Topic 1: Cells: The Building Blocks of Life

The Cell Theory

The microscope we use today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Anton van
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations of his
now-ancient lenses, van Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protist (a type of single-celled
organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules.”
In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term
“cell” for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. In the 1670s, van
Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses, microscope construction, and

staining techniques enabled other scientists to see some components inside cells.
Matthias Jakob Schleiden published his research in 1838, which was based on several years of
studying different types of plant under the microscope. Theodor Schwann published his research a year
later, based on his study of several slides of animal cells. Their researches became the bases of the first
two postulates of the cell theory:
1. All organisms are made up of cells.
2. The basic unit of life is the cell.
The first two postulates support the idea that the cell is the foundation of life. All organisms have
one or more cells. No organism can exist without a cell that will support its body processes that it needs
to survive.
The last postulate was eventually proven by Rudolf Virchow in 1858. Virchow, upon studying how
cells played a role in body diseases at that time, noticed that the existence of diseases in the organs and
tissues come from affected cells. From this, he stated Omnis cellula e cellula, which means that all cells
arise from preexisting cells. It was believed, however, that this discovery was initially made by Robert
Remak, a Jewish scientist, in 1855, when he tried to prove the idea of cell division by hardening the cell
membrane.
 A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. A living thing, whether made of one cell (like bacteria)
or many cells (like a human), is called an organism. Thus, cells are the basic building blocks of all organisms.
Cells fall into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Only the predominantly
single-celled organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes. Cells of
animals, plants, fungi, and protists are all eukaryotes and are made up of eukaryotic cells.

Parts of the Cell and Their Functions

All cells share four common components: 1) a plasma membrane, an outer covering that
separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding environment; 2) cytoplasm, consisting of a jelly-like
cytosol within the cell in which other cellular components are found; 3) DNA, the genetic material of the
cell; and 4) ribosomes, which synthesize proteins.

Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins and
carbohydrates. It is semipermeable, which means that not everything can enter or pass through it. Its
semipermeability allows the cell to choose the substances to absorb, secrete, or excrete. Substances that
are absorbed and excreted by the cell must pass through the cell membrane. Also the proteins in the
phospholipid bilayer, which are called membrane proteins, can participate in the transport of molecules.
These membrane proteins allow the entry or exit of molecules that do not easily cross the phospholipid
bilayer.
The cell membrane of cells that specialize in absorption are folded into fingerlike projections
called microvilli. Such cells are typically found lining the small intestine, the organ that absorbs nutrients
from digested food. Microvilli can also be found on the surfaces of egg cells and white blood cells.

Structure of the cell membrane

Source: https://torresbioclan.pbworks.com/f/1195162708/cell_membrane.gif
 Microvilli in an intestinal cell
Source: https://vivadifferences.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/microvili.png
Cytoplasm
It contains the semifluid substance called the cytosol where the different organelles are
suspended. Within the cytosol are different substances such as electrolytes (substances that produce
electrically conducting solutions), metabolites (substances produced during metabolism), ribonucleic acid
(RNA), and synthesized proteins. The cytosol is the site of many physiological processes such as glycolysis
(conversion of glucose into another form) and protein and fat synthesis.
The cytoplasm has several important roles. This is where the molecules first pass through after
entering or before existing the cell membrane. The organelles can also move within and around the
cytoplasm.

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic Cell
A prokaryote is a simple, mostly single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other
membrane-bound organelle. All prokaryotes have cell membranes, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and DNA that
is not membrane bound. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell: the nucleoid.
Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule. Some
prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange
genetic material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to attach
to a host cell.

Source:https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Parashuram_Bannigidad/publication/277344628/figure/fig1/AS:614378189631510@152349058
3466/Structure-of-bacterial-cell.png
Eukaryotic Cell
Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. A
eukaryotic cell has a true nucleus (meaning its DNA is surrounded by a membrane) and has other
membrane-bound organelles that allow compartmentalization of functions.

