PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES

TWO MAIN CELL GROUPS:

 Prokaryotes - No nucleus or no membrane bound organelles (usually bacterial)
 Eukaryotes - Have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles (usually anumal or plant cells)

The cell structure as a whole is called the ULTRA STRUCTURE.

THE NUCLEUS:
 DNA and RNA is contained within the nucleus. This controls the proteins the cell produces :-
The function of the cell. The DNA is only morphed into chromosonal shapes right before cell
division (mitosis).
 DNA is found in the nucleoplasm. DNA is coiled around histosomes.
 The nuclear membrane has thousands of pores (of sizes 40-100nm).
 Chromatin is suspended strands of DNA in the nucleus which makes up the chromosomes.
 The nuceolus is dense and forms the ribosomes and rRNA. The size of the nucleolus is
dependant upon the ribosomal cell requirement; a cell production lots of proteins will have a
bigger nucleolus.
 The nuclear membrane controls what substances are allowed in and out of the nucleus. mRNA,
rRNA, amino acids and gas exchange through the nuclear membrane (also referred to as the
nuclear envelope).

RIBOSOMES:
 Ribosomes are not membrane bound.
 They are made up of a small sub-unit and a large sub-unit.
 It is the site of protein synthesis.
 Ribosomes are found in both pro and eu-karyotic cells.
 Usually attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 Formed in the nucleolus and assembled in the cytoplasm.
 Made of an RNA (nucleic acid) and protein complex.
 80s --> larger , Eukaryotes
 70s --> smaller, Prokaryotes

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER):

(Membrane-y mesh surrounding the nucleus. )
 ROUGH ER (RER):
1. contains ribosomes.
2. large surface area for protein synthesis. transports matter through the cells.
 SMOOTH ER (SER):
3. no ribosomes.
4. contains enzymes for fat, lipids, steroids and phospholipid production.

GOLGI BODY:
 This is the cell delivery system.
 It modifies the products of the Rough ER.
 The layers (flattened sacs) of the golgi body are called the cisternae. Vesicles carry stuff to
where it is needed; they pinch off the cisternae.
 The vesicles bud off the sacs and move towards the cell surface membrane and release the
protein.

LYSOSOME:
 large granular vesicle. special enzymes are made in the same way as other vesicles. Lysazime
--> the enzyme in tears to break down bacteria (also found in the white-blood-cells). Contains
hydrolytic enzymes that could kill the cell (extra cellular breakdown action like that of lymphocytes)

MICROTUBULES --> Temporary scaffolding for the organelles.

CYTOSKELETON --> Anchor organelles.

MITOCHONDRION:
 It has a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane (cristae). The inside of the cristae is
called the matrix.
 where aerobic respiration takes place and ATP is formed by the action of enzymes in the inner-
membrane.
 More cristae --> More proteins --> More energy --> More proteins to catalyse respiration.
 Can sometimes contain mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes.
 Replicated independantly

CENTRIOLE:
 Usually found in pairs. They have no membrane.

PLASMA MEMBRANE:
 Made of a single unit membrane. The membrane is made of two phospholipid layers (bilayer).
Proteins which span the membrane control the entry and exit of soluble substances into and
out of the cell.

CHLOROPLAST:
 Surrounded by two membranes.
 Site of photosynthesis.
 Contains sacs called thylakoids which contain chlorophyll. Thylakoids are piled up like coins to
form a granum.
 Relicated independently and has own DNA.

PLANT CELL WALL:

 Made of fibres of cellulose
 NOT LIKE the bacterial and fungal cell walls.
 porous - lets substanced through easily.
 holds the shape of the plant cell.

MAGNIFICATION

What is magnification?
- Making an image (or an object appear) bigger. The number of
times the larger the image is compared to the specimen.

What is resolution?
- How well two seperate structures can be seen as being distinct.

The wavelength of light is 0.2μm hence the light microscope has a smaller resolution than the
electron microscope. The electron microscope has a wavelength of (0.1nm).
The smaller wavelength can fit through small gaps, therefore enabling us to see the areas between
two structures whereas the bigger wavelength means that the light rays diffract.
 CELL FRACTIONATION
 First, the tissue needs to be placed in a cold, isotonic, buffered solution.
 Cold - stops/limits enzymic activity
 Isotonic - same water potential
 Buffered - pH stays the same.
 Breaks up cells --> homogenises. This is done using a pestle and mortar. However, electric
blenders and homgenisers are more likely to be used in scientific labs.
 After breaking up the cells, the fluid mixture, which is called a homgenate, is obtained.
 This is then filtered to remove bits if cells that have not broken up properly.
 The filtrate from this process contains cell organelles; this will be seperated.
 Ultracentrifugation seperated the components of the cell that has been homgenised.
 The seperationis done using a centrifuge. This is an instrument that spins tubes of fluid up at high
speed.
 As they spin, the heaviest particles in the homogenate are thrown to the bottom, forming a pellet.
 We can control the kind of organelle found in the pellet by controlling the:
1. - Speed of the spinning centrifuge.
2. - Time for which the centrifuge spins.
 The density of the organelles is what seperates them during ultracentrifugation.
 The liquid above the pellet is called the supernatant.
Slow speeds:
- Nucei, and chloroplast

Faster:
- Mitochrondria

Faster Still:
- RER, ribosomes