Chapter 2.

Biological Molecules

Learning Objectives: After completing this chapter you will be able to:
 define the term biomolecules

 describe list of organic and inorganic molecules and their biological importance

 identify the basic structures of biomolecules

 explain the precursors (monomers) of each macromolecules with their

respective polymerization process

 state the physical and chemical nature of water and their relevance to the

existence of life
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  Biological molecules are referred to as the molecules of life (bio-molecules) that are

basically found in a living cells.

 They are categorized as organic and inorganic molecules

 The organic biomolecules are proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and

vitamins and inorganic ones are water, Co2 and minerals.

 Organic molecules- Contain C, H, and O in some ratio

 Inorganic molecules - no specific ratio of C, H, and O
 Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids are macromolecules

 They are important structurally and functionally for cells.

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 2.1 Carbohydrates

Self test:
 What are the elemental compositions of carbohydrates?

 Why cells rely on carbohydrates as a major source of energy compared to

other biomolecules?

Answer: the carbohydrates are the easiest form of nutrition for our bodies to metabolize and therefore is an
excellent source of energy.

 What are the additional importances of carbohydrates besides their role as

energy source?
 How carbohydrates are classified in to different groups

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 2.1 Carbohydrates
 carbohydrate molecules are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms

with a hydrogen to oxygen atom is 2:1 (H2O)

 Carbohydrates are important sources of energy

 They are the most abundant organic molecules in nature

 They also provide structural support for cells

 They help with communication between cells (cell-cell recognition)

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 Based on the number of sugar units (saccharide) they contain, carbohydrates are
categorized into three (four),
 Monosaccharaides: carbohydrates that contain a single sugar unit or saccharide

 Disaccharides: those with two sugar unites or saccharides

 Oligosaccharides – those with a few (three to ten) monosaccharaides covalently

linked.
 Polysaccharides: those with many sugar unites

Monosaccharides bonded each other in poly or disaccharides with glyosidic linkage.

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  Carbohydrates are aldehydes or ketones. Example: Glucose is aldehyde and

fructose is Ketone.
 Aldehyde sugars (carbohydrates) are called aldoses

The carbon in carbonyl group in aldehyde sugars

(aldoses) is found at the tip of the molecules
(Carbon 1)
aldose ketone
while in ketones carbon in carbonyl group is
found in between two carbon atoms (Crbon2)

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 A. Monosaccharaides
 They are simple sugars

 based on number of carbons atom they contain, monosaccharides are trioses (3C),

tetrose (4C), pentose (5C) or hexoses (6C).

 Monosaccharaides containing the aldehyde group are classified as aldoses and

those containing ketone group are ketoses.

 Aldoses are reducing sugars where as ketoses are non-reducing sugars.

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  Reducing sugars have a capacity to reduce cupric ion or CU 2+ of Benedict's or

Fehling solution in to cuprous ion or CU +

 We can use a special reagent called Benedict's solution to test for simple

carbohydrates like glucose.

 Benedict's solution is blue but, if simple carbohydrates are present, it will change

color green/yellow if the amount is low and red if it is high.

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 Glucose
 It is aldose hexose (6 carbon) monosaccharaide
 It is reducing sugar
 it is the most important carbohydrate fuel (energy source)
in human cells so energy is released when the molecules
are metabolized.

 The small size and solubility in water, glucose molecules

allow them to pass through the cell membrane into the
cell.

 Two glucose molecules react to form the disaccharide

maltose.
 Starch and cellulose are polysaccharides made up of
glucose units.
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  Glucose can be alpha glucose or beta glucose the difference is that the

position of OH (hydroxyl) group on carbon number one (C1) of its ring form

 For alpha glucose, the OH on C1 is found below the plane (ring) where as in

beta glucose OH on C1 is found above the plane or ring

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 Galactose
It is other aldose hexose sugar (monosaccharide)

Reducing sugar

Looks very similar with glucose molecule

Their difference is the position of OH group on C4 of

both cyclic and chain forms

It only exist in α and β forms

Galactose reacts with glucose to form lactose (a

disaccharide milk sugar)

Galatose and glucose can’t be converted one other
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 Fructose
 It is ketose (non- reducing sugar)

 It has five atoms ring not six atoms ring

 It forms sucrose (table sugar) when reacts

with glucose molecule

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 Ribose and deoxyribose
They are monosaccharaides of pentose (5 carbon sugars)
The ribose (C5H10O5) unit forms part of a nucleotide of
RNA and deoxyribose (C5H10O4) forms part of the nucleotide
DNA

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 B. Disaccharides
 Monosaccharaides are rare in nature but most sugars are found in the form of

disaccharides
 Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharaides are react to each other

 For example glucose + glucose = maltose (C12H22O11) malt sugar + H2O

 This reaction is called condensation reaction or dehydration reaction

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  glucose + galactose= lactose (C12H22O11) milk sugar + H2O

 glucose + fructose= sucrose (C12H22O11) table sugar + H2O

 Disaccharides are soluble in water however, they are too big to pass cell membrane by

diffusion

 That is why they are broken down into monosaccharaides in small intestine to pass into blood

and through cell membrane in to cells

 This is a hydrolysis reaction and the reverse is called condensation reaction or

dehydration
 By hydrolysis reaction disaccharides are broken down into two respective monosaccharaides

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 During hydrolysis reaction energy is released, water molecules is consumed and

glycosidic bond is broken down

 In condensation reaction, water molecule released, energy is required or needed

and glycosidic bond is formed

 Disaccharides are formed during condensation process

 The three most important disaccharides are sucrose, lactose and maltose.