Nucleus
The nucleus serves as the control center of the cell, because it is where most of the genetic
processes take place. It has several parts. The nuclear envelope is the boundary of the nucleus, composed
of the outer and the inner nuclear membranes. In between the membranes is the perinuclear space. Inside
the nuclear envelope is the nucleoplasm. Within the nucleoplasm are strands of chromatin, which is a
combination of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and proteins. Chromatin strands further condense to form
chromosomes during cell division. Substances that move and out of the nucleus pass through the
envelope’s nuclear pores.
The nucleolus is a membrane-free organelle found inside the nucleus. It is usually spherical in
shape. It contains fibrils and granules. The fibrils have DNA coding for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). The granules
contain rRNA molecules with proteins coming from the cytoplasm. The nucleolus is important in creating
the ribosomes, which are the sites of protein synthesis.

The nucleus and its parts

Source: https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-bSF5Z-Bz8wQ/WaVjy1jiXvI/AAAAAAAAj_E/9bVh6UBbX8IYEkAwM1D3uebslu6ZZJQgACLcBGAs/s1600/nucleus.jpg

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are small, dense structures that help in the assembly of proteins in the cell. Ribosomes
may be found freely in the cytoplasm, attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, or as a polyribosome, a
series of ribosomes attached to messenger RNA (mRNA).
Ribosomes are not membrane-bound. They are made up of two subunits, aptly called large and
small.
Ribosomes work with the other parts of the cell to synthesize proteins. Protein synthesis starts
inside the nucleus. The information in the DNA is decoded by the mRNA. Once done, the mRNA moves
out of the nucleus toward the ribosome. The ribosome will create proteins based on the information given
by the mRNA.
 A ribosome
Source: https://www.microscopemaster.com/images/Ribosome_Translation.jpg
Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane-bound organelle that forms a network of
interconnected sacs called cisterna. In between its membranes is the lumen, or the cisternal space. The
membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum is connected to the nuclear envelope, runs through the
cytoplasm, and may also extend into the cell membrane. When ribosomes are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum, it gives a rough appearance; hence the ER is called rough endoplasmic reticulum.
When ribosomes are not present in the ER, its appearance is smooth, and is thus called smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.

The sacs of the rough endoplasmic reticulum are flat, whereas the sacs of the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum are tubular.
Source: https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-APLrajTV4dQ/WhRiISUZq4I/AAAAAAAAl1A/RV3bHxVBk8oj8-vaCujvkKK6i5Bth1P_gCLcBGAs/s1600/Endoplasmic-reticulum.jpg

The rough endoplasmic reticulum manufactures membranes and secretory proteins.

The ribosomes attached to the rough ER synthesize proteins by the process of translation. In
certain leukocytes (white blood cells), the rough ER produces antibodies. In pancreatic cells, the rough ER
produces insulin.
The smooth ER has a wide range of functions including carbohydrate and lipid synthesis. Lipids
such as phospholipids and cholesterol are necessary for the construction of cell membranes. Smooth ER
also serves as a transitional area for vesicles that transport ER products to various destinations.
 In liver cells, the smooth ER produces enzymes that help to detoxify certain compounds.
In muscles, the smooth ER assists in the contraction of muscle cells, and in brain cells, it synthesizes male
and female hormones.

Golgi Bodies
Just like the endoplasmic reticulum, membrane-bound Golgi bodies also consist of cisternae.
There are two faces in the Golgi bodies. The part facing the endoplasmic reticulum is called the cis face,
whereas the one facing the cytoplasm or the cell membrane is called the trans face.
Golgi bodies work closely with the endoplasmic reticulum. The substance produced in the
endoplasmic reticulum (e.g., protein) enters its lumen, which is the space inside the organelle. The
substance then pinches off to become a vesicle. The vesicle moves toward the cis face. The Golgi bodies
may modify the substances in the vesicle by putting “tags” so that the substances will be recognized and
accepted in their respective destinations. Once ready, the vesicles containing the modified substances
exit at the trans face.
The Golgi bodies differ in number depending on the type of cells. They are numerous in the cells
that are active in secretion, such as some epithelial cells.

