Unit 3.

The cellular basis of life

Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to;
 Describe cellular basis of life and cell theory
 State the basic functions of cells (structural and physiological unit)
 Discuss the two basic cells types: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 Discuss structure and importance of a cell membrane.
 State and explain the mechanisms of substance transport across a cell membrane.
 investigate the size, structure and shape of cells.

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Self Test:
1. State the cellular basis of life and cell theory
2. Identify the different types of cells
3. Identify the different types of organelles, their structure and functions
4.Why is homogenization important in cell study?

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In the late 1600’s Robert Hook (an English scientist ) was the first to observe cork

with a crude microscope (with magnification power of 30x).

The cell walls observed by Hooke gave no indication of the nucleus and other

organelles.
The first man who saw a live cell under a microscope (with magnification power

of 300x) was Anton Van Leeuwenhoek,

in 1674 he:

1. described the algae Spirogyra which were living, moving unicellular organisms
in a drop of water.
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2. named the moving organisms animalcules, meaning "little animals".
Matthias Schleiden 1838 examined that all parts of plants are

composed of cells.
Theodore Schwann 1839 examined that all parts of animals are

composed of cells.
A German pathologist, Rudolph Virchow extended this idea by

contending that cells arise only from preexisting cells.

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 3.1. The cell theory

The following are cell theories proposed by differ scientists

all organisms are made up of (composed of ) one or more cells

A cell is the basic structural and functional (physiological) unit of living

organisms.
All cells arise from preexisting cells.

 the cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in

the construction of organisms

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Types of cells
Based on the presence or absence of nucleus and membrane bounded

organelles, cells can be grouped in to two;

1. eukaryotic cell: a cell that has true nucleus and membrane bounded

organelles

2. prokaryotic cell: a cell that has no true nucleus and has no membrane

bounded organelles
Bacteria and blue green algae are prokaryotic cells where as cells from

other organisms like plants and animals are examples of eukaryotic cells
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 Animal cell Plant cell

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3.2. cell organelles

A typical eukaryotic cell has 3 major parts:

plasma membrane: the outer boundary of the cell.

cytoplasm: the intracellular fluid which pack organelles that perform

specific cell functions.

nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular activities.

Typically the nucleus resides near the cell’s center.

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What is Organelle?
 An organelle is a specialized subunit within cytoplasm of a cell that has a

specific function.
 There are two kinds of cell organelles; membranous and non membranous

organelles.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough and Smooth), Golgi bodies, mitochondria,

chloroplasts, nucleus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles are

membranous
 whereas, ribosomes, centrosomes, cilia and flagella, microtubules, basal
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 Nucleus
 it is oval or spherically in shape and largest central structure surrounded by a

double-layered membrane.
 Nucleus contains a genetic material called DNA which instructs or gives

codes for protein synthesis

 Therefore, by monitoring protein synthesis, the nucleus indirectly governs

most cellular activities and serves as the cells’ master.

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The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope and contains chromatin and one or
more nucleolus.

Nuclear envelope:
 surrounds nuclear material

 consists of outer and inner membrane

 perforated at intervals by nuclear pores through which most ions and water soluble

molecules to transfer b/n nucleus and cytoplasm.

Chromatin:

The term chromatin means "colored material” thus chromatin (chromosome) is easily
stained for viewing with microscope. It is composed of DNA bound to histone proteins.
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Nucleolus (plural nucleoli)
One or more nucleoli are found in nucleus of cell and they are actively

engage in synthesizing of ribosomes.

Ribosomes are made up of rRNA and protein and they are non membranous

organelles
Each ribosome is involved in producing only one type of protein.

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 Cytoplasm:
 Cytoplasm is cells’ interior part excluding the nucleus, containing a number of organelles

in eukaryotic cells
 Organelles in cytoplasm are dispersed within a complex jelly like marrow called the

cytosol.
 All eukaryotic cells contain six main types of organelles- the endoplasmic reticulum,

Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria and vacuoles.

 Each organelle is a separately compartmentzed, containing different chemically setting

for fulfilling cellular function.

 These organelles occupy about half of the total cell volume of cytoplasm and the

remaining part is cytosol.

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 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
It is a fluid-filled membrane system present throughout the cytosol.
There are two types of ER; rough ER and smooth ER since the former
has ribosomes on its surface and the later is with out ribosomes.

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Rough ER: projects outwards from the cytosol as stacks of flattened sacs

that are interconnected to each other.

It is associated with ribosomes, thus participate in protein production

Protein produced by ribosomes are stored in RER, once proteins are stored,

 Some are exported as secretory products (hormones or enzyme)

 Some other are transported to sites within the cell for use in the construction

of new plasma membrane or new organelle membrane

Eg lipoproteins, glycoproteins, transport proteins, etc

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Smooth ER: The smooth ER is a network of interconnected tubules.
Since it does not have ribosomes, it looks “smooth‟ and does not produce proteins.
Functions of smooth ER includes:
i. serve as packaging and discharging site for proteins and fats molecules (in most
cells).
all new proteins and fats pass from rough ER gathered in the smooth ER.