 Sucrose is non- reducing sugar while lactose and maltose are reducing sugars

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 polysaccharides
 Monosaccharaides undergo a series of condensation reactions, adding one unit after another

to the chain until very large molecules (polysaccharides) are formed. This is called
condensation polymerization.
 the building blocks for polysaccharides are called monomers (monosaccharaides)

 The properties of a polysaccharide molecule depend on:

 Its length

 The extent of any branching

 Any folding which results in a more compact molecule

 Whether the chain is 'straight' or 'coiled

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Starch, glycogen and cellulose are know polysaccharides
 starch
 Starch is stored form of carbohydrate in plants

 It is polymer of α- glucose molecules.

 It exists in two forms (amylose and amylopectin), amylose is unbranched polymer of α-

glucose where as amylopectin is branched polymer of α- glucose

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 Glycogen
Glycogen is amylopectin (branched) polymer of α glucose molecules

Starch which is found in food from plant is hydrolyzed in the body to produce

glucose
Then glucose passes into cells and is hydrolyzed to generate energy (ATP) but

excess glucose molecules are polymerized to make glycogen.

Glycogen is stored form of carbohydrate in animal tissues

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 Cellulose
 It is polymer of beta glucose molecules

 It is straight not branched

 It makes up the cell wall of plant cells.

 Cellulose can’t be source of energy for human b/se we don’t have cellulase enzyme

that helps to digest it

 Herbivores have cellulase enzyme so they are using cellulose as source of energy

 Actually, this enzyme is produced by mutually living bacteria in the

stomach of such animals

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2.2. Lipids

Self Test:

1. What are lipids?

2. What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

3. What are the physiological and structural roles of lipids for life forms?

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 Lipids are esters of fatty acids and alcohol (glycerol)
 The primary function of lipids is to store energy and they are various types,
 Structure of glycerol and fatty acids

fatty acids

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 Fatty acids are made mostly from hydrocarbon chains and carboxylic acid group

 Fatty acids can be saturated if all the bonds that link the carbon atoms in hydrocarbon

chains are single and unsaturated if at least there is one double or triple bond is found.
 Fatty acids with more than one double bond are called polyunsaturated fatty acids.

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 Triglyceride
 a triglyceride is a fat if it is solid at room temperature and an oil if it is liquid at room temperature.

 triglycerides are stored in adipocytes or lipocytes cells to facilitate energy store in animal’s body.

 Glycerol is joined with fatty acids by ester bonds

alevelbiology.co.uk

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  adipocytes or lipocytes are called fat cells

 Fat cells are categorized as white fat cell and brown fat cell

 The difference between them is their way of storing lipids

 White fat cells store one large lipid drop while brown fat cells store smaller and

multiple droplets of lipids through the cell

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 Polar lipids
 Phospholipid: which is formed from one glycerol, two fatty acids and one phosphate group

 major component of all cell membranes.

 glycolipid: which are carbohydrate-attached lipids and associated with cell membranes.

 They play important roles in providing energy and serve as markers for cellular recognition

 Sphingolipid: sphingosine in place of glycerol is used and function in the regulation of cell

growth, differentiation and diverse cell functions

 Plant leaves are coated by lipids called waxes to prevent water loss

 Honeycomb in a beehive is made of beeswaxes

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 Cholesterol: is a type of blood fat and blood fats are known as lipids.
It is type of steroid which contain four-fused carbocyclic ring system

In our bodies, cholesterol serves many purposes:

1. Cell membranes: Cholesterol is a component of membranes and has a modulating effect on the
fluid state of the membrane.
2. Nerve conduction: Cholesterol has an insulating effect on nerve fibers.
3. Bile acids and bile salts are derived from cholesterol. Bile salts are important for fat absorption.
4. Steroid hormones: Glucocorticoids, androgens and estrogens are from cholesterol.
5. Vitamin D3 is from 7-dehydro-cholesterol.
6. Esterification: The OH group of cholesterol is esterified to fatty acids to form cholesterol esters.

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 Properties of lipids
 Insoluble in water

 Longer chains

 Double bonds increase solubility

 Melting points: Depend on chain length and saturation

 the unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting points than the saturated fatty acids.

 Unsaturated fatty acids are liquid at room temperature where as saturated fatty acid are

solid at room temperature.

 You can make an unsaturated fat saturated and solid through a hydrogenation reaction.

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 Main functions of lipids

1. Used for Storage of energy (triglyceride)

2. Structural component of biological membranes (phospholipid and cholesterol)

3. Metabolic regulators (steroid hormones and prostaglandins)

4. Acts as surfactants, detergents and emulsifying agents

5. Acts as electric insulators in neurons (myelin sheath)

6. Provide insulation against change in externa temperature (subcutaneous fat)

7. Protect internal body from damage

8. Used for absorption of fat soluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E and K)

9. Improve taste and palatability of food

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 Fatty acids with their number of carbon atom
• Acetic acid 2 carbon atom
• Propionic acid 3 carbon atoms
• Butyric acid 4 carbon atoms
• Caproic acid 6 carbon atoms
• Capric acid 10 carbon atoms
• Myristic acid 12 carbon atoms
• Palmitic acid 16 carbon atoms
• Stearic acid 18 carbon atom
• Arachidic acid 20 carbon atoms

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 Home work Activity
1. What are the elemental compositions of lipids?
2. Why lipids act as major source of energy?
3. What are the major classes of lipids?
4. Jot down the importance of cholesterol?

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