Substances in the vesicles go to the Golgi bodies before getting delivered to their respective
destinations. In this scenario, the destination of the vesicle is toward the cell membrane.
Source:https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/proxy/BMxieXFgndiIVy4Dro2HXW3G4npzx8QuixX2U2Vu5kYFYCRp3lUo77VvwckJY6oYKAU6gfEq3gi5
IC4uUqYEaQ4KMcJ5S2WQcW8Bxe5Bt2yvtYSfV-qsh3rD

Lysosomes
The lysosome is a membrane-bound organelle that originated from the endoplasmic reticulum. It
has hydrolytic enzymes that serve several functions: digest food, recycle old components of the cell, and
kill invading microorganisms. The digested food and recycled components are released into the cytosol to
be used by the cell. The indigestible food stays in the lysosomes, which eventually become the residual
bodies. Residual bodies can be eliminated by exocytosis.
Lysosomes in animal cells initially appear as spherical bodies around 0.5-1.0 µm in diameter. There
may be several hundred lysosomes in a single animal cell.
The lysosomal membrane contains a special carbohydrate covering its inner surface. This prevents
the lysosome from releasing the hydrolytic enzymes all at once. If this happens, the cell may be killed. This
is why the lysosome is also called the “suicide bag” of the cell.
 Lysosomes perform several functions. They can digest food, kill microorganisms, and break down
damaged organelles to be recycled later on.
Source: https://schoolbag.info/biology/humans/humans.files/image068.jpg

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are often called the “powerhouses” or “energy factories” of a cell because they are
responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy currency of the cell.
Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and
DNA. The outer membrane of a mitochondrion serves as its covering, while the inner membrane is folded
many times to create the cristae. The cristae increase the surface area of the mitochondrion, thereby
increasing the number of ATP molecules being generated. Inside the cristae is the matrix that contains
different enzymes important in producing ATP. The DNA inside the matrix encodes some RNAs and
proteins needed in the mitochondrion.
There are about 1 000 -2 000 mitochondria in a typical animal liver cell. In humans, the
mitochondrion is inherited only through the mother.

Parts of a mitochondrion
Source: https://i0.wp.com/cdn-prod.medicalnewstoday.com/content/images/articles/320/320875/a-basic-diagram-of-a-
mitochondrion.jpg?w=1155&h=1747
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes. They carry out oxidation
reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many poisons that may enter
the body. For example, alcohol is detoxified by peroxisomes in liver cells. Glyoxysomes, which are
specialized peroxisomes in plants, are responsible for converting stored fats into sugars.

Anatomy of a peroxisome
Source: https://guidancecorner.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Peroxisomes.jpg

Cytoskeleton
The cytoplasm appears to have no form. However, it does have a structure due to the presence
of the cytoskeleton (cellular framework). There are three types of fibers within the cytoskeleton:
microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. The microfilament has a diameter of about 7
nm and is mainly composed of a contractile protein called actin. It provides rigidity and shape to the cell.
The intermediate filament is about 10 nm in diameter and is the most stable and the least soluble
constituent of the cytoskeleton. The intermediate filament provides tensile strength in the cell. It anchors
the nucleus and other organelles in place. The microtubule has a diameter of about 25 nm and is
composed of globular proteins called tubulins. The microtubules help form the shape of the cell, as well
as track the movement of the organelles. They are also the structural elements of centrioles, flagella, and
cilia.
 Cytoskeleton
Source: https://media.sciencephoto.com/image/c0238760/800wm

Centrosomes and Centrioles

The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells. It
contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a cylinder
of nine triplets of microtubules.
The centrosome (the organelle where all microtubules originate) replicates itself before a cell
divides, and the centrioles appear to have some role in pulling the duplicated chromosomes to opposite
ends of the dividing cell. The centrioles are involved in the development of spindle fibers during cell
division.

