey population cannot
escape, they may all be eaten, and so die off. This
will also result in the demise of the predator species. In situations where at least some prey can escape,
however, equilibrium between the two species is reached. In cases where a predator population feeds on
more than one type of prey, the predator may consume a larger proportion of a certain species if numbers
of the other prey species have decreased.

Factors that may affect the abundance of predator and prey distribution:
- Number of predators competing for the same prey
- Availability of prey's food
- Reproduction rate
- Death rate (factors other than predation)
- Ratio males to females
- Size of ecosystem
- Movement between ecosystems
- Number of shelter sites available

Effect of Competition
When the competition is interspecific, (between two or more species) one species is usually better suited
and will always have a higher population than the other, even when that resource and the populations
fluctuate.
This can also be seen in population graphs:

Intraspecific competition also includes competition for

mates. Intraspecific and interspecific competition also
occurs for nutrition and shelter.
Competition between plants involves allelopathy, where a plant releases specific biochemicals
(allelochemicals) that influence, either detrimentally or beneficially, the growth of other individual plants
around it. Often, allelopathy involves plants releasing chemicals into the soil to prevent other plants from
growing in the same space.

Acacia trees, which are the main diet of giraffes, let off allelochemicals when they are eaten to warn
nearby acacias that there is a grazing giraffe around, in which case they cut off their water flow to the
leaves and become bitter, unpleasant and even poisonous.

Effect of Diseases
Disease can be defined as impairment to normal physiological functioning. Diseases may be infectious
(caused by pathogens) or noninfectious (caused by a range of factors, including environmental, nutritional
and genetic). Generally, infectious diseases have the greatest impact in ecosystems.

Factors that affect the success of pathogens in ecosystems include:

- Method of transmission
- Abiotic factors (e.g. water flow)
- Host population size and density
- Host population genetic diversity

A change in the environment, such as habitat destruction can lead to overcrowding and thus a greater host
density in which a disease may be transmitted. Isolated populations becoming continuous populations
compromise the barriers of a pathogen, spreading disease.

The Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) is a highly contagious disease caused by a cluster of cancerous
cells that can be transmitted. Devils often bite one other’s faces which allows transmission of the disease.
It is almost always fatal due to either starvation or suffocation.

The Thylacine was the top predator in Tasmania until the early 20th century when it was hunted to
extinction. Its presence on the island broke up the now continuous population of Devils, so that a disease
such as DFTD would have been restricted to isolated pockets. If the Devil populations were isolated to
pockets across the island, this disease might not have been so devastating.

Quaternary Megafauna Extinction

When species fail to outcompete others for ecological niches, or are affected by environmental changes,
they can die out. When the last members of a species disappear, we say that they are extinct.

Australia was once inhabited by some much larger marsupials than exist today called megafauna. (For
example, the largest marsupial to ever exist was the diprotodon weighing up to 2 tonnes.) They also
existed on most continents, but most are now extinct, Australia’s megafauna being the worst affected.
Only a few survive, for example the elephant, hippopotamus, bear, lion and tiger. Even they have come
close to extinction as a result of human hunting. In Australia, only the salt-water crocodile survives.
There are two theories for The Quaternary Megafauna Extinction :

The Ice Age :

During an ice age much of the Earth’s water is trapped at the poles causing sea level drops and lands
become colder and drier as rainfall decreases. Australia, New Guinea and Tasmania were linked as one
land when the sea level dropped. Under these dry conditions, Australia’s centre became a dustbowl. Food
was scarce and the mass extinction of megafauna resulted from the destruction of their habitat. As the
conditions were severe, the largest animals would find it most difficult to find enough vegetation to
survive. As the populations of large herbivores decreased, the large carnivores that relied on them for food
could not survive.

There are some objections to this theory:

- Some ice ages were more severe yet megafauna throughout the world had survived these
difficult conditions. In Australia and New Guinea, although many habitats were destroyed in
mountainous regions, ecosystems inhabited by megafauna only moved up and down the mountain
side as each ice age came and went. In Tasmania, also, habitats for megafauna survived.
- Some megafauna were able to survive in dry environments. Complete skeletons of diprotodon
have been found in Victoria with fossils of dry-adapted plants, including coarse grasses and
casuarinas. This suggests that diprotodon, at least, could survive a range of habitats including
those available during the last ice age. So, while the ice age might have made survival difficult
and resulted in massive reductions in populations, it may not have resulted in mass extinction of
megafauna.
- If the extinction were due to a change in climate, then it should have been reflected worldwide.
However, the extinction of Australia’s megafauna appears to have occurred tens of thousands
of years earlier than those in the rest of the world.

Human Impact :
In Australia and in other countries, the extinction of megafauna coincided with the arrival of humans. In
Australia, the fossil record has shown that predators were few and in most cases small compared with the
large slow herbivores. When humans arrived they came in large numbers, somewhere between 65,000 and
44,000 years ago. The animals would never have seen humans and may not have viewed these much
smaller beings as predators.

This view assumes that the megafauna would have been easy prey. In other lands where humans have not
come in contact with animals, animals often show no fear of humans. If so, Australian megafauna may
have been quickly hunted to extinction.