Portions of the smooth ER then “bud off/pinch off”, giving rise to “transport

vesicles‟ for proteins

Transport vesicles move to the Golgi complex for further processing of their cargo.

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ii. Serve in lipid metabolism b/se they contain enzymes for lipids synthesis (cells
that synthesize steroid hormones).

iii. Serve in detoxification of harmful endogenous and exogenous substances

(liver and kidney cells).
endogenous harmful substances are produced within the body as a result

metabolism
exogenous harmful substances are enter the body from outside as drugs or

alcohol

iv. Serve in the process of muscle contraction (skeletal muscle cells).

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 Golgi complex (golgi bodies)
 The Golgi complex is associated with the ER and contains sets of membrane

bounded sacs called cisternae

The number of stacks (cisternae) vary in cells; cells specialized for protein

secretion have hundreds of them whereas some have only one

Newly formed proteins and lipids budding off smooth ER and enter Golgi

complex stacks (cisternae).

 GC performs the following important functions:

1) Processing the raw material into finished products. Eg raw protein into
glycoprotein
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2) Sorting and directing finished product to their final destination.
 Lysosomes:
 Lysosomes serve as the intracellular “digestive system”.
They are membrane-enclosed sacs containing powerful hydrolytic
enzymes.
These enzymes are used to digest and remove unwanted cellular debris
and foreign materials such as bacteria.
The distraction of the cell itself is prevented by membrane surrounding
it.
materials to be digested by lysosomal enzymes are brought into the
interior of the cell through the process of endocytosis.
Endocytosis is two types;
1. pinocytosis: if the fluid material is internalized into the cell
2. Phagocytosis: if large multi-molecular particles are engulfed by the cell.
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Eg bacteria
Lysosomes can take up old organelles and break down into their component

molecules.
Those molecules that are needed are reabsorbed into the cytosol, and the rest are

dumped out of the cell.

The process by which worn-out (old) organelles are digested is called autophagy.

In a condition known as lysosomal storage disease (Tay-Sachs disease),

lysosomes are not effective because they lack specific enzymes.

As a result, harmful waste products accumulate and disrupting the normal

function of cells, often with fatal results.

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21This disease is inherited.
 Peroxisome:
 Peroxisome is membrane-enclosed sacs containing oxidative

enzymes and catalase that detoxify various wastes.

Oxidative enzymes need oxygen to remove hydrogen from toxic

molecule such as ethanol consumed in alcoholic drinks (in liver and
kidneys) and detoxify.

Catalase, an antioxidant enzyme decomposing hydrogen peroxide

(H2O2) into harmless water and oxygen b/se hydrogen peroxide w/c
is power full oxidant is toxic chemical in cells.
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 Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are the “power houses” of a cell; they extract energy
from nutrients and transform it into usable form of energy for the cell
(ATP).
 They are rod or oval shaped and about the size of a bacterium.
 Their number varies depending on the energy needs of each particular
cell types. A single cell may have few hundreds or thousands of
mitochondria.
Each mitochondrion is enclosed by a double membranes; outer
membrane that surrounds the mitochondria and inner membrane that
forms a series of enfolding or shelves called cristae.

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 Cristae are filled with jelly like matrix.

The matrix contains a mixture of hundreds of different dissolved

enzymes (Citric acid cycle enzymes) that are important in preparing ATP.
Mitochondria are unique organelles in two ways:

1. In the matrix they have their own unique DNA called mitochondrial

DNA.

2. Mitochondria have the ability to replicate themselves even when the

cell to which they belong is not undergoing cell division.

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 Chloroplasts
They are useful organelles that are highly participate in the process of

photosynthesis.
They are located in outer surface of the cell to receive enough light.

They have their own DNA

they are green colored due to the chlorophyll pigments found in its

internal parts.

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 Vacuoles
They are larger Vesicles formed by the joining together of many vesicles.

They are membrane bound organelles that contain water with a number of

different compounds and used in maintaining Turgor Pressure in plant

cells.

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 Cytoskeleton
cytoskeleton is a complex protein network that act as the “bone and

muscle” of the cell.

This necessary intracellular scaffoldings supports and organizes cellular

components arrangements and to control their movements

it provides distinct shape and size to the cell.

This network has at least four distinct elements: Microtubules,

Microfilaments, Intermediate filaments and Microtubular lattice.

microtubule is the largest and microfilaments are the smallest of the group.

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 Generally, cytoskeletons determine/ provide the:
 shape of a cell

 structural support

 organizing its contents

 substances movement through cell (cilia, flagella and intracytoplasmic

vesicles),
 contribute to movements of the cell as a whole.

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