Source: https://biomd.in/wp-content/uploads/centioles.jpg
Flagella and Cilia
Flagella are long, hair-like structures that extend from the plasma membrane and are used to
move an entire cell (e.g., sperm cell, Euglena). When present, the cell has just one or a few flagella. When
cilia are present, however, many of them extend along the entire surface of the cell membrane. They are
short, hair-like structures that are used to move entire cells (such as Paramecia) or substances along the
outer surface of the cell (for example, the cilia of cells lining the Fallopian tubes that move the ovum
toward the uterus, or cilia lining the cells pf the respiratory tract that trap particulate matter and move it
toward your nostrils).
A flagellum moves in a whiplike manner, such as that of Euglena, a protist. Cilia require power
and recovery strokes, as in the swimming movement of the Paramecium, a protist.
Despite their difference in length and number, flagella and cilia share a common structural
arrangement of microtubules called a “9 + 2 array.” This is an appropriate name because a single flagellum
or cilium is made of a ring of nine microtubule doublets, surrounding a single microtubule doublet in the
center.

Movement of the flagellum and cilium 9 + 2 array of microtubules: nine

microtubule doublets surround a
single microtubule doublet
Source: https://microbenotes.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Cilia-and-Flagella-Structure-and-Functions.jpg

Cell Wall
The cell wall distinguishes plant cells from animal cells. The cell wall is located outside the cell
membrane and is primarily made of cellulose. Cellulose is a polysaccharide, which is a substance
composed of a long chain of carbohydrates. The cell wall maintains the shape of the plant, protects the
cell, and helps regulate the cell’s uptake of water.
Newly formed plant cells have primary cell walls which are thin and flexible. When growth stops,
secondary cell walls often develop either by thickening the primary walls or depositing new layers. The
secondary cell wall is usually thicker and more rigid than the primary cell wall. The secondary cell wall also
contains more cellulose and may have lignin, a substance which is the primary component of wood. The
plasmodesmata are channels in the cell wall that allow the exchange of substances between adjacent
cells.
 The structure of a plant cell wall
Source: https://i.pinimg.com/600x315/b6/a6/6a/b6a66a152e918b347e57f3c78db67f41.jpg

Cells of other organisms may also have cell walls. Those that are found in bacteria are made up of
peptidoglycan, whereas those found in fungi are mainly made of chitin. Peptidoglycan is composed of
amino acids and sugars. The peptidoglycan in the cell walls of bacteria give their structure and provide
protection. Chitin, on the other hand, is a nitrogen-containing polysaccharide similar to cellulose. It forms
a semitransparent substance. The chitin in the cell walls of fungi serves as structural support.

Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that carry out photosynthesis. The chloroplast, like the
mitochondrion, is a double-membrane organelle. Inside the chloroplast is the stroma, a colorless fluid
surrounding several grana. Each granum contains several stacks of thylakoids. These thylakoids contain
chlorophyll, which is the green pigment responsible for capturing light energy during photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll is also responsible for the plant’s green color. The lumen is the space inside the thylakoid,
which serves as the site of several reactions during photosynthesis. Each granum is connected to one
another via the intergrana thylakoids, or the stroma thylakoids.
Like the mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes.

Structure of the chloroplast

Source: https://i.pinimg.com/originals/bb/bf/9a/bbbf9a2b668a133ac3881eace89f5a74.jpg
Vacuole
Animals and plants have vacuoles, but the vacuoles of the latter are usually larger and are thus
observed more easily when viewed under the microscope. In most mature plants, the vacuole that
occupies the largest space is called the central vacuole. The central vacuole is surrounded by a membrane
called the tonoplast.
In animals, the vacuole serves as the temporary storage of substances. In plants, the central
vacuole’s main function is to maintain turgor pressure to keep the cell from wilting. Turgor pressure is the
pressure exerted onto the cell wall by water moving into the cell. The central vacuole contains a higher
solute concentration than the cell’s environment. Because of this, the water tends to move toward the
cell, making the cell swell and maintain turgor pressure. When turgor pressure is lost, the cells wilt. Thus,
the entire plant wilts.