The human impact on megafauna would be expected to be less selective than the ice age. An ice-age-led
extinction would be expected to cause the extinction of organisms only in habitats that were destroyed by
an ice age. The megafauna extinction seems to have occurred across virtually all habitats, yet the
extinctions were in some ways selective. The animals that have become extinct appear to have been large
or slow moving. With them went the predators that fed on them.
Some objections to this theory:

- If humans and megafauna, like diprotodon, co-existed, and if humans hunted them to extinction
there should be remains of humans and diprotodon, for example, found together in the fossil
record. There should also be evidence of humans sawing and breaking diprotodon bones with
tools. The absence of this evidence is less of a problem if the extinction was very rapid- perhaps
taking as little as 1000 to 10,000 years. If this were the case, then it is possible that such evidence
might never be found in Australia’s fragmented fossil record.
- Fossils of megafauna have been found and estimated to be as recent as 10,000 to 6000 years ago.
One of the most recent finds has been the scattered bones of a diprotodon in the Liverpool basin
in New South Wales. Another recent find has exposed diprotodon bones and Aboriginal tools in
Victoria but with no evidence that Aborigines hunted the diprotodon. However, some
palaeontologists doubt the dates of these diprotodon fossils. They also argue against the
seemingly obvious conclusion that diprotodon still survived as recently as 6000 years ago. In
particular, they argue that diprotodon bones are scattered; so they may have been shifted from
much earlier deposits and trapped again among more recent sedimentary rock. Certainly complete
Diprotodon fossils are much older, suggesting extinction closer to 35 000 years ago.
-
IQ2 : Past Ecosystems

Changes in Ecosystems
Indigenous Australians have represented the environment in their rock art for at least 30,000 years. Often,
animals depicted were important in songline, or Dreaming stories. Different clans had different animals in
their songlines. Through the art, we can gain an understanding of both how people lived day to day- what
they wore, what they hunted, their rituals- but also gives us an insight in how the environment has
changed in those times, and how people adapted to cope with these changes.

For example, bilby paintings were located in the Namunidjbuk site, close to the ocean today. However,
the bilby is a desert dweller. When these paintings were made, the coast was much farther north, meaning
the site would have been more arid, so suitable for the bilby. As the coastline moved further inland, the
bilby would not have been adapted to the new environment, hence died out.

The principle of superposition states that in any sequence of

rocks that is undisturbed, the oldest layers will be at the
bottom and the youngest layers at the top.
The principle of original horizontality states that all
sedimentary strata are deposited horizontally to start with
and only tilt or bend due to subsequent forces
The principle of lateral continuity states that a stratum of
rock will be continuous until something disturbs it The law
of cross-cutting relationships states that in any rock
sequence, the layer that crosses or intrudes another is the younger rock layer.
Samples of ice contain information about both abiotic and biotic factors in past ecosystems. Bubbles of
gas give scientists information about the composition of the atmosphere, pollen and microorganisms can
be trapped in the sample, and the number of layers formed gives information about the temperature.

When snow falls, it traps gaseous particles from the atmosphere. When a sample is taken- e.g. from an ice
core- the gas can be released and analysed, via gas chromatography or mass spectral analysis. This is how
scientists know that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased dramatically
since the industrial revolution.

Scientists use ancient carbon dioxide levels to infer past climates. Warming or cooling of the atmosphere
would have a direct effect on the types of plants and animals that are suited to survive in such a climate.
Oxygen has three naturally occurring isotopes: 16O, 17O and 18O. These atoms are incorporated into
water molecules (as H2O). The ratio of 18O/16O gives us a record of ancient water temperatures.
Scientists can analyse these ratios in ice core samples, and reconstruct water temperatures for ancient
Earth.

Australia in Gondwanaland vs Present

Conditions of Australia in Gondwanaland were wetter and more temperate, dominated by forests of
Antarctic beech. Fossils indicate that present deserts once were vast inland seas. There were animals that
required plentiful water for survival including flamingos, crocodiles, tortoises and dolphins, and was also
the time of megafauna. These fossils reveal a habitat dominated by beech forest, with permanent water.

As the landmass drifted northward towards the equator, the temperature increased and rain decreased. By
about 45 million years ago, Australia had reached its current position. Now, plants and animals had to be
adapted to hotter drier conditions than previously experienced. The centre of Australia dried out almost
entirely, meaning that plants and animals had to be adapted to little rainfall, as well as poor soil conditions
and frequent bushfires.

Main plant groups now found in Australia include eucalypts, banksias, bottle brushes, wattles and
Australian heath plants. All these plants are characterised by sclerophyll leaves, which are thin, often
small, have a waxy cuticle and are resistant to drying out (the word sclerophyll is from the words for hard
leaf in Greek). For this reason, the plants themselves are often called sclerophyll plants.

These leaves are an adaptation to poor soils and dry conditions. The small thin leaves can be produced in
soils that provide very small amounts of nutrients. When sclerophyll leaves suffer water loss, they retain
their shape so that when water becomes available they can quickly resume normal functions. By contrast,
the leaves of most plants shrivel up under dry conditions and are slow to recover, or they die. It is this
sclerophyll characteristic that makes Australia’s plants distinctive among the plants of the world.

When the climate dried, the rainforests became restricted to small pockets and open grasslands and
shrubby forest. Arboreal mammals became rarer, and terrestrial mammals took over. Megafauna
disappeared, with the crocodile the only surviving example in Australia- 88% of megafauna in Australia
went extinct, as opposed to just over 20% in Africa. Today, smaller mammals are prevalent, especially in
Australia's arid interior. Also, of the three groups of mammals, monotremes have only one example
elsewhere (an echidna in PNG) and marsupials, which account for 50% of Australian mammals, only
have one extant relative, the possum of the Americas.