Atoms: CHNOPS: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Sulphur.

Tissue: Muscle tissue, Connective tissue, Nervous tissue, Epithelial tissue.

Cells: Membrane, Cytoplasm, DNA.

-Eukaryotic cell (Nucleus, Membrane enclosed organelles)
-Prokaryotic cell (unicellular organisms i.e bacteria, archaea)

Chromatin: the tangled, spread out form of DNA found inside the nuclear membrane.

When a cell is ready to divide, DNA condenses into structures called chromosomes.

Nucleus contains nucleolus where ribosomes are made. When the ribosomes leave the
nucleus, they have the role of synthesizing (making protein).Outside of the nucleus, the
ribosomes and organelles float around in cytoplasm.

rER (rough endoplasmic reticulum) has ribosomes attached to it.

sER (smooth endoplasmic reticulum) doesn’t have ribosomes attached to it.

Endoplasmic reticulum: a membrane enclosed passageway for transporting materials.

Proteins and other materials emerge from the endoplasmic reticulum in small vesicles where
the Golgi apparatus (body) receives them. As proteins move through the Golgi body, they’re
customized into forms that the cells can use. The Golgi does this by folding the proteins into
usable shapes, or adding materials onto them, such as lipids or carbohydrates.

Lysosome: organelles that are a garbage collector; they take in damaged or worn out cell
parts. They are filled with enzymes that break down this cellular debris.
Lytic vacuole: same function as a lysosome but in a plant.

Mitochondrion: organelle that is the powerhouse for both animal and plant cells. During a
process called cellular respiration the mitochondria make ATP molecules that provide the
energy for all the cells’ activities. Cells that need more energy have more mitochondria.
Mitochondria were once independent prokaryotes that learned to live in symbiosis inside of
larger eukaryotic cells.
Symbiosis: interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association,
typically to the advantage of both.

The cell maintains its shape through a cytoskeleton that contains microfilaments which are
made of protein and microtubules which are thin hollow tubes.

Plants are photoautotrophic, meaning they capture sunlight for energy. They have cells with
an organelle called a chloroplast which is where the photosynthesis happens. It’s green
because it has a green pigment called chlorophyll.
Thylakoid: each of a number of flattened sacs inside a chloroplast, bounded by pigmented
membranes on which the light reactions of photosynthesis take place, and arranged in stacks
or grana.
Plant cells also have a cell wall outside of their cell membranes that shape, support, and
protect the plant cell.
Animal cells never have a cell wall.

The human respiratory tract is lined with cells that have cilia: microscopic hair-like
projections that can move in waves. This feature helps trap inhaled particles in the air, and
expels them when you cough.

Some bacteria have flagella: a flagellum is like a little tail that helps a cell move or propel
itself. The only human cell that has a flagellum is the sperm cell.

Nucleolus: a region found within the cell nucleus that is concerned with producing and
assembling the cell's ribosomes. Following assembly, ribosomes are transported to the cell
cytoplasm where they serve as the sites for protein synthesis.

Cytosol is all of the fluid between the organelles; cytoplasm is everything inside the cell.

DNA gets transcribed into mRNA: (messenger ribonucleic acid) a single-stranded molecule
of RNA that corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene, and is read by a ribosome in the
process of synthesizing a protein. It gets translated into proteins at the ribosomes. This
process is called transcription and it occurs in the nucleus. The mRNA then makes its way
outside of the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome; it then gets translated into a protein.

The nucleus has a double lipid bilayer (2 layers of lipid molecules) membrane. There are
nuclear pores: a tunnel made up of protein through the membrane. There exists a perinuclear
space between the inner and outer nuclear membrane. The ER is key for starting to produce
and then later on package proteins that are either embedded in the cellular membrane or used
outside of the cell itself. It had two regions the sER and the rER which has a bunch of
ribosomes attached to its membrane. As the protein is translated from the mRNA it won’t
happen inside the cytosol but rather on the inside of the rER in the ER lumen. The protein can
then bud out of the ER taking its own little membrane with it, called a vesicle. The vesicles
then go to the Golgi body and attach themselves to it and essentially go through a maturation
process so that they’re ready for transportation outside of the cell or to be embedded into the
cellular membrane.

Cellular respiration:

One mole of glucose and 6 moles of oxygen create 6 moles of carbon dioxide 6 moles of
water and energy:
C₆H₁₂O₆ +6O₂ >(cellular respiration)> 6CO₂6H₂O +energy (heat+38 ATPs)

ATP is the energy currency for biological system.

The first stage of this process is called glycolysis which is breaking up the glucose. Glycolysis
needs 2 ATPs and generates 4, meaning it generates 2 net ATPs. The byproducts of glycolysis
enter into a Kreb’s cycle which generates another 2 ATPs. This cycle requires oxygen unlike
glycolysis which can happen without it (anaerobic process). Then we have the Electron
Transport Chain which produces 34 ATPs and is also aerobic like the Kreb’s cycle.
When you start running out of oxygen, some of the byproducts of glycolysis, instead of going
into the Kreb’s cycle and Electron Transport Chain, where they need oxygen, go through a
side process called fermentation which produces alcohol for some organisms like yeast. For
humans, it produces lactic